LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

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ADVANCED CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

SOLUTIONS

APRIL 2015

3 HRS

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES Candidates are requested to read the

following instructions and complete the answer book cover sheet as far as
possible before starting the examination.
Answer FIVE questions.
All questions carry equal marks.
Start each answer on a new page.
Clearly state the number of each question attempted.
Silent non-programmable calculators are permitted.

1.

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1. a) Critically review the expected long-term durability of a steel road

bridge indicating the affects of exposure and the implications for
degradation and repair over the whole-life cycle.
[10 marks]
Answer 1 a):
Iron and steel, the most commonly used metals, corrode in
many media including most outdoor atmospheres. Usually they
are selected not for their corrosion resistance but for such
properties as strength, ease of fabrication, and cost.
Corrosion is the primary means by which metals deteriorate.
Most metals corrode on contact with water (and moisture in the
air), acids, bases, salts and other solid and liquid chemicals.
Metals will also corrode when exposed to gaseous materials like
acid vapours, formaldehyde gas, ammonia gas, and sulphur
containing gases.
When metal atoms are exposed to an environment containing
water molecules they can give up electrons, becoming
themselves positively charged ions, provided an electrical circuit
can be completed. This effect can be concentrated locally to
form a pit or, sometimes a crack, or it can extend across a wide
area to produce general wastage.
Localized corrosion that leads to pitting may provide sites for
fatigue initiation and, additionally, corrosive agents like seawater
may lead to greatly enhanced growth of the fatigue crack. Pitting
corrosion also occurs much faster in areas where microstructural
changes have occurred due to welding operations.
The corrosion process (anodic reaction) of the metal dissolving
as ions generates some electrons that are consumed by a
secondary process (cathodic reaction). These two processes
have to balance their charges. The sites hosting these two
processes can be located close to each other on the metal's
surface, or far apart depending on the circumstances.
Normally very corrosion resistant materials which rely on thin
oxide films for protection, such as stainless steel, can suffer from
this type of corrosion attack. These materials rely on oxygen
being present, so that they can maintain their oxide films
(passive state). When oxygen is excluded and the oxide films
break down, the material surface becomes active and corrodes
readily.
The elements copper, phosphorus, chromium and nickel have all
been shown to improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Formation of a dense, tightly adhering rust scale is a factor in
lowering the rate of attack. The most common surface protection
methods for steel are:
anti corrosive paint coating
hot dip galvanizing
electroplating
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spray galvanizing
chromium plating
aluminium spraying
rubberising
coil coating of sheet steel

The repair of most coatings will require removal of the

compromised surface normally via shot or grit blasting.
The surface will need to be degreased and suitably primed.
New surface coatings will be required.
Access can be an issue along with the associated health and
safety problems such as working at height.

b) Evaluate the use of a concrete replacement road bridge to be

installed in the same location, again with consideration of the exposure
levels, the predicted degradation and anticipated need for repair.
[10 marks]
Answer 1 b):
Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing
phases present are attacked by carbon dioxide of the air and
converted to calcium carbonate. Cement paste contains 25-50 wt%
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), which means that the pH of the fresh
cement paste is at least 12.5. The pH of a fully carbonated paste is
about 7.
Fully carbonated paste in the concrete surface. Carbonated paste
appears orange-brown in crossed polarized light.
Carbonated paste along cracks inside a concrete. The cracks are
formed due to alkali silica reaction.
The carbonation process requires the presence of water because
CO2 dissolves in water forming H2CO3. If the concrete is too dry (RH
<40%) CO2 cannot dissolve and no carbonation occurs. If on the
other hand it is too wet (RH >90%) CO2 cannot enter the concrete
and the concrete will not carbonate. Optimal conditions for
carbonation occur at a RH of 50% (range 40-90%).
Normal carbonation results in a decrease of the porosity making the
carbonated paste stronger. Carbonation is therefore an advantage
in non-reinforced concrete. However, it is a disadvantage in
reinforced concrete, as pH of carbonated concrete drops to about 7;
a value below the passivation threshold of steel.
Steel reinforcement embedded in concrete is inherently protected
against corrosion by passivation of the steel surface due to the high
alkalinity of the concrete. When a sufficient amount of chlorides
reaches the steel reinforcement it permeates the passivating layer
and increases the risk of corrosion. The resistivity of concrete can
also be reduced, affecting the corrosion rate of the steel.
For use in reinforced or prestressed concrete structures the chloride
concentrations in cements, mixing water, aggregates, and
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admixtures are strictly controlled and the maximum permissible

concentrations are given in building standards or Codes of Practice.
In most cases, however, excessive amounts of chloride in concrete
originate from external sources. The penetration of chlorides into
the concrete occurs by various transport mechanisms depending on
the exposure conditions. There are significant amounts of chlorides
in seawater but chlorides are more limited in groundwater and soil.
In many countries de-icing salts, used to combat the build-up of
snow and ice on transport infrastructures, are the greatest source of
chlorides.
In seawater, chlorides usually pose a greater threat to steel in
concrete than sulphates do to concrete as calcium sulphoaluminate
or ettringite (the expansive reaction product of sulphate and
tricalcium aluminate in the cement) is more soluble in the presence
of chloride and hence does not cause the disruptive expansion.
There are numerous techniques used for repairs to concrete
structures:
High pressure jetting is commonly used to removed contaminated
areas of concrete.
Hand Applied is used for small areas of carbonation on a building
that requires isolated repairs. The concrete is worked behind the
structural reinforcement by hand in layers.
The recast technique is needed for large repairs or where large
areas of reinforcement are located. Formwork and pouring
sequences need to be quickly positioned before the bonding agent
dries.
The use of sacrificial anodes is common to reduce the possibility of
corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
Use of stitching dogs, resin pressure injection and composite
coverings can be used for crack repair/control.

2. a) Weathering steel is to be used to construct an overpass on a major

motorway. Critically discuss the advantages of using weathering steel
over normal hot rolled steel sections in terms of maintenance issues
and whole-life cycle costs.
[10 marks]
Answer 2a):
Weathering steels have been developed with the idea that
rusts formed by corrosion shield the metal from environments
and inhibit further corrosion.
It is considered that well working weathering steels require little
maintenance, and recently extensive application of weathering
steels is planned for bridges, buildings, and in other
construction.
However, there are cases where rusts accelerate corrosion as
suggested by the saying that rusts invite rusting where rusts
are not corrosion-protective but corrosion-promoting.
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The loss of the protective abilities of rusts is very unfavourable

and fatal for weathering steels.
To improve the performance and reliability of weathering steels,
it is important to elucidate the role of rusts in corrosion and to
ensure the development of protective properties of rusts in a
wide range of environmental conditions.
The idea of corrosion protection by corrosion products can be
traced back to the discovery of passivation of iron, where iron
keeps its metallic luster without corroding in concentrated nitric
acid solutions.
Dipping iron in chromate solutions or the application of
appropriate anodic potentials to iron also leads to passivation.
Passivation of iron requires strongly oxidizing environments, and
passivity is attributed to protective oxide lms formed by
oxidation of iron as rst proposed by Faraday.
In passivation of iron, iron is oxidized instantaneously in strongly
oxidizing conditions to form oxides containing iron(III) with
very low solubilities, and this oxide is assumed to be directly
formed in close connection with the crystal structure of the
metal.
This soluble oxide lm isolates the metal surface from
corrosive environments and prevents further corrosion.
When a lm in an oxidizing environment is imperfect or
broken, iron exposed to the solution through the lm defects is
immediately turned into the soluble oxides containing iron at the
defect sites and the lm is repaired.
As a result, the passive oxide lm is not merely a static physical
barrier that is formed only once at a certain stage of passivation,
but it is a self-maintaining dynamic barrier that is constantly
repaired and renewed.
Traditional hot rolled sections do not from stable oxide films and
require surface protection systems to be employed.

b) Below ground oil pipelines are particularly at risk from corrosion and
tend to carry high value hydrocarbon products which can potentially
cause extensive environmental damage in the event of a spill. Critically
compare and contrast the use of sacrificial anodes and impressed
current systems to provide cathodic protection to the installation.
[10 marks]
Answer 2 b):
More recently gas transmission pipelines have cracked in
carbonate solutions produced under protective coatings as a
result of cathodic protection systems. In this case the crack runs
along the length of the pipe, and may propagate for very long
distances by fast fracture. If the gas cloud that is released
ignites, the resultant fireball is devastating.

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The effects of corrosion can be accelerated or induced when

operating in conjunction with stress and various wear
mechanisms. Usually the mechanisms work by not allowing the
corroded metal to become passive by continually removing
protective films and setting up active/passive corrosion cells
where the mechanism is not uniformly applied. The corrosion
products formed may provide abrasive debris to make matters
worse.
This simple observation has a major impact in many aspects of
corrosion prevention and control, for designing new corrosion
monitoring techniques to avoiding the most insidious or localized
forms of corrosion.
The use of sacrificial anodes protects the pipeline which is the
less active metal (cathode) which is more positive
The more active metal is the corroding member (anode) which is
more negative
Electrons flow along a connecting path
The presence of moisture in the soil allows the free movement of
ions
The more active member is caused to lose ions more easily and
therefore corrodes preferentially
Negative ions flow from the anode to the cathode and hence the
pipeline is protected by the resulting chemical reactions
Impressed current protection uses the structure as the cathode
The anodes are regularly placed along the structure
A DC rectifier supplies electrons to the system
The rectifier drives the corrosion current to simulate the anode
corroding
The anode does not corrode as the electrons are supplied via
the rectifier

3. a) Describe the difference between high performance concrete and

high strength concrete giving suitable examples of use in your answer.
[10 marks]
Answer 3 a):
The terms "High performance concrete" and "High strength
concrete" are often taken to mean the same thing.
"High performance" strictly relates to a concrete that has been
designed to have good specific characteristics, such as high
resistance to chloride ingress or high abrasion resistance.
As a result it may also have a high strength, but this is not the
main consideration.
From the general principles behind the design of high-strength
concrete mixtures, it is apparent that high strengths are made
possible by reducing porosity, inhomogeneity, and microcracks
in the hydrated cement paste and the transition zone.

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The utilization of fine pozzolanic materials in high-strength

concrete leads to a reduction of the size of the crystalline
compounds, particularly, calcium hydroxide.
Consequently, there is a reduction of the thickness of the
interfacial transition zone in high-strength concrete.
The densification of the interfacial transition zone allows for
efficient load transfer between the cement mortar and the coarse
aggregate, contributing to the strength of the concrete.
For very high-strength concrete where the matrix is extremely
dense, a weak aggregate may become the weak link in concrete
strength.
Almost any Portland Cement type can be used to obtain
concrete with adequate rheology and with compressive strength
up to 60MPa.
In order to obtain higher strength mixtures while maintaining
good workability, it is necessary to study carefully the cement
composition and finenesses and its compatibility with the
chemical admixtures.
Experience has shown that low-C3A cements generally produce
concrete with improved rheology.
In high-strength concrete, the aggregate plays an important role
on the strength of concrete.
The low-water to cement ratio used in high-strength concrete
causes densification in both the matrix and interfacial transition
zone, and the aggregate may become the weak link in the
development of the mechanical strength.
Extreme care is necessary, therefore, in the selection of
aggregate to be used in very high-strength concrete.
The higher the targeted compressive strength, the smaller the
maximum size of coarse aggregate.
Up to 70MPa compressive strength can be produced with a
good coarse aggregate of a maximum size ranging from 20 to
28mm.
To produce 100MPa compressive strength aggregate with a
maximum size of 10 to 20mm should be used.
To date, concretes with compressive strengths of over 125MPa
have been produced, with 10 to 14mm maximum size coarse
aggregate.
Using supplementary cementitious materials, such as blastfurnace slag, fly ash and natural pozzolans, not only reduces the
production cost of concrete, but also addresses the slump loss
problem.
The optimum substitution level is often determined by the loss in
12- or 24-hour strength that is considered acceptable, given
climatic conditions or the minimum strength required.
While silica fume is usually not really necessary for compressive
strengths under 70MPa, most concrete mixtures contain it when
higher strengths are specified.

Admixtures containing microsilica (condensed silica fume) are

used to meet high strength and low permeability requirements.
Benefits include reduced permeability, increased compressive
and flexural strengths, and increased durability.
Applications include high-strength structural columns, less
permeable parking garage decks, and abrasion resistant
hydraulic structures.
Silica fume can be used in concrete to produce compressive
strengths approaching 138MPa under jobsite conditions. This
admixture can be added in a slurry or in a dry form, whichever
meets the batching equipment needs. In either case,
performance is the same.

b) Light weight aggregates are becoming more common in the

production of precast concrete sections. Critically review the use of
such concrete and highlight the sustainable aspects of the products
being manufactured.
[10 marks]
Answer 3 b):
The raw material used in the manufacture of lightweight aggregate
is pulverised fuel ash (fly ash).
This is the waste material produced from electricity production in
coal-fired power stations. The aggregate is called sintered
pulverised fuel ash lightweight aggregate, more commonly known
as Lytag.
Lytag is made by pelletising the fly ash. By adding a controlled
amount of water in specially designed dish pelletising pans,
rounded pellets are formed. The pellets are then heated on a sinter
strand to a temperature of 1100C. The result is a hard,
honeycombed structure of interconnecting voids within the
aggregate.
The particles formed are rounded in shape and generally range in
size from 14mm down to fines; these are processed to the required
grading, depending on the final use.
A truly environmentally friendly material, provides an excellent
alternative to natural, quarried aggregate, being strong, light and
consistent.
Structural concrete can be produced with an effective reduction in
dead weight over that of normal weight concrete. This reduction in
dead weight means that considerable savings can be made in
foundation and reinforcement costs.
It allows for longer cantilevers or thinner sections, enabling
buildings to be constructed that would not be possible with
traditional materials. Architects and structural engineers can
therefore enjoy wider opportunities in design options

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The weight of structural concrete can be reduced by around 25%

over natural aggregate concrete. Including Lytag LWA fines can
result in further weight reductions.
The same level of structural integrity can be maintained. This allows
designers to use Lytag LWA concrete in exactly the same way as
normal weight aggregate concrete. Enhances many durability
aspects of concrete such as chemical resistance, frost resistance,
fire resistance and permeability reduction.
Reduces the coefficient of thermal expansion by around 1/3rd that
of normal weight concrete.
Lytag LWA can be taken as 7x10-6 / C.
Can help with placing due to the rounded nature of the particles
assisting in natural movement. Coupled with the lower weight of the
concrete, placing and compaction is easier than normal weight
concrete. Finishing processes that are used for normal concrete can
be applied to Lytag LWA concrete.
Reduces the density of the concrete and therefore improves its
insulating properties. Thermal conductivity can be reduced by over
25% by using lightweight aggregate concrete.
Improves fire resistance, partly due to particle stability at elevated
temperatures having undergone heating processes during
manufacture, a lower expansion coefficient and a lower reduction of
strength at elevated temperatures.

4. a) A reinforced concrete retaining wall is showing signs of cracking and

it is feared that this will lead to corrosion of the steel reinforcement and
spalling of the concrete cover. You are required to carry out an initial
investigation to determine the type of cracking and recommend a
suitable durable method of repair.
[14 marks]
Answer 4 a):
Structural
- Design faults
Overstressing - Change of use
- Differential movement

Non-structural
Intrinsic

Crack propagation Perpendicular to maximum principal stress

(Tensile)
Conventional Reach limiting strain crack formation
propagation depends on constraint

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- Plastic settlement/Shrinkage
- Thermal
- Drying Shrinkage
- Corrosion of rebar (Chlorides and CO2)
- AAR

Formation of cracks absorption of energy relief of stress

increase in compliance
Cracks can be dead, live or growing
Monitoring required to determine crack behaviour
Live or growing cracks will require some form of stitching using
dogs or torque lock types which are drilled and resin bonded
Mark out staggered areas for plate and cam lock pins or stitching
dogs of various lengths
Dead cracks can be repaired by a process of resin injection.
Using the process of pressure epoxy injection, we can completely
fill the void with a low viscosity epoxy resin that was created by a
crack.
The epoxy resin cures into an extremely hard plastic that
permanently bonds with concrete, returning the structures original
monolithic integrity.
The crack repair process begins by cleaning and inspecting the
crack. Then injection ports are surface- mounted approximately
every 150mm over the top of crack with an epoxy paste. The rest of
the crack is sealed off with the same epoxy paste. Once the epoxy
paste hardens, the injection process can begin.
The epoxy resin is then injected through the ports and into the crack
using the injection pump. The injection process continues until the
crack is completely filled or until refusal. Once the epoxy resin
hardens, the ports are removed. The process involves no chipping,
grinding or drilling.
Epoxy resin is three to five times stronger than concrete, making the
repair the strongest part of the structure. Once the cracks are
repaired, the structures original monolithic integrity is returned,
allowing it to perform as it was originally designed to do.

b) Explain the importance of non-destructive testing in the assessment

of the corrosion potential of the steel reinforcement prior to the repair
work being undertaken.
[6 marks]
Answer 4 b):
Roughly divided into two those which assess the concrete itself and
those which locate and determine the condition of the steel
reinforcement.
The tests are not always strictly non-destructive and some minor
damage is normally caused due to the near to surface testing.
Use in laboratory studies to determine the change in properties of a
single specimen with time or degradation of similar specimens
under various aggressive environments.
Structural condition assessment:
After fire
After overloading
Change of use
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In the case of corrosion, it is essential to determine the extent of the

damage and the cause of the damage particularly in the case of
chloride attack and carbonation where the cover will need to be
removed along with material behind the steel reinforcement.
Half-cell corrosion potential can be indicative of the probability of
steel reinforcement being corroded and be useful in assessing the
areas most greatly affected.

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5. a) It is now commonplace in construction for projects to require

environmental assessments and product manufacturers are frequently
asked to provide details of their sustainability performance. Critically
discuss how the key changes in the UK Government legislation and
sustainability standards impacted on the construction industry over the
recent years.
[10 marks]
Answer 5 a):
The term Sustainable Development was coined in 1987 in 'The
Brundtland Report' as: "development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs".

The Brundtland Report in 1987 was significant because it helped

trigger a wide range of actions, including:

UN Earth Summits (in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and Johannesburg in

2002)
The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Worldwide "Agenda 21" programmes
Creation of member state sustainable development strategies such as
the UKs Sustainable Development Strategy.

Review of Sustainable Construction 2006 was published in October

2006 and this in turn had superseded the original strategy 'Building a
Better Quality of Life - A Strategy for More Sustainable Construction'
which was published six years ago.

On the 11th June 2008 the UK Government launched the Strategy for
Sustainable Construction. The strategy aims to take a longer-term view
of how the UK Construction industry can become more sustainable and
work towards the overall sustainability targets of the UK. The Strategy
has spawned a number of initiatives including:
o Constructing Excellence
o The ICE Demolition Protocol
o Quarry Products Association, The Strategic
Construction
o Materials Resource Efficiency in Regeneration

Forum

for

The growing demand for sustainable buildings both in the public sector
through initiatives such as the Code for Sustainable Homes and in the
private sector through corporate sustainability strategies is driving the
materials and product industry to develop innovative products that
enhance the sustainability performance of buildings. At the same time,
manufacturers are examining the ways in which they can improve
energy efficiency, lower carbon emissions and improve resource
efficiency within their processes. The Building Research Establishment
(BRE) Green Guide to Specification, which assesses the environmental
impact of products against 13 parameters, including greenhouse gas
potential, is available online, providing easy to use guidance for

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designers and specifiers when designing a building. The Guide notes

that it is the building that is the final product and specifiers must
consider how a product contributes to the sustainability performance of
the building they are designing.

Responsible sourcing of products is an increasing demand from clients

and accordingly the Standards for Responsible Sourcing of
construction products (BES 6001) was issued in late 2008. Terms such
as carbon footprint, carbon budgets and responsible sourcing are now
an accepted part of our language. BREEAM and the DQI process are
the two examples that demonstrate the impact of the legislation on
construction practice.

b) Explain how sustainable development is implemented within the

construction industry's private and public sectors. Support your answer
with a diagram if required and elaborate on the concept of TripleBottom Line.
[10 marks]
Answer 5 b):
There is an increasing demand, in both the private and public sectors,
to understand sustainable construction practices. This demand is
driven by a realisation that sustainable practices make sense to both
owners and operators. The practices not only help the environment but
can also improve economic profitability and improve relationships with
stakeholder groups.

The diagram in Fig. A5a) explains how sustainable development is

implemented within the construction industry's private and public
sectors.

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Fig. A5a. Sustainable Development

The term Sustainable Development was coined in 1987 in 'The

Brundtland Report' as: "development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs".

Sustainable Construction is the application of sustainable development

to the construction industry. In June 2008 the Strategy for Sustainable
Construction was launched with an aim to take a longer-term view on
how the UK construction industry can become more sustainable and
work towards the overall sustainability targets of the UK.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a key driver for private sector

companies seeking to embrace sustainability in their business. CSR is
the recognition by companies that there are benefits to integrating
socially responsible behaviour into their core values. Its key principles
relate to:
o integrity
o transparency
o responsiveness
o fairness and diversity

The Chartered Institute Of Building (CIOB) produced the report

'Corporate Social Responsibility And Construction'. This describes how:
"'recent demand from shareholders, the government, consumer groups
and the public for products and services to be 'socially responsible'

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extends and develops these issues to an extent that can no longer be

assumed to be covered by standard construction procedures'.

The concept of Triple-Bottom Line relates to the reporting of

environmental and social performance (the environmental and social
bottom line) alongside profits (the economic bottom line) as measures
of success. The triple-bottom line encompasses environmental
responsibility,
social
awareness/responsibility
and
economic
profitability.

In February 2003, the UK Government launched the Sustainable

Communities Plan which sets out a long-term programme of action for
delivering sustainable communities in both urban and rural areas. The
Plan includes major reforms of housing and planning and a new
approach to how we build, and what we build, in order to bring about
development that meets the economic, social and environmental needs
of future generations, as well as succeeding now. The public sector will
be imposing sustainability conditions from the Plan in their forthcoming
procurement schemes, and thus sustainability is expected to gain
importance in governmental procurement.

Sustainable Procurement National Action Plan:

On the 12th June 2006, the Government published the National Action
Plan: Procuring the Future. The action plan aims to deliver sustainable
procurement to stimulate innovation through public procurement, and
deliver sustainable procurement by complementing and building on
existing activity.
6. a) What conditions are prerequisite for the initiation of wood
combustion? Identify and describe in detail two different types of
combustion.
[10 marks]
Answer 6 a):
Combustion is a sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a
fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat.
Requirement for initiation of combustion process is the presence of
three main components: fuel, oxygen and an ignition to start the
chemical reaction. It is an exothermic reaction that involves rapid
oxidation of combustible substances. All three elements must be
present for a fire to take place. Notably, if any one of them removed
then the reaction will be terminated. Combustion is a chain reaction,
therefore for the process to be self-sustaining, once initiated there is a
need for significant thermal energy to be available. This thermal energy
is achieved through thermal feedback via convection and radiation. To
start the exothermic reaction the ignition is needed, which can be either
pilot or spontaneous.
Combustion can be classified as solid-fuel and spontaneous.
Solid-fuel combustion consumes the solid by pyrolysis, i.e. wood. The
solid is heated and a decomposition process is initiated. Latent
moisture is vaporized and then the combustible vapours are produced.
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The combustible vapours that burn are organic solid materials. (coal,
wood)

Spontaneous combustion Does not require a flame, external heat or

radiation source. It takes place within materials that are separate or a
composite nature by an exothermic chemical or biological reaction
generating heat internally. When the process starts and if cooling is
inadequate then the temperature of the substance will rise (especially
when it is well insulated) to the lowest self-igniting temperature for the
composite or one of its components. These are active materials,
examples of this is heating oil.
b) Explain the basic mechanisms of heat transfer. Define what is
thermal conductivity and elaborate on what factors can affect this
parameter in timber.
[5 marks]

Answer 6 b):
The three basic mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction,
convention and radiation.
Conduction Thermal energy is transferred through a solid or liquid
that is under the influence of thermal stress or gradient.
Convection Involves movement through a medium and therefore
restricted to liquids and gases.
Radiation doesnt need a medium between source and receiver, it
can be ultra-violet, visible or heat radiation (infra-red) is an
electromagnetic wave.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the rate of heat flow through one
unit thickness of a material subjected to a temperature gradient. The
thermal conductivity of common structural woods is much less than the
conductivity of metals with which wood often is mated in construction. It
is about two to four times that of common insulating material. For
example, the conductivity of structural softwood lumber at 12%
moisture content is in the range of 0.10 to 0.14 W m -1 K-1 compared
with 216 for aluminium, 45 for steel, 0.9 for concrete, 1 for glass, 0.7 for
plaster, and 0.036 for mineral wool.
The thermal conductivity of wood is affected by a number of factors:
density, moisture content, extractive content, grain direction, structural
irregularities such as checks and knots, fibril angle, and temperature.
Thermal conductivity increases as density, moisture content,
temperature or extractive content of the wood increases. It is nearly the
same in the radial and tangential directions, but along the grains could
be greater by a factor of 1.5 to 2.8.
c) Contrast the composition of timber before and after the combustion
process and assess how wood type affects the amount of heat energy
liberated as a result of a combustion process.
[5 marks]

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Answer 6 c):
All common wood is made up of roughly 50 3% Carbon, 6 1%
Hydrogen and 443% Oxygen with the rest inorganic ash. Softwoods
tend toward higher Carbon and lower Oxygen content than hardwoods.
Primary combustion is the burning of solid material directly. In wood
combustion this is the burning of the charcoal. Secondary combustion
is the burning of gas fuels which produces the flames of a fire.
In complete combustion, about the wood mass is converted to
Carbon Dioxide and about to water. This process liberates about 20
MJ/kg of heat energy for hardwoods and 21 MJ/kg for softwoods. Up to
85% of the mass and 60% of the heating value from wood is contained
in gases produced by pyrolysis. Notably, incomplete combustion results
in production of significant levels of CO, and many hydrocarbons.
These unburned components represent lost heating value, pollutant
emissions and potential creosote formation. Incomplete combustion
can be caused by low temperature, insufficient air and incomplete
mixing.
2. a) The ongoing research in the area of novel nanomaterials has
resulted in advanced properties of structures in the sustainable built
environment. Briefly describe what nanomaterials are the most
promising candidates for the use as additives. What physical properties
make them superior to conventional technologies?
7. [10 marks]
Answer 7 a):
In the construction industry, nanomaterials has potentials that are
already usable today, especially the functional characteristics such as
increased tensile strength, self-cleaning capacity, fire resistance, and
additives based on nanomaterials make common materials lighter,
more permeable, and more resistant to wear. Nanomaterials are also
considered extremely useful for roofs and facades in the built
environment. They also expand design possibilities for interior and
exterior rooms and spaces. Nanoinsulating materials open up new
possibilities for ecologically oriented sustainable infrastructure
development. It has been demonstrated that nanotechnology has
invented products with many unique characteristics which could
significantly provide solutions current construction issues and may
change the requirement and organization of construction process.
Concrete is a nano-structured multi phased composite material
consisting of an amorphous phase, nano meter to micro meter sized
crystals and bound water. The reactions within the concrete occur
through macro, micro and nano levels. Therefore, addition of suitable
nano particles into concrete can alter many properties of concrete. To
In the field of nanotechnology, carbon nanotube (CNT) has the prime
focus as one of the most major and significant areas of research. There
is particular interest in developing nanotechnology for cement and
concrete. Not only the chemistry that forms cement hydration products
but also the physical behaviour of those products is acquiescent to
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manipulation through nanotechnology. The mechanical properties of

CNT depict their immense potential for use as reinforcements in
composite materials. In addition to their high strength and elastic
constant, CNTs have extremely high aspect ratios, with values typically
higher than 1000:1 and reaching as high as 2,500,000 : 1. The size
and aspect ratios of CNT mean that they can be distributed on a much
finer scale than commonly used reinforcing fibres. Cracks can be
interrupted much more quickly during propagation in a CNT reinforced
matrix. This bridge coupling effect of CNT in turn assures lower crack
widths and eventually guarantees the load transfer across voids and
cracks. These mechanical properties of CNT reflect its prospect as
reinforcement within the matrix of cement composites.
Notably, in answer to this question the students should demonstrate
their awareness with the state-of-the-art trends in using nanomaterials
in construction based on their reading of recent research papers (some
of which will be given during the lectures).
b) The use of fibre reinforced concrete is becoming increasingly
popular. Explain the reasons behind this and critically discuss some of
the problems that can occur in its use.
[10 marks]
Answer 7 b):
The fibres in the cement matrix increases the toughness and tensile
strength, this in turn improves the cracking deformation characteristics
Fibres help to improve the post peak ductility performance, pre-crack
tensile strength, fatigue strength, impact strength and eliminate
temperature and shrinkage cracks
Good for repairing infrastructure and increasing durability as and when
required
Good for corrosion prevention as it reduces tensile cracks
Well suited for cavitation/erosion damage in structures such as sluiceways, navigation locks and bridge piers where high velocity flows are
encountered
Cost saving
Problem with balling and uneven distribution in the mix
Importance of volume fraction
Corrosion of surface steel fibres.
8. a) Fire affects the mechanical properties of steel, particularly the
stress/strain relationship. Critically review these effects, supporting
your answer with definitions, equations, diagrams or numerical data if
necessary.
[6 marks]
Answer 8 a):

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At temperatures above 300C hot finished carbon steel begins to lose

its strength. The residual strength then reduces more gradually until the
melting temperature at around 1500C.
Hot rolled reinforcing steels behave in a similar manner at elevated
temperatures.
Cold rolled reinforcing steels have more of a steep reduction in
strength after 300C. At around 450C a large amount of creep
phenomena takes place

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Source: K.W. Poh, Stress-strain-temperature relationship for structural steel,

Journal of materials in civil engineering / September/October 2001 / 371.

b) Describe the effects of fire on reinforced concrete structures and

indicate the potential issues related to the use high strength concrete in
such structures.
[6 marks]
Answer 8 b):
Concrete is a non-homogenous material and one of the main
advantages of it in comparison to other building materials is its inherent
fire-resistance behaviour. Concrete is a non-combustible material,
unlike other materials it does not emit toxic fumes, smoke, or drip when
ignited under normal fire conditions. Hence does not contribute towards
the fire load. The fire performance of concrete is dependent on the
aggregate and cement paste. Aggregates used in concrete can be
classed as carbonate, siliceous, and lightweight. Concrete has a low
thermal conductivity (50 times lower than 50%). One of the main
concerns regarding High strength concrete is that it is a lot more
susceptible to explosive spalling. Spalling of concrete in fire involves
breaking of layers of concrete from the surface as it is heated.
c) Briefly discuss the following in terms of the thermal properties of
concrete:
i) Transient strain
ii) Thermal expansion.
[8 marks]
Answer 8 c):
i) Transient Strain:
Total strain in the concrete is based on the thermal strain,
instantaneous stress-related strain and creep strain. When concrete is
heated is will try to expand, not affected by the stress state and not
related to loading conditions. Thermal strain is highly dependent on
type of aggregate. Eurocode 2 provides relationships between thermal
strains for normal and light weight concrete.

ii) Thermal Expansion:

Boundary restraint in a fire can greatly affect its overall behaviour. Axial
restraint is deemed to have a greater influence on concrete slabs in fire
than on steel structures. In a fire concrete will try to expand, causing
thermal forces on a fully restrained boundary condition. As the concrete
is heated, the line of thrust moves from bottom to the top. Magnitude of
force in the line of thrust is dependent on the thermal expansion
properties of the concrete.

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