Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The
present
study
seeks to
examine
the
employment
non-cultivating
hang.,
and,
the
The basic
objective is to understand on
transformation
internal dynamics
e'mp l oymen t
structure
of
the
the
non-cultivating
this
on
rural
the
labour
on the other.
ho~seholds,
There
force.
Broadly speaking,
agricultural
economic
labour
activities
substantial
such
While
labour.
of
by
intermixture
as
barbers,
Besides, a part of
trading, factory
force
broad
categories
namely
hired
labourers
time
quite
often
Casual
agricultural,
non-agricultural
first
Hired attached
sub-category
consists
two
to
remunerated
category.
undertake
specific
agricultural
the
two
broad
types
of
former
being
attached
second
and
casual
year,
labourer because,
generally
latter does not get continuous employment for the whole year,
does the former get
from
each
labourers
work.
Generally
severe
restrictions
The
particular
are
to
Nevertheless, the
and
the
yearly
average
for
operations
The
employers.
employed
and
sub-categories.
imposed
as
differ
attached
family
by
for
their
1.
V.S.Vyas
(1964),
"Agricultural Labour in Four Indian
Villages, 11 Sardar Patel Agro Economic Research Centre,
Vallabh Vidyanagar, Sardar Patel University, Gujarat.
2.
1-
3
respective employers on their right to leave the work.
with
this,
the
Nevertheless,
employment
are
independence
symbolic.
at
the
village
In this regard,
the
pursue
for
level,
alternative
the
so-called
individual
than
to
it is important to
underline
small
Compared
landowning employer
families,
which
get
major
factor
the
dependence
of
agricultural
with
Agrarian
agricultural
landlords
religious
in
studies
labourers
hail
from
belong
superior
to
that
lower
castes.
at
great
the
Various
among
agricultural
of
while
the
social
and
control
upper
the
village
majority
castes,
of
of
the
very
few
castes
for
3.
J.B.
Verma (1970),
"Ankodia _:_ Change in Economic Life of
Tobacco
Village",
Sardar
Patel
University,
Vallabh
Vidyanagar,
Gujarat.
4.
Ramkrishna,
Mukerjee ( 1961), "Rural Class Structure in West
Bengal", reprinted in A.R. Desai ed. (1969); Rural Sociology
in India", Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, pp. 281-286;
and Dharma Kumar (1965),
Land and Caste in South India",
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.33-.-
4
improving their economic and social standing invariably fac,e
open hostility of the landed interests,
the
5
areas where alternative job opportunities exist .
According
to
another system
of
classification,
and
the
unfree labour.
labour
as
labour
against
A striking feature
given
employer,
the free
of
possessor
the
unfree
of
such
particularly
or an estate,
indebtedness
plot
of
land
conditionsJ and
by the
so on.
employer,
Further,
tenancy
under
precarious
of
the
the
tasks,
claim
irregular
the
the
household
time
of
the
and
its conditions,
upon
instance,
5.
depending
period
of
free
and
sub-categories.
For
various arrangements
It
is worth mentioning that the problem of organising
the
agricultural
labourers
is
largely due
to
illiteracy of
labourers, absence of alternative non-farm job opportunities
and organised resistance by the employers.
For
further
details,
please see,
S.L.Bapna(1973), "Economic and Social
Implications of
Green Revolution - A Case Study---of Kota
District," AgroEconomic Research Centr""S";Vallabh
Vidyanagar, Sarder Patel University, Gujarat.
I -
5
such
as
those
contract,
from
ranging
whole
6
can be visualized .
etc.
year
season,
annual
master
certain
almost
arrangements,
dependency,
other
fields.
employment
Under
tenancy
number
7
sometimes no wages at all .
nominal
or
This
Indian
mid-
changes,
6.
7.
Ibid, p.288.
6
packages
While
of
biochemical
as well
as
mechanical
8
innovations .
package,
pest
and
disease
harvestor,
control
tubewell
and
land
the
base,
etc;
tractor,
other mechanical
equipment
thresher,
etc.
are
measures
said
two components
of
the
new
farm
field
crop
labour-absorption
etc
10
have
soil
structure,
plants,
animals,
sizes,
.
Under
while
operations,
the
spurt of this
proportions
and
breakthrough,
fairly big
their
technological
increases,
on
the
other,
also
factor
undergone
8.
9.
Don.
Kanel (1967.), "Size of Farm and Economic Development",
Indian Journal Q! Agricultural Economics,
Vol. XXII, No. 2,
April-June, pp. 26-44.
10.
7
change 11 ,
tremendous
base,
However,
infra-structural
depending upon
the
irrigation
framework,
Consequently,
generally
construed
same
of
lagged behind.
This,
however,
There
experienced
has
should not
Districts
substantially
such
ahead
of
of
as
Nalanda,
Bhojpur
others in the
be
the
remained
the
sub-
Bihar,
the
degree
devoid
area to area.
matter
and
of
whi'le
Rohtas
in
are
agricultural
development.
The induction of the new farm technology has
process
of
qualitative
characterised
by
attitudes
the
These
of
changes
rural
in
the
transformation.
socio-e~onomic
different sections of
the
rural
initiated
This
is
outlook
and
community.
In the areas
11.
Uma K.
Srivastava,
et.
al.
(1971) Op. Cit, p. A171. For
more recent studies on the subject,
see,
The Indian Society of
Agricultural Economics ( 1983);
"Indian Journal Q! Agricultural
Economics", Vol. XXXVIII, No. 4, October-December, pp. 391-434.
r:
I,
8
of
green
dominant
revolution,
caste
institution
of
influence,
less
and
the
rural
society
in
the
economic life
of
The
traditional
regulating
the
socio-economic
is
relations
gradually
12
out
being
the
'Jajmani' system,
most
losing
its
rural
which
Consequently,
occupational
people
people
by
been
people
formal
are
had
since
contractual
~
occ~-at
ional
are
caste-based
economic professions.
The
is
the
Caste rigidities
be
recognition
long,
to
of
better
the
countryside
are
becoming
more
In
and
brief,
13
more
the
receptive
to new ideas,
economic,
the
impact of the
technological
changes,
the
So
While on
itself,
seems
to
12.
B.K.Agarwal,
and P.C.Deb,
(1971),
Occupational Mobility in Ludhiana",
University, Ludhiana
13.
M.P.Kaushal,
(1969),
"Mechanisation of Agriculture and
10th All
India
Community
Relations",
Paper read at
Sociological Conference, Delhi.
9
activities
has
activities
on the other.
Consequently,
urban
lots of nonthe
villages.
households.
Still further,
non-cultivating
in
towns.
In
changing
households
are
conditions,
some
working
members
inside
income.
of
wellaSi~the
J,
nearby
urban
centres
Employment in
been opened up to
such
agriculture;
In
started
the
rural
important
them
because
in
the
of
Although
physical
urban contact,
consequently,
the
on the
changing
by
years
have
witnessed
spate
of
research
to
10
few studies regarding the impact of agricultural growth and rural
transformation on rural labour households have appeared so far
Most studies on the impact of the Green Revolution have
on
production
between
performance,
small
and
large farms,
At best,
households
has
impact
tractorisation
of
behavior,
distribution
between
on
labour
household
been
rather
focussed
production
surplus
and
gains
deficit
total
of
14
i n t e r ms o f
say,
the
real
employment,
wage
exceptional.
Perhaps,
the
have
preoccupation
of
fact
that
in
technology,
These
issues
the
large
are
technological
with
the
of
the
of
diverse
variety.
As
new
have
the
the
farm
come
up.
process
of
early
sixties,
some
volume
of
programme
finder'
imp a c t
14.
foodgrains production.
was
or
and
the
the
as a
pace setter'.
on o u t p u t a t
t he n a t i on a l
as
an
It was found
'path
immediate
that the
11
production
this
non-significant
.
f arm-s1ze
dent
and
on
15
16
some
stu d'1es
h ave
old
15.
D.K.
Desai
(1969),
"Intensive Agricultural
District
Programme
Analysis of Results",
Economic and Political
Weekly,
Vol.IV, No. 26, Review of Agriculture~une 28, pp.
f\83-A90;
Sherman E.
Johnson, (1970), "Combining Knowledge,
Incentives
and
Means
to
Accelerate
Agricultural
Development," in E.O.
Heady, (ed), "Economic Development~
Agriculture" Thacker and Company,
Bombay,
pp 218-222;
and
Dorris D.
Brown ( 1971),
"Agricultural Development
in
India's Districts," Harvard University Press, Massachusetts,
Cambridge, p. 33.
16.
12
and
research
and the composition of cost for adopters and the non adopters
the
Some
cost
of
new
of
capital
Some
researchers
role
of
17.
18.
19.
Baldev
Singh,
Agriculture",
Kurukshetra.
20.
(1973),
"Capital Formation
Ph.D.
Thesis,
Kurukshetra
in Haryana
University,
13
,, semj- feudal'
institutional
bottlenecks as a barrier to agricultural development 21 . A lively
debate
production
relations
and
other
22.
14
has enmeshed itself only into an abstract conceptual controversy.
Further,
empirical
production
highly skewed.
new
investments
following
heavily
fertilizers,
sections
the
weaker
and
h ave
genera 11 y
they
have
viewed
the
d evo1. d
of
small farmers
large multitude,
23
.
o f sue h ga1ns.
perpetuation
etc. have
Consequently,
. d
rema1ne
irrigation
rural
I n a sense,
poverty
and
---=-----~-
1.5
economic
Such
destitution
views
have
as an off-shoot of the
gained
further
support
qreen
from
Revolution.
some
foreign
and
social
tensions due to
growing
inequality
class
have
of
the
via their talks with officials and non- .. officials and also during
short trips to some areas of the Green Revolution,
scholws
Their
feared
pessimism
deteriorating
the
is
Green
based
Revolution'
arising
foreign
24
turning into 'red
.
upon apprehensions
some
out
of
under
16
with
irrigated
the
unirrigated
historical
The
other
technological
gains
technology 26 .
the
introduction
all
of
of
vein
changes
optimistic
distributed,
some
emergence
Such
and so
and
note.
unevenly
new
agricultural
new
25.
26.
B.Sen (1969),
"Regional Dispersion of Agricultural Income
Implications of the New Technology", Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol. IV, No. 52, Review of Agriculture, December 27,
pp. A 190- A 196;
(1970),
"Opportunities in
Green Revolution", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. V,
No. 13, Review of Agriculture, March 28, pp. A 33 -A 40;
R.W. Herdt and E.A. Baker (1972);
"Agricultural Wages,
Production and High Yielding Varieties",
Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. VII, No. 13, Review of Agriculture,
March 25, pp.A23-A30; J.Q. Harrison (1972), "Agricultural
Modernisation and Income Distribution",
Ph.D. Thesis,
Princeton University, G.S. Bhalla (1974), ~Cit; and G.K.
Chadha (1983),
"Green Revolution and the Small Peasant : A
Study of Income Distribution among ---punjab Cultivators"~
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi; C.H. Hanumantha Rao
(1975), ~ Cit pp. 135, 150 and 178 ; Deepak Lal (1976),
"Agricultural Growth, Real Wages and the Rural Poor in
India", Economic and Political Weekly", Vol. XI, No. 26,
Review of Agriculture, June 26, pp. A 47 - A 61.
17
farm
critics.
does
Their
main conclusion is that the advent of the new farm technology has
made
its
impression
By
that
the
implication,
these
studies
tends
to
the
the
accentuate
It is held in
refute
as
However,
some
while
not ruling
adopting
out
reduce
27
sub-sets.
altogether
the
the growing rural tensions or to the view that such tensions have
mainly originated from the introduction of the new agricultural
29
Some scholars mildly concede these problems which
technology
according
to
only.
While
accepting
Widening
of
later
appropriate
fiscal
and
taken
redistribution
27.
28
29
~Cit.
p. 48;
~Cit.
pp. 179-180.
18
measures
30
The
of
the
new
pattern
matter
of
the
and
recent research.
the
In such works,
subject
different
districts
within a state.
30
31
32.
33.
N.A.Majumdar,
(1970);
"Intra -Sectoral Dualism
and
Agricultural Growth", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.V,
No.13, Review of Agriculture, March 28, pp. A 2- A5; and,
Dharma Kumar (1970);
"Technical Change and Dualism Within
Agriculture in India", Journal Q! Development Studies, No.1,
October, pp. 50-59.
C.H. Hanumantha Rao (1975), ~Cit. Chapter 8, pp. 91-104.
Some of the important studies on the theme of the impact of
the new technology on the wage rates of agricultural
labourers are by P.K. Bardhan (1970, 1973), N. Krishnaji
(1971), A. V. Jose (1974), Deepaklal (1976), Sheila Bhalla
(1979), G.Parthasarthy and K. Adiseshu (1982), Rakesh Basant
(1984). For further details, please see, Appendix-! A.
The impact of new technology on rural poverty has been
studied by quite a number of researchers.
In particular,
see, P.K. Bardhan (1973);
"On the Incidence of Poverty in
Rural India of the Sixties", Econ~mic and Political Weekly,
Vol.VIII, Nos. 4-6, Annual Number, February, pp. 245-254;
Indira Rajaraman (1975); "Poverty, Inequality and Economic
Growth:
Rural
Punjab, '1960-61-1970-71",
Journal
Q!
Development Studies, Vol. XI, No.4, pp. 278-290; M.S.
Ahluwalia
(1978),
"Rural
Poverty
and
Agricultural
Performance in India", Journal Q! Development Studies,
Vol.XIV, No,III, April, pp.298-323,Keith Griffin and A.K.
Ghose (1979), "Institutional Structure, Technological Change
and Growth in
Poor Agrarian Economies: An Analysis with
reference to Bengal and Punjab", World Development Vol. 7,
Nos.
4-5,
pp.385-396;
and J.N. Sinha (1981),
"Full
Employment and AntiPoverty Plan: The Missing Link",
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVI, No.50, December 12,
pp. 2043-2052; also see Pradhan H. Prasad ( 1985), "Poverty
and Agricultural Development",
Economic
and Political
Weekly, Vol. XX, No. 50 December 14, pp. 2221-2224.
19
participation of female labour- 34 , the employment opportunities
outside agriculture,
tenancy and changes in land relations 35 ,
etc.
research
A few
workers
of major crops.
34
Martin,
H.
Billings
and
Arjan
Singh
(1970);
"Mechanisation and the Wheat Revolution; Effect on Female
Labour in Punjab", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.V,
No.52, Review of Agriculture, December 26, pp.A 169- A 174.
35
36.
20
It needs
relate
each
to
individual
example,
study
studies
had a limited
dealing
Moreover,
Revolution.
scope
of
inquiry.
did
with
For
not
those
closely
on.
Similarly,
unemployment
have
consumption
the
with
adequately
rural hierarchy.
the
examine
rural
Green
development
In plain words,
Revolution
does
and
the
most literature
consequent
of
the
of
dealing
agricultural
the
household
of the studies,
referring
to
Consequently,
conclusions
in
by
historical
in
absence
reached
casual observations.
in
empirical
Further,
of
Byres).
substance,
borne
the
out
of
on
Employment
in Developing Nations:
Report on a
Ford
Foundation Study, Columbia University Press; Kusum Chopra
(1974);
"Tractorisation and Changes in Factor Inputs -A
Case Study of Punjab", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
IX, No. 52, Review of Agriculture, December 28, pp.A 119- A
127; C.H. Hanumantha Rao (1975);
~Cit, Chapter 9, pp.
105-122 and A.S. Oberai and Iftikhar Ahme~1981);1abour Use
in Dynamic Agriculture : Evidence from Punjab", Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. XVI, No. 13, March 28, pp. A 2 - A~
Besides, attempts have been made to study the problem of
rural
unemployment/ underemployment.
For a
detailed
discussion on the subject, please see, Appendix-! B.
THESIS
339.20954
K529
Em
21
1111111111111111111111111
TH2781
unduly
small
sample
coverage,
./
suffer
from
of
Green
cultivating
rural
bypassed
the
non-
most
on
not
rural agricultural
-r-
somewhere
of
In
sense,
\Y.l
(iY
policy
I
.:t:'
1-
makers
notwithstanding.
technological
cultivating
For
changes
instance,
the
households.
The
a few
exceptions
institutional
largely
exclusive
and
towards
the
preoccupation
of
justification,
presumably
because
of
population
well
economic activities,
some
the
as their participation
in
various
economic
socio-
of such households,
yet
their
Though
designed
their
for
half-
exercise
22
only.
these
households
not
been
Consequently,
Revolution.
impact
has
of
the
one
not
know
of
wheat
harvesting,
rice
transplantation
and
In
rice
in
the
years,
place
in
terms
heavily
Further,
related
of
outmigrating states.
of
aspects,
Unluckily,
attention
employment
of
the
has
force
for
this
of
labour
implications
regardless
this
the
certainly
many
socio-economic
outm~grating
areas.
researchers.
pattern
37
23
discussion
preceding
empirical
non-cultivating
attempt
to
labour
rural
implies
examine
the
households
single
position of the
the
matter
of
employmen~/earning
in
that
consumption
counterparts
status
in Bihar.
The states
and similarity.
The
farm
as
well
as
cultivating
rural
states
to
and
non-farm
activities,
in
which
non-
account
variations;
2.
The
quantitative
source
of
sign~ficance
employment
of
in them;
3.
The
consumption
areas;
24
4.
The
extent
and
intensity
of
poverty
among
the
sample
5.
in
6.
the
migrant
agricultural
labour
into
rural
Punjab
in
sample
criterion
the
procedure
Chapter II.
as
employment/earnings
two
study
the
pattern
households
pattern
between
of
of
of
Chapter V compares
and Bihar.
made here to look into the levels of net household income as also
in
basis
some
of
issues
employment
detail,
states.
pertaining
and
the
earnings.
to
the
migrant
the
labour
as
also
its
Finally,
main
conclusions
househol~s
and
in the two
ew
policy