Computer Hardware

Centre for Information & Communication Technology,
Eastern University,
Sri Lanka.
Certificate Course on PC Applications & PC Maintenance

Computer Hardware and Trouble Shooting
Resource Person: S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS, CCNA
The Computer
A computer is essentially an information processor that is able to
perform substantial computation without intervention by
human operators.
The typical process for using a computer is.
Load a program into the computers memory (e.g. a word-processing package).
Input any data (e.g. type in a report).
Process the data (e.g. spell check the report).
Output the data to screen or printer (e.g. print the report)
Save the data (onto a floppy disc or the internal disc).

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.
Centre for Information and Communication Technology
Eastern University, Sri Lanka.
Total Computer System

Computer System
Hardware
Software
Input Devices
System
Software
Live ware
Firm ware
Application
Software
Output Devices
Operating
System
Storage Devices
Language
Translators
Communication
Devices
System
Utilities
CPU & Other

Devices
Computer Hardware
This consists of all machinery and equipments which comprise a computer

system.
All tangible items in a computer system fall into the category of hardware.
Hardware can be classified in to main categories such as following.
Input Devices
Output Devices
Storage Devices
Communication Devices.
CPU and other devices

Input and Output Devices

Input Devices
1. Input units are used to feed data and instructions to the computer system.
2. Input Units provide the interface between the outside world and the computer system
for this purpose.
3. The most common examples for the input units are
Keyboard
Mouse
Scanner
Output Devices
1. The output units of a computer system are used to produce the results of the operations
performed by the computer.
2. They are also used to output the error messages and other status of the system.
3. The most common examples for the input units are
Monitor
Printer

Internal Storage
It is also known as primary storage, main storage, immediate storage and RAM & ROM.
RAM- Random Access Memory
1. This is also called as the main memory, and most commonly RAM (Random Access Memory).
2. It is a volatile memory. That is, it requires continuous supply of electrical power to retain
information.
3. The internal storage (RAM) is used to,
Receive the commands and data from the input units.
Store the information to ready to be sent to the output units.
Store the currently running programs.
Store the data required for the currently running programs.
ROM-Read Only Memory
Non-volatile memory and can read the data inside the ROM but can not write .
This is the permanent memory to store special control programs (system software) written by the
manufacturer to perform a variety of functions such as, loading of main components of the
operating system at the time of starting a computer.
Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary storage. Secondary storage is more permanent than
main memory, as data and programs are retained when the power is turned off. These media
can transfer large block of data rapidly to the primary memory storage, but slower compared
to primary storage because it requires mechanical movement to gain access to the data.
Main Points
1. Secondary storage units are non-volatile.
2. They are used to store programs and data for future use.
3. The common secondary storage units are Floppy disks, Hard disk, CD ROM, Magnetic Tape.
Removable storage
Removable storage, in computing terms, is any form of data
storage which is not incorporated into the computer itself.
Removable storage is also much more portable than an entire
computer, allowing people to easily carry data back and forth
from a wide variety of locations.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the central
processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is where most calculations take
place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer
system.
Two typical components of a CPU are the following:
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
ALU is a part of a computer that performs all arithmetic
computations, such as addition and multiplication, and all
comparison operations. The ALU is one component of the
CPU
The Control Unit (CU),
CU is a typical component of the CPU that implements the
microprocessor instruction set. It extracts instructions
from memory and decodes and executes them, and sends
the necessary signals to the ALU to perform the operation
needed.
Software
Computer software, or just software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer
programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.
1.
Intangible in nature.
2.
Consists of step by step instructions that tell the computer what to do.
3.
Needs some media to exist.
4.
Runs on top of the hardware making the hardware usable.
Software is divided into two basic categories.

1. Application Software.
2. System software.
Application Software.
Software that can be perform useful work on general-purpose tasks, such as
word processing, spread sheets and other automated applications. Eg: Word
Processing, spread sheet, DBMS, Graphics.
System software.
System software enables the application software to interact with the computer
and helps the computer manage its internal resources. Eg: Operating System,
Translators.
Microprocessor
The Central Processing Unit, Which is often referred to as the Processor is the brain of the computer.
Without this chip no other function of the PC is possible. It is the CPU that understands commands, executes
program instructions and does all basic processing in the computer.
The leading manufacturer and designer of processor for the personal computer is the Intel Corporation.
Other companies that manufacture processors are AMD, Cyrix, and Motorola.
PROCESSORS
INTEL 4004
(World First Microprocessor)
INTEL PENTIUM III
INTEL 80286
INTEL PENTIUM 4
INTEL PENTIUM MMX
INTEL Core 2 Duo
INTEL PENTIUM PRO
INTEL Core 2 Quad
INTEL Core i7

PGA and LGA Modules

A pin grid array, often abbreviated
PGA, refers to the arrangement of
pins on the integrated circuit
packaging. In a PGA, the pins are
arranged in a square array that may
or may not cover the bottom of the
package. The pins are commonly
spaced 2.54 mm (0.1") apart. PGAs
are often mounted on printed circuit
boards via two methods, through
hole or by using a socket.
Bottom view of PGA Processor
The land grid array (LGA) is a

type of surface-mount packaging.
Intel used LGA socket because it
provides a larger contact point,
allowing, for example, higher
clock frequencies. The LGA setup
provides higher pin densities,
allowing more power contacts
and thus a more stable power
supply to the chip.
Bottom view of LGA Processor
View of PGA and LGA Processor

Speed of the processor

Clock Frequency
The computers clock rate is the frequency at which it can execute a set of instructions. Computer clock rates
are measured in Gigahertz (GHz), (or Megahertz (MHz) on older systems. There are two types of speeds that
should be considered when evaluating the system performance.
Internal clock speed
The internal clock speed is the speed at which the
processor can obtain information within itself, like with
internal cache and registers. We know this from the ads.
A Pentium III 800 MHz. The 800MHz is the internal
clock speed.
External clock speed
The external speed is the speed at which the CPU
communicates with components outside itself, like
memory (RAM or external cache).
The first CPU worked at a frequency of 4.77 MHz. Subsequently then, clock frequency rates 16,
25,50,66,90,133 and 200 MHz to the best today, which operate at almost 3800 MHz. Clock frequencies
are still being increased. In a few years we will have CPUs operating at5000MHz and more. To reach
these very high clock frequencies, one has to employ a technique called clock multiplying.
Cache Memory & Multi Core Technology
Cache Memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is
built into a computers central processing unit (CPU), or located next
to it on a separate chip. In its simplest terms, cache memory is a highspeed memory buffer that temporarily stores data the processor needs,
allowing the processor to retrieve that data faster than if it came from
main memory.
Hyper-Threading Technology
Hyper-threading is a new technology which allows a single core
processor to simulate having two cores, giving a performance boost
when running several programs at once. However, Hyper Threading
technology requires a motherboard that supports Hyper threading
technology which are generally very expensive. And of course the
software you use has to be optimized for Hyper threading to give more
speed.
Dual Core Technology
Dual-core processors have two processor cores on one chip for twice
the operating power and for better multitasking. Major advantages of
dual core processors are evident when doing heavy multitasking, such
as encoding video and playing video games at the same time.
CPU Transistors
April 1972
Name of Processor: 8008
Clock speed: 200 kilohertz
Number of transistors: 3,500
December 1974
Clock speed: 2 MHz
August 1976
Clock speed: 5 MHz
September 1978
Clock speed: 10 MHz
February 1982
Clock speed: 12 MHz
October 1985
Clock speed: 16 MHz
February 1987
Clock speed: 20 MHz
April 1989
Clock speed: 25 MHz
Number of transistors: 1,200,000
June 1991
Clock speed: 50 MHz
Number of transistors: 1,200,000
March 1993
Name of Processor: Pentium
Clock speed: 60 MHz
Number of transistors: 3.1 million
March 1994
Clock speed: 75 MHz
March 1995
Clock speed: 120 MHz
June 1995
January 1996
June 1996
May 1997
Name of Processor: Pentium II
April 1998
August 1998
August 1999
Name of Processor: Pentium III
October 1999
Number of transistors: 28 million
January 2000
March 2000
Clock speed: 1.0 GHz
November 2000
Name of Processor: Pentium 4
April 2001
Aug 2001
Clock speed: 2 GHz
Jan 2002
Jun 2002
Aug 2002
Nov 2002
Jun 2003
Feb 2004
Motherboards
This comprises a printed circuit board, about the size of an A4 sheet of paper in the case of standard desktop
computers. It has all the computers processing chips mounted on it, either being soldered directly to the board
or being plugged into sockets on the board. The motherboard that contained the sockets and a collection of
slots that auxiliary cards could plug into. All the power, data and addressing information is carried between
components on the copper tracks etched on to the printed circuit board.
modern motherboards

A typical view of a mother board

PCI Slots
AGP Slots
Rear Connectors
North Bridge
Chipset
LGA CPU Socket

South Bridge
Chipset
CMOS Battery
CMOS
RAM Slots
(DIMM)
Front Panel
Connectors
IDE Connectors
Power connector
Floppy drive connector

Chipsets
A chipset or chip set refers to a group of integrated circuits, or chips, that are designed to work together.
In computing, the term chipset is commonly used to refer to a set of specialized chips on a computer's
motherboard or an expansion card. Another name for a chip, an integrated circuit (IC) is a small
electronic device made out of a semiconductor material.
Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of transistors and other electronic components they
contain:
SSI (small-scale integration)
: Up to 100 electronic components per chip
MSI (medium-scale integration)
: From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip
LSI (large-scale integration)
: From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chip
VLSI (very large-scale integration) : From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip
ULSI (ultra large-scale integration) : More than 1 million electronic components per chip
Personal Computer Chip Set Manufacturers.
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
nVidia
Silicon Integrated Systems Corp.
VIA Technologies Inc.
Intel
Modern motherboard chipsets nearly always consist of two separate chips. These two chips on the motherboard
are called the north bridge and the south bridge. Together, the north bridge and the south bridge handle all of
the communication between the processor, RAM, video options, PCI slots, BIOS, ATA controller, USB ports,
integrated modem, integrated LAN port and integrated sound.
North Bridge & South Bridge Chipsets

The North Bridge
The north bridge controls the communication and throughput speed between AGP video, the RAM and the
CPU.
The South Bridge
The south bridge is often referred to as the I/O controller. The features of the south bridge change less often than
the those of the north bridge. From chipset to chipset, nearly all south bridges have support for integrated sound,
LAN and modem, ATA and USB.
North Bridge
Chipset
South Bridge
Chipset

Installing Pentium 4 Processor
Locate the CPU socket on your motherboard.

Its the largest socket on the planet, with several
dozen pins. Check the motherboard manual if you
have a problem finding the socket.
Raise the ZIF lever on the side of the socket to unlock

the socket.
A CPU socket is also called a ZIF (short for zero insertion
force) socket.

Align the CPU chip on top of the socket.
Lower the ZIF lever on the side of the socket.
Match marked corners and double-check your pin

placement from the side of the chip. Look for a stubby
corner, a tiny groove, or a dot or triangle on one corner
of the chip the marked corner matches up with the
sockets marked corner.
You want to lock the CPU in place.

Clamp the fan on top of the processor.

You might need to apply a special glue or
compound between the fan plate and the
processor before you install the fan.
If your CPU fan has a separate power cable, plug it

into the proper connector on the motherboard.
The location of the CPU fan plug is listed in your
motherboard manual.

Installing a Core i7 LGA 1366 Processor




Heat sinks
A component designed to lower the temperature of an electronic device by dissipating heat into the
surrounding air. All modern CPUs require a heat sink.
There are two types of heat sinks: passive and active.
Passive heat sinks are 100% reliable, as they have no mechanical components. Passive heatsinks are made of
an aluminum-finned radiator that dissipates heat through convection. For Passive heatsinks to work to their full
capacity, it is recommended that there is a steady air flow moving across the fins.

Active heat sinks

Active heat sinks utilize power and are usually a fan type or some other peltier cooling device. If you are looking
to purchase an active heatsink, it is recommended that you purchase fans with ball-bearing motors that often last
much longer than sleeve bearings.
Ball bearing
A ball bearing is an engineering term referring to a type of rolling-element bearing which uses balls to maintain
the separation between the moving parts of the bearing. The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational
friction and support radial and axial loads.

Types of Computer Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory)
The memory inside a computer stores a variety of information. A computer loads a program into its main memory,
from where it can be run. A computer program is a list of instructions for the CPU, each instruction being stored as
a numeric code.
Types of RAMs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
SRAM
DRAM
FPMDRAM
EDORAM
SDRAM
DDR SDRAM
DDR2 SDRAM
DDR3 SDRAM
RDRAM
Static Random Access Memory

Dynamic Random Access Memory
Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory
Extended Data Out Random Access Memory
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
Dual Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
Dual Data Rate2 Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
Dual Data Rate3 Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
SDRAM and DDR SDRAM

SDRAM
Short for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional
memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus and is capable of running at 133 MHz, about
three times faster than conventional FPM RAM, and about twice as fast EDO DRAM.
DDR SDRAM
Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM memory is a standard that is an evolutionary upgrade of standard SDRAM in
which data is transferred twice as quickly. Instead of doubling the actual clock rate, DDR memory achieves the
doubling in performance by transferring twice per transfer cycle.

DDR2 SDRAM and DDR3 SDRAM

DDR2 SDRAM
DDR2 SDRAM is simply a faster version of
conventional DDR-SDRAM memory: It achieves
higher throughput by using differential pairs of
signal wires to allow faster signaling without noise
and interference problems.
DDR3 SDRAM
DDR3 is the next generation of Double Data Rate
(DDR) Synchronous Dynamic Random Access
Memory (SDRAM). It is an evolution of DDR and
DDR2 memory technology that delivers higher
speeds, lower power consumption and heat
dissipation.

RD RAM
RDRAM
RDRAM is a radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a
Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard DIMM.
What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus channel.
Summery Chart
SD RAM
DDR SDRAM
DDR2 SDRAM
DDR3 SDRAM
RD RAM
Number of pins
168
184
240
240
232
Module Density
64MB,128MB
128MB-1GB
128MB-2GB, 4GB
256MB-4GB, 8GB , 16GB
128MB-2GB,4GB
Supply Voltage
3.3V
2.5V
1.8V
1.5V
2.5V

SIMM, DIMM and RIMM slots

SIMM Slot
Single Inline Memory Module
DIMM Slot
Dual Inline Memory Module
DIMM Slot
DIMM Slot
RIMM Slot
Rambus Inline Memory Module
Installing RAM Modules

Installing SIMMs
The notch on this SIMM is shown on the left side. Insert the
SIMM at a 45 angle and then tilt it forward until the locking
clips snap into place.
The figure shows the SIMM inserted in the socket with the
notch aligned, the locking clip locked, and the hole in the
SIMM aligned with the tab in the socket.
Installing DIMMs and RIMMs

DDR DIMM and RIMM keys are similar but not exactly the same. RIMMs install in exactly the same manner as
DIMMs, although in different sockets. The ejector tabs on the sides are similar, and they go in at a straight 90 angle
just like DIMMs. The key notches on the RIMM prevent backward installation and aid alignment when inserting
them.

Installing RAM Modules
Always ensure that the notch on

the module is aligned to the slot
as shown. The notch ensures that
the memory module can only be
inserted in one direction.
Similar to installing most memory modules, hold on

to the memory module with both your hands and
insert it perpendicularly into the slot as shown.
Note the different locations of
the notches for DDR and DDR2
modules. The yellow DIMM slots
are for DDR2 memory, quite
obviously.
Once inserted, press the module down until the

clips on both sides are locked vertically as shown.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Read-Only Memory or ROM is an integrated-circuit memory chip that contains configuration data. ROM is
commonly called firmware because its programming is fully embedded into the ROM chip.
BIOS
In computing, stands for Basic Input/Output System or Basic Integrated Operating System. BIOS refers to the
software code run by a computer when first powered on. The primary function of BIOS is to prepare the machine so
other software programs stored on various media (such as hard drives, floppies, and CDs) can load, execute, and
assume control of the computer. This process is known as booting up.
What BIOS Does?

When you turn on your computer, the BIOS does several things. This is its usual sequence:
1. Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings.
2. Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers.
3. Initialize registers and power management.
4. Perform the power-on self-test (POST).
5. Display system settings.
6. Determine which devices are bootable.
7. Initiate the bootstrap sequence.
Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
- Basic Input Output System
Running or Accessing the CMOS Setup Program
If you want to run the BIOS Setup program, you usually have to reboot and press a particular key or key
combination during the POST. The major vendors have standardized the following keystrokes to enter the BIOS
Setup in recent systems:
AMI BIOS. Press Delete during POST.

Phoenix BIOS (First BIOS Pro). Press F2 during POST.
Award BIOS (First BIOS). Press Delete or Ctrl+Alt+Esc during POST.
Microid Research (MR) BIOS. Press Esc during POST.
Power On Self Test
Phoenix BIOS setup main menu.
AMI BIOS setup main menu.

CMOS Battery
All AT computers (80286 processor) or later require a small battery on the system board that provides power to
the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chip, even while the computer is turned off. This chip
contains information about the system configuration (e.g., hard disk type, floppy drive types, date and time, and
the order in which the computer will look for bootable disks). The CMOS battery allows the CMOS to preserve
these settings.
The most common battery used in today computers .3 volt Lithium coin cell battery.
When should you replace your battery?

While the lifespan of the battery might be five years under the best of circumstances, why would you wait until
failure to replace? Remember that the battery is the only thing standing between you and the loss of your
CMOS settings when you power down your PC.
On Board Peripherals

Expansion Cards
Video cards
A video card, also known as a graphics accelerator card, display adapter, or graphics card, is an expansion card
whose function is to generate and output images to a display.
Sound Cards
A sound card (also known as an audio card) is a computer expansion card that facilitates the input and output
of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs.
Network cards
A network card, network adapter, network interface controller (NIC), network interface card, or LAN adapter is
a computer hardware component designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network.
Modems
Modem, an acronym for modulator/demodulator, is a device that allows one computer to "talk" with another
one over a standard telephone line.
TV tuner cards
A TV tuner card is a computer component that allows television signals to be received by a computer. Most TV
tuners also function as video capture cards, allowing them to record television programs onto a hard disk.
Capture card
A device that is used to digitize analog audio or video and write to a file or write digital audio or video to a file.
Video cards /Video Graphics Adapters

Sound Cards

Network Cards
RJ45 port

Modems

TV tuner cards

Capture card

Hard Disk
Power connector
ATA connector
Jumper
SATA Power
SATA Data
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
USB Data Rates

Interface
Megabits per
Second
Megabytes per
Second
USB 1.1 low speed
1.5 Mbps
0.1875 MBps
USB 1.1 full speed
12 Mbps
1.5 MBps
USB 2.0 high speed
480 Mbps
60 MBps
USB 3.0 Super speed
5120 Mbps
640 MBps

Fire wire IEEE 1394 Port

A type of cabling technology for transferring data to and from digital devices at high speed.
IEEE-1394a (FireWire 400)
Transfer rate
400Mbps (50MBps)
IEEE-1394b (FireWire 800)
800Mbps (100MBps)

IEEE-1394 and USB Comparison
Maximum number
of devices
Maximum cable
length between
devices
IEEE-1394a (also
called i.Link or
FireWire 400)
IEEE-1394b (also
called FireWire 800)
USB 1.1
USB 2.0
63
63
127
127
4.5 meters
4.5 meters (9-pin copper);

100 meters (glass optical
fiber)
5 meters
5 meters
480Mbps (60MBps)
Transfer rate
400Mbps (50MBps)
800Mbps (100MBps)
12Mbps (1.5MBps)
Typical devices
DV camcorders; highres digital cameras; settop boxes; high-speed

drives; high-res
scanners; electronic
musical instruments.
All 1394a devices.
Keyboards; mice;
joysticks; low-res digital
cameras; low-speed
drives; ;modems; printers;
low-res scanners.
All USB 1.1 devices;

DV camcorders; highres digital cameras;
set-top boxes; highspeed drives; high-res
scanners.

Power Supply

Ferrite Cores / Beads

A ferrite bead is a passive electric component used to suppress high frequency noise
in electronic circuits.
Ferrite beads may also be called ferrite cores, ferrite rings, ferrite EMI filters, a
ferrite choke.


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Centre for Information & Communication Technology,

Certificate Course on PC Applications & PC Maintenance

Resource Person: S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS, CCNA

The typical process for using a computer is.

Load a program into the computers memory (e.g. a word-processing package).

Input any data (e.g. type in a report).

Process the data (e.g. spell check the report).

Output the data to screen or printer (e.g. print the report)

Save the data (onto a floppy disc or the internal disc).

Total Computer System

CPU & Other

This consists of all machinery and equipments which comprise a computer

CPU and other devices

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Input and Output Devices

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Needs some media to exist.

Runs on top of the hardware making the hardware usable.

Software is divided into two basic categories.

INTEL PENTIUM III

INTEL PENTIUM MMX

INTEL Core 2 Duo

INTEL PENTIUM PRO

INTEL Core 2 Quad

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

PGA and LGA Modules

The land grid array (LGA) is a

View of PGA and LGA Processor

Speed of the processor

Cache Memory & Multi Core Technology

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

A typical view of a mother board

LGA CPU Socket

Floppy drive connector

North Bridge & South Bridge Chipsets

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing Pentium 4 Processor

Locate the CPU socket on your motherboard.

Raise the ZIF lever on the side of the socket to unlock

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing Pentium 4 Processor

Align the CPU chip on top of the socket.

Lower the ZIF lever on the side of the socket.

Match marked corners and double-check your pin

You want to lock the CPU in place.

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing Pentium 4 Processor

Clamp the fan on top of the processor.

If your CPU fan has a separate power cable, plug it

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing a Core i7 LGA 1366 Processor

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing a Core i7 LGA 1366 Processor

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing a Core i7 LGA 1366 Processor

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Installing a Core i7 LGA 1366 Processor

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Active heat sinks

S.Kishokumar B Sc (EUSL), PG Dip in IT (UPDN), MBCS.

Types of Computer Memory

Static Random Access Memory