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AlfredAdlersPersonalityTheoryandPersonalityTypes|JournalPsyche

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AlfredAdlersPersonalityTheoryandPersonalityTypes

Thequestionofwhatdrivesuswhatgreatforceunderliesourmotivationasindividuals,propellingusforward
throughallmanneroftryingcircumstancewasamatteroflongtimefascinationforpsychologistAlfredAdler.
Heeventuallycametocallthismotivatingforcethestrivingforperfection,atermwhichencapsulatesthe
desireweallhavetofulfillourpotential,torealizeouridealsaprocessstrikinglysimilartothemorepopular
ideaofselfactualization.
Selfactualizationisperhapsthelessproblematicofthetwoterms,asonecannotprocessAdlersideaswithout
immediatelybumpingupagainstthetroublesomenatureofthewordsperfectionandideal.Whiletheideaof
strivingtobethebestversionofonesselfisanobviouslypositivegoal,theconceptofperfectionis,in
psychology,oftengivenarathernegativeconnotation.Afterall,perfectionlikelydoesnotexist,andtherefore
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cannotbereached,meaningthateffortstodosoareinvariablyfrustratingandcancomefullcircletocreatean
extremelackofmotivation(i.e.,givingup).
Indeed,Adlerhimselfbalkedatusingperfectiontodescribehissinglemotivatingforce,beginninginstead
withphraseslikeaggressiondrive(todescribethefrustratedreactionwehavewhenourbasicneeds,suchasthe
needtoeatorbeloved,arenotbeingmet)yeteventhistermhadobviousnegativeconnotationsaggressionis,
afterall,seldomseenasagoodthing,andusingthetermassertivenessmayhaveservedAdlerbetter.
(Interestingly,Freudhimselftookexceptiontothetermaggressiondrive,thoughnotonthebasisthatitwas
overlynegativeinconnotationinstead,Freudfeltthatitwoulddetractfromthepivotalpositionofthesexdrive
inpsychoanalytictheory.Freudmayhavehadachangeofheartinlateryears,however,ashisideaofadeath
instinctboreagreatdealofsimilaritytoAdlerstheory.)
Another,perhapsbetter,descriptorusedbyAdlertorefertobasicmotivationwascompensation,whichinthis
casewasmeanttodenotetheprocessofstrivingtoovercomeonesinherentlimitations.Adlerpostulatedthat
sinceweallhavevariousissuesandshortcomingsaspeople,ourpersonalitiesdeveloplargelythroughtheways
inwhichwedo(ordonot)compensatefororovercometheseinherentchallenges.Adlerlaterrejectedthisidea
inpart(thoughitstillplayedanimportantroleinhistheorymoreonthatlater),ashedecideditwasinaccurate
tosuggestonesproblemsarethecauseforwhooneeventuallybecomes.
Adleralsotoyed,earlyon,withtheideaofmasculineprotest,uponobservingtheobviousdifferencesinthe
culturalexpectationsplacedonboysandgirls,andthefactthatboyswished,oftendesperately,tobethoughtof
asstrong,aggressive,andincontrol.Adlereschewedthebiasthatsuggestedmensassertivenessandsuccessin
theworldarosefromsomeinexplicableinnatesuperiority.Instead,hesawthisphenomenonasaresultofthe
factthatboysareencouragedtobeassertiveinlife,andgirlsarediscouragedfromtheverysamething.
Lastly,beforesettlingonthephrasestrivingforperfection,Adlercalledhistheorythestrivingfor
superioritymostlikelyahomagetoFriederichNietzsche,whosephilosophiesAdlerwasknowntoadmire.
Nietzsche,ofcourse,consideredthewilltopowerthebasicmotiveofhumanlife.Adlerlateramendedthis
phrase,usingitmoretorefertounhealthyorneuroticstriving,likelyduetothewayitsuggeststheactof
comparingonesselftoothers,ofattemptingtobecomesuperiortoonesfellows.

Teleology
Theideaofholism,aswrittenaboutbyJanSmuts,theSouthAfricanphilosopherandstatesman,wasknown
tohaveinfluencedAdlergreatly.Smutspositedthat,inordertounderstandpeople,wehavetotakethemas
summationsratherthanasparts,asunifiedwholesexistingwithinthecontextoftheirenvironments(both
physicalandsocial).
Toreflectthisnotion,Adlerdecidedtocallhisapproachtopsychologyindividualpsychology,owingtothe
exactmeaningofthewordindividual:undivided.Healsogenerallyavoidedthetraditionalconceptof
personality,steeringclearofchoppingitupintointernaltraits,structures,dynamics,conflicts,etc.,andchoosing
insteadtalkaboutpeoplesstyleoflife(orlifestyle,aswewouldcallittodaytheuniquewaysinwhichone
handlesproblemsandinterpersonalrelations).
HereagainAdlerdifferedagreatdealfromFreud,whofeltthatthethingsthathappenedinthepast(e.g.early
childhoodtrauma),shapedthenatureofpeopleinthepresent.Adlerwasessentiallyforwardlooking,seeing
motivationasamatterofmovingtowardthefuture,ratherthanaproductofourpastsdrivinguswithonly
ourlimitedawarenessastohowandwhy.Thisideathatwearedrawntowardsourgoals,ourpurposes,our
idealsisknownasteleology.
Teleologywasremarkableinthewayitremovednecessityfromtheequationwearenotmerelylivinglifeina
causeandeffectmanner(ifXhappened,thenYmusthappenlater)oronasetcoursetowardanimmobile
goalwehavechoice,andthingscanchangealongthewayaswepursueourideals.
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Fictionsandfictionalfinalism
AdlerwasalsoinfluencedbyphilosopherHansVaihinger,whobelievedthatwhilemankindwouldnever
discovertheultimatetruth,forpracticalpurposes,weneedtocreatepartialtruths,framesofreferenceweuse
asiftheywereindeedtrue.Vaihingerdubbedthesepartialtruthsfictions.
BothVaihingerandAdlerbelievedthatpeopleusethesefictionsactivelyintheirdailylives,suchasusingthe
absolutebeliefingoodandeviltoguidesocialdecisions,andbelievingthateverythingisasweseeit.Adler
referredtothisasfictionalfinalismandbelievedthateachindividualhasonesuchdominatingfictionwhichis
centraltohisorherlifestyle.

Inferiority
OnceAdlerhadfleshedouthistheoryonwhatmotivatesusasbeings,thereremainedonequestiontobe
answered:Ifweareallbeingpulledtowardperfection,fulfillment,andselfactualization,whydoesasizeable
portionofthepopulationendupmiserablyunfulfilledandfarfromperfect,farfromrealizingtheirselvesand
ideals?
Adlerbelievedthatsomepeoplebecomemiredintheirinferiorityhefeltthatweareallbornwithasenseof
inferiority(aschildrenare,ofcourse,smallerandbothphysicallyandintellectuallyweakerthanadults),which
isoftenaddedtobyvariouspsychologicalinferioritieslater(beingtoldwearedumb,unattractive,badat
sports,etc.)Mostchildrenmanagetheseinferioritiesbydreamingofbecomingadults(theearliestformof
strivingforperfection),andbyeithermasteringwhattheyarebadatorcompensatingbybecomingespecially
adeptatsomethingelse,butforsomechildren,theuphillclimbtowarddevelopingselfesteemproves
insurmountable.Thesechildrendevelopaninferioritycomplex,whichprovesoverwhelmingovertime.
Toenvisionhowaninferioritycomplexcanmountuntilitbecomesoverwhelming,imaginethewaymany
childrenflounderwhenitcomestomath:Atfirsttheyfallslightlybehind,andgetdiscouraged.Usually,they
struggleonward,muddlingthroughhighschoolwithbarelypassinggradesuntiltheygetintocalculus,
whereupontheappearanceofintegralsanddifferentialequationsoverwhelmsthemtothepointtheyfinallygive
uponmathaltogether.
Now,applythatprocesstoachildslifeasawholeafeelingofgeneralinferiorityseedsdoubtwhichfostersa
neurosis,andtheyoungsterbecomesshyandtimid,insecure,indecisive,cowardly,etc.Unabletomeethisor
herneedsthroughdirect,empoweringaction(nothavingtheconfidencetoinitiatesuch),theindividualoften
growsuptobepassiveaggressiveandmanipulative,relyingundulyontheaffirmationofotherstocarrythem
along.This,ofcourse,onlygivesawaymoreoftheirpower,makestheirselfesteemeasiertocripple,andsoon.
Ofcourse,notallchildrendealingwithastrongsenseofinferioritybecomeshyandtimidandselfeffacing
somedevelopasuperioritycomplex,inadramaticactofovercompensation.Theseyoungpeopleoftenbecome
theclassicimageoftheplaygroundbully,chasingawaytheirownsenseofinferioritybymakingothersfeel
smallerandweaker,butmayalsobecomegreedyforattention,drawntothethrillofcriminalactivityordrug
use,orheavilybiasedintheirviews(becomingbigotedtowardsothersofacertaingenderorrace,forexample).

Psychologicaltypes
WhileAdlerdidnotspendalotoftimeonneurosis,hedididentifyasmallhandfulofpersonalitytypesthat
hedistinguishedbasedonthedifferentlevelsofenergyhefelttheymanifested.ThesetypestoAdlerwerebyno
meansabsolutes,itshouldbenotedAdler,thedevoutindividualist,sawthemonlyasheuristicdevices(useful
fictions).
Thefirsttypeistherulingtype.Thesepeoplearecharacterizedearlyonbyatendencytobegenerally
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aggressiveanddominantoverothers,possessinganintenseenergythatoverwhelmsanythingoranybodywho
getsintheirway.Thesepeoplearenotalwaysbulliesorsadists,howeversometurntheenergyinwardand
harmthemselves,suchasisthecasewithalcoholics,drugaddicts,andthosewhocommitsuicide.
Thesecondtypeistheleaningtype.Individualsofthistypearesensitive,andwhiletheymayputashellup
aroundthemselvestoprotectthemselves,theyenduprelyingonotherstocarrythemthroughlifeschallenges.
Theylackenergy,inessence,anddependontheenergyofothers.Theyarealsopronetophobias,anxieties,
obsessionsandcompulsions,generalanxiety,dissociation,etc.
Thethirdtypeistheavoidingtype.Peopleofthistypehavesuchlowenergytheyrecoilwithinthemselvesto
conserveit,avoidinglifeasawhole,andotherpeopleinparticular.Inextremecases,thesepeopledevelop
psychosistheendresultofentirelyretreatingintoonesself.
Adleralsobelievedinafourthtype:thesociallyusefultype.Peopleofthistypearebasicallyhealthy
individuals,possessedofadequate,butnotoverbearing,socialinterestandenergy.Theyareabletogiveto
otherseffectivelyastheyarenotsoconsumedbyasenseofinferioritythattheycannotlookproperlyoutsideof
themselves.

Conclusion
AdlerstheoriesmaylacktheexcitementofFreudsandJungs,beingdevoidofsexualityormythology,but
theyarenonethelesspractical,influential,andhighlyapplicable.Othermorefamousnames,suchasMaslowand
CarlRogers,werefansofAdlerswork,andvariousstudentsofpersonalitytheorieshaveespousedtheideathat
thetheoristscalledNeoFreudians(suchasHorney,Fromm,andSullivan)probablyoughttohavebeencalled
NeoAdleriansinstead.

Adler'spersonalitytheory,AlfredAdlertheory,inferioritycomplex,personalitytheory,personalitytypes

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