Beruflich Dokumente
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MARINE SCIENCE
Marine Environments
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
DISTINGUISH between the different life zones along a shore.
DISCUSS the characteristics of a variety of marine environments.
DESCRIBE the typical inhabitants of these marine environments.
3.1
Marine Life
Zones
3.2
The Sandy
Beach Environment
3.3
The Rocky
Coast Environment
3.4
The Estuary
Environment
3.5
The Coral Reef
Environment
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We all need a place to live. The place, or home, in which an organism is typically found is called its habitat. The total surroundings of a
living thing are called the environment. The ocean contains various
kinds of environments; some are located along the coast, while others
are found far out at sea.
Environments have living (biological) and nonliving (physical and
chemical) components. The living (biotic) things in an environment
are called the biota. A coral reefs biota, for example, includes algae,
fish, crustaceans, cnidarians, sponges, bacteria, and any other forms
of life that inhabit the area. The nonliving (abiotic) parts of a coral reef
environment include the water chemistry, light, temperature, salinity,
and water pressure, to name a few. Interactions among the biotic and
abiotic factors characterize all environments. In this chapter, you will
learn about important marine environments in order to understand
how each provides a home for living things.
Marine Environments
61
Trees
Surf zone
Grasses
Shrubs
Horseshoe crab
dli
ne
Supratidal zone
Str
an
(Upper Beach)
Seaweeds
Intertidal zone
Subtidal zone
Spider crab
Fish
(Open ocean)
Sand shrimp
Barnacle
Rockweed
Mud snail
Moon snail
Mussels
High tide
Silverside fish
Low tide
Soft-shelled clam
Blue
claw crab
Sea star
Sponge
Sea anemone
Striped bass
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vents their being swept away by waves and currents. (Refer to Figure
3-1.) For example, encrusting sponges secrete an acid that enables
them to bore into rocks and shells. These shells are often found on
the beach, pockmarked with holes from the sponges. Another clinging animal is the sea star. Sea stars cling to hard surfaces by means of
suction from their tube feet. Pounding waves cannot dislodge
marine snails or sea anemones, which cling to hard surfaces using
their muscular feet. Mussels and barnacles receive the full force of
wave impact along sandy and rocky shores, but they manage to stay
put. Mussels cling to the rocks by secreting tough, fibrous byssal
threads that stick to hard substrates. The barnacle has the strongest
attachment, because it literally cements itself with glue to rocks and
other hard substrates. Clinging organisms also include marine algae,
such as kelp and rockweed, which are anchored to rocky surfaces
by a fibrous pad of tissue called a holdfast. (Organisms in the intertidal zone also experience the stress of wave impact; read about the
surf zone below.)
Many organisms that live in the subtidal zone possess flattened
bodies. A flat body minimizes exposure to wave impact. Flat fish
such as the flounder avoid turbulence, as well as their enemies, by
burying themselves in the sand. Only their gill cover and eyes poke
through the sand. While buried, the flounder might happen to see
its prey, the sand dollar, another flat inhabitant of the subtidal zone.
The sand dollar uses its tube feet to move slowly along the sandy
Marine Environments
63
Beyond the subtidal zone is a life zone called the neritic zone. The
neritic zone is the region of water that lies above the continental
shelf, the relatively shallow part of the seafloor that adjoins the continents. When people go deep-sea fishing, they are actually in the
neritic zone. In fact, most of the worlds commercial fishing takes
Intertidal
zone
Pelagic zone
Neritic zone
Oceanic zone
Photic zone
200 m
Co
ntin
en
tal
she
lf
Aphotic zone
Benthic zone
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65
DISCOVERY
Biodiversity Among the Benthos
QUESTIONS
1. Why were marine scientists surprised by the biodiversity among the benthos?
2. What kinds of organisms have been found in the samples that were collected?
3. How do scientists collect invertebrates that live more than 1 km deep?
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67
If you continued your walk down the beach to the water, you
would pass through the area of wet sand called the intertidal zone.
When covered with water, the intertidal zone harbors a variety of
marine animals. When the tide goes out, some of these animals,
such as fish and crabs, retreat to deeper waters, while others, such as
marine worms and the mud snail and other mollusks, stay behind
and burrow in the moist sand.
3-6.) The thick shell of the surf clam protects it against wave impact
and erosion from moving sand; and the surf clams large muscular
foot enables it to dig quickly into the sand to avoid predators.
When the tide is out and you are walking in shallow water, you
are in the subtidal zone. You would have to be careful where you
steppedyou could be pinched by the sharp claws of a sand crab,
such as the lady crab (Ovalipes ocellatus) or the blue claw crab (Callinectes sapidus). Like the mole crab, they swim and dig in the sand by
means of their paddlelike appendages; and they hide from predators by burrowing in the sand, with only their eyestalks sticking up.
These crabs usually feed on scraps of food, but occasionally they
catch small fish such as silversides (Menidia), which swim in schools
in the oxygenated waters of the surf zone. The silversides feed on
invertebrates and crab eggs, and are, in turn, preyed on by larger
fish such as the striped bass (Morone saxatilis), which swim into the
shallows from the deeper sea.
Mole crab
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Blue-green
bacteria
and algae
Upper
intertidal
zone
Snails
Limpets
Barnacles
Dog
whelk
Rockweed
Midintertidal
zone
Mussels
Sea star
Lower
intertidal
zone
Fish
Sea urchin
Seaweeds
Sand dollar
the air to produce food and oxygen. When the bacteria die, they
stain the rocks black, causing a discoloration that is often mistaken
for an oil spill.
The periwinkle snail (Littorina littorea) feeds on algae in the
upper intertidal zone. The snails scrape the algae off the rocks with
their rasping mouthpart, called a radula. The limpet, which is
another mollusk, also grazes on algae in this zone.
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can be seen draped over the rocks. The seaweed clings to the rocks
by means of its holdfast pad. Rockweed provides cover for a variety
of marine animals that live in and among the rocks, such as snails,
limpets, small crabs, and worms. When the tide is high, rockweed
floats near the surface, buoyed up by its gas-filled bladders.
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Along many coasts, freshwater rivers drain into the ocean. At the
mouth of a river, where it enters the ocean, salt water and freshwater mix, forming the type of environment known as an estuary.
Along the shores of an estuary, there are many inland bays and
creeks. (See Figure 3-10.) The varied terrain of an estuary, along with
its brackish water (the mixture of freshwater and seawater), provides diverse habitats for marine life. In fact, an estuary is one of
Barrier beach
Estuary
(bay side)
(gentle waves)
(heavy waves)
Marsh islands
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Marsh grasses
75
Plankton
Canada
goose
Great
blue
heron
Mallard
duck
Fiddler crab
Plankton
Cordgrass
Mud snails
Glass shrimp
Killifish
American eel
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shown in Figure 3-12. Marsh grasses are the dominant species in the
salt marsh. One type of grass, called cordgrass (Spartina), is tough,
coarse, and resistant to the killing effects of salt; special glands in
its leaves secrete salt crystals. Few animals eat cordgrass because it is
tough and has a high salt content. However, since it is a producer,
cordgrass is high in nutrients. After cordgrass dies, its dead organic
matter is acted on by decay bacteria. Such decaying organic matter
is referred to as detritus. During the process of decay, nutrients from
cordgrass, and other forms of detritus, are released into the estuarys
waters. (See Figure 3-13.)
The nutrients, which include phosphates (used for energy) and
nitrates (used for growth), are taken up by plankton. The plankton
flourish and become a food source for a variety of filter feeders. One
of the filter feeders is the ribbed mussel (Modiolus demissus), which
lives half buried in the mud. The water currents created by the mussels cilia also benefit the cordgrass by increasing water circulation
around its roots. Attached to the mussels are barnacles, which also
filter feed. The tangle of cordgrass roots acts as a net to trap organic
debris, which is consumed by another inhabitant of the salt marsh,
the common shore shrimp (Palaemonetes vulgaris).
The lives of many inhabitants of the salt marsh are controlled
by the tides. When the tide is low, small fiddler crabs (Uca) emerge
from their holes in the sand to feed on bits of organic matter left
Marine Environments
77
Sandpiper
Seagull
(Ocean)
Mud snails
Clam worm
Razor clam
Horseshoe crab
Softshell
clam
Worms, rotifers, and protists
78
(Mud flat)
that live in the dark, moist sand and play an important role in the
well-being of the mud flat community, convert wastes into useful
nutrients. Tidal action transports the nutrients to other parts of the
estuary and out to sea. Nutrients from the estuary are a major food
source for the oceanic plankton.
Within the mud flat, a variety of invertebrates scavenge for
food. At low tide, large numbers of mud snails (Ilyanassa obsoleta)
feed on debris in shallow tide pools. These tiny garbage eaters do
an efficient job of getting rid of excess wastes in the mud flat. Sandworms and bloodworms tunnel through the sand, feeding on
organic debris. Clams also live in the sand. The soft-shell clam (Mya
arenaria) has a long siphon tube that it uses to take in water that
contains plankton. When the tide is out, the clam retracts its
siphon, leaving a hole in the sand. You can locate soft-shell clams
by looking for these telltale holes in the sand. The slightest movement causes the soft-shell clams to squirt water up through the
holes.
The mud flat is also home to another mollusk, the razor clam
(Ensis directus). The razor clam has a well-developed muscular foot
that it uses to dig quickly through the sand. The burrowing action
of mollusks, worms, and other invertebrates in the mud flats helps
to bring some much-needed air to the oxygen-deficient sediments.
The invertebrates also burrow in the mud and sand to escape
predators, such as shorebirds. The bills of the various shorebirds are
of different shapes and lengths, depending on the birds feeding
Marine Environments
79
habits. The short bill of the plover and sandpiper is used to feed on
invertebrates that live near the surface in the mud. Shorebirds with
longer bills can reach invertebrates that burrow deeper into the
mud.
Pelican
Plankton
Shore crab
Fiddler crab
Mangrove snapper
Sea horse
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Florida
crown
conch
Oyster
Barnacles
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The coral reef is among the most spectacular of marine environments. Look at the coral reef animals shown in Figure 3-18. As you
can see, the coral reef contains a fantastic assortment of marine life.
The foundation for this diverse community is the coral animal itself.
The coral reef is a stony formation that is built up from the seafloor
by a living organism called the coral polyp. (See Chapter 7 for more
information on the coral polyp.)
The reef begins to form when microscopic coral larvae settle on
a hard substrate in the sand and develop into coral polyps. The coral
animals live in colonies, with each tiny polyp sitting in its own
limestone home, which it builds. Each new generation of polyps
lays down a new layer of limestone, causing the reef to expand
upward (at about 2.5 cm per year) and outward. Some massive reefs
are more than 40 meters high and more than 1000 km long. Corals
can grow right up to the ocean surface but cannot grow out of the
water.
Flatworm
Triggerfish
Stinging coral
Zooplankton
Angelfish
Shrimp
Parrotfish
Sea fan
Butterflyfish
Shrimp
Sea stars
Staghorn coral
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Sea urchin
Sheet coral
Crab
Brain coral
Elkhorn coral
Coral Features
Coral reefs are found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the
world, between 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south latitude.
They are located in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Why
are coral reefs found only in the mid-latitudes? In these latitudes,
the oceans water is warm and clear, and there is plenty of sunlight.
These are the conditions that are needed to promote the growth of
symbiotic algae within the coral polyps that build the reefs.
Look at a world map and locate Australias Great Barrier Reef,
the longest reef system in the world; it is approximately 2000 km
long. Large reefs are also found in the Caribbean, the Florida Keys,
and off the coast of Belize in Central America. Living among the
Great Barrier Reefs corals are more than 1500 species of fish, among
other organisms.
Why do so many different organisms inhabit the coral reef? A
reef consists of different types of coral growing together. The many
kinds and shapes of corals create an irregular pattern of crevices,
depressions, and caves in which organisms can live and hide. This
great variety of life, or biodiversity, is typically found in habitats
that provide many areas for hiding and surfaces for attachment.
Each type of coral has its own unique shape, size, color, and texture. Corals are classified into two types, hard corals and soft corals.
Many corals are named after familiar objects, for example, hard
corals such as elk horn (Acropora palmata), staghorn (Acropora cervicornis), and brain (Diploria labyrinthiformis), and soft corals such as
fan (Gorgonia ventalina) and sea rod (Plexaura flexuosa), which are
more flexible and sway in the currents. (See Figures 3-19 and 3-20.)
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Reef Inhabitants
When you dive along a coral reef, you encounter an oasis of colorful
living things. Typical reef inhabitants include the butterfly fish with
its elongated snout to feed on food particles on the reef surface, the
barracuda with its needlelike teeth to grab and eat other reef fish,
and the parrot fish with its beaklike mouth to nibble off chunks of
reef. (See Figure 3-21.) The parrot fish eats the coral polyps and eliminates the indigestible limestone. (The egested particles of limestone
trickle down to the seafloor to form coral sand.) Various sponges,
worms, shrimps, anemones, sea stars, mollusks, and other fish also
live in and around the reef.
How do the inhabitants of the coral reef avoid predators? The
reef provides ideal hiding places for its inhabitants, as mentioned
above. In a coral crevice, you might see a spiny lobster (Panulirus
argas), which retreats farther back into its hole if it detects danger.
Predators also hide; for example, the moray eel (Gymnothorax) stays
hidden in crevices and rarely ventures out during the day. In fact,
many reef animals emerge only at night to feed.
Some fish depend on camouflage, the ability to match or blend
in with their natural background, to avoid being detected. To hide,
the sticklike trumpetfish (Aulostomus) floats motionless, with its
head facing down, alongside branching corals and sponges. Such
camouflage helps the trumpetfish escape detection by other fish,
including those it may want to eat. In contrast, the spotted trunkfish (Lactophrys bicaudalis) lives at the bottom of the reef, where it is
difficult to spot against the background of coral and speckled sand.
(See Figure 3-22.) Fish can also gain some protection against predators by swimming in a large group, or school, of their own species.
Schools of fish may stay in one location, or they may swim over
long distances. Stationary schools of fish, such as that of the grunt
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Laboratory Investigation 3
Examining Beach Sand
PROBLEM: What are the physical properties of beach sand?
SKILLS: Using a dissecting microscope; measuring tiny sand grains.
MATERIALS: Transparent metric ruler, dissecting microscope (or compound
microscope), sand samples, dissecting needle, petri dish, magnet.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the transparent metric ruler on the stage of the microscope.
2. Sprinkle some sand in the petri dish and put the dish on top of the ruler.
3. Observe the sand grains under the microscope. In your notebook, record
the size of a single grain, in mm, on a copy of Table 3-1. If the grains vary
widely in size, measure several and record the average size. Notice if there
are any tiny shells or fragments that may be the remains of foraminifers.
4. Observe the physical properties of color, texture, luster, and shape in the
grains. Use a dissecting needle to separate the grains into different piles, each
representing a different property. Record your observations in the table.
Make a sketch of a sand grain from each sample pile.
Size
Color
Texture
Luster
Shape
Minerals
A
B
C
D
E
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TABLE 3-2
Mineral
Physical Properties
Quartz
Feldspar
Hornblende
Mica
Magnetite
Garnet
Olivine
Olive-green, glassy
Basalt
Pyrite
Calcite
5. Place a small magnet in contact with the sand. Do the sand grains cling to
the magnet? If the sand clings, iron is present. Identify the mineral in Table
3-2 that contains the element iron. Use this table to identify the minerals
that match the physical properties of the samples you observed. Record the
information in your copy of Table 3-1.
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Chapter 3 Review
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.
Vocabulary
The following list contains all the boldface terms in this chapter.
adaptation, aphotic zone, barrier beaches, benthic zone, benthos,
biodiversity, brackish, camouflage, color contrast, continental
shelf, coral reef, disruptive coloration, estuary, intertidal zone,
life zone, mangrove community, mud flat community, neritic
zone, ocean basin, oceanic zone, pelagic zone, photic zone,
photosynthesis, rocky coasts, salt marsh community, sandy beach,
strandline, subtidal zone, supratidal zone, surf zone, territoriality,
tide pools, wetlands, zonation
Fill In
1. The ____________________ is dominated by trees that live in salt water.
2. Organisms that live on the seafloor inhabit the ____________________.
3. The ____________________ includes the waters above the continental shelf.
4. The area between high tide and low tide is the ____________________.
5. Salt water and freshwater form an ____________________ at a river mouth.
Think and Write
Use the information in this chapter to respond to these items.
6. Compare the intertidal zone of a rocky beach with that of a
sandy beach.
7. What are two important differences between the neritic and
oceanic zones?
8. Compare the main traits of a salt marsh with those of a mud
flat community.
Marine Environments
89
Inquiry
Base your answers to questions 9 through 12 on Figure 3-3 on page 64,
which shows a cross section of the major life zones of the ocean, and on
your knowledge of marine science.
9. Identify, by name, the zone in which most of the worlds
commercial fishing takes place. Give two reasons why this
zone is so biologically productive.
10. Identify, by name, the vast area of the oceanic zone that
receives very little sunlight. Give an example of an organism
that is adapted to live in this zone. Below which oceanic zone
is it located (identify by name)?
11. Identify, by name, the largest marine life zone. What kinds of
large marine animals swim freely here? What are the names of
the two life zones that it includes?
12. Identify, by name, the zone in which marine organisms live
that are specially adapted to survive alternating periods of
high tides and low tides. How do barnacles survive there?
Multiple Choice
Choose the response that best completes the sentence or answers the
question.
13. The arching roots of the mangrove tree serve all the following
functions except a. they anchor the trees in the muddy
sand b. they provide a habitat for small fish and
invertebrates c. they serve as a food source for the
mangrove snapper d. they hold the sand and prevent its
erosion.
14. Which of the following organisms would be found in a rocky
coast intertidal zone? a. sea anemones, flounder, blue-green
bacteria, barnacles b. barnacles, snails, mussels, seaweeds
c. mussels, sea stars, cordgrass, seaweeds d. sea stars,
cordgrass, shore shrimp, fiddler crabs
15. Of the following marine organisms, which would probably not
be found in a rocky tide pool? a. crab b. grazing snail
c. flounder d. barnacle
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Marine Environments
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