Endocrinecorrecteda 082916

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Corrected by Dr. C.Gerin

From Marieb
08/29/16
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Endocrine System

Anatomy: ana = separate from; tomy= cut open => dissection
Physiology: logy = study; physio =related to natural functioning
=>study of living organism
Copyright 2006
Pearson
Inc., publishing
as Benjamin Cummings
8/26/13
Dr.
C.Education,
Gerin,
Anat227
Introduction
The nervous system and the endocrine

system work together: neuro-endocrine
system
The nervous system: produces short-term,

very specific responses
The endocrine system: produces long-lasting,

more general responses
Copyright 2006
Pearson
Inc., publishing
8/26/13
Dr.
C.Education,
Gerin,
Anat227
Major Endocrine Organs
Figure 16.1
Autocrines and Paracrines
Autocrines chemicals that exert effects on the

same cells that secrete them
Paracrines locally acting chemicals that affect
cells other than those that secrete them
These are not considered hormones since
hormones are long-distance chemical signals
Copyright 2006
Pearson
Inc., publishing
8/26/13
Dr.
C.Education,
Gerin,
Anat227
Introduction
The endocrine system releases chemicals

called hormones : protein or lipids (steroid)
Secreted by a gland or gland-like structure
Travel in bloodstream
target organ or tissue distant
Therefore, response = distant site in the

body
Copyright 2006
Inc., Anat227
publishing as Benjamin Cummings
8/26/13
Dr.Pearson
C. Education,
Gerin,
The main endocrine organs are:$$$$$
Epiphysis = Pineal gland (pine cone; melatonine)
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland = Hypophysis
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus gland
Suprarenal glands
Pancreas
Reproductive glands
8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227
An Overview of the Endocrine System
Other endocrine tissues are:
Heart
Kidney
Adipose cells
Digestive tract

The Endocrine System$$$$$$
RH
Hypothalamus
Pineal Gland= epiphysis
Production of ADH,
oxytocin, and regulatory
hormones SRH IRH
Melatonin
Parathyroid Glands
(on posterior surface of
thyroid gland)
Hypophysis=Pituitary Gland
SH
Pars distalis (anterior lobe):

ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL,
FSH, LH, and MSH
Neurohypophysis
(posterior lobe):
Release of oxytocin
and ADH
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Heart
Natriuretic peptides:
Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Brain natriuretic
peptide (BNP)
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxine (T 4)
Triiodothyronine (T 3)
Calcitonin (CT)
Kidney
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Calcitriol
(Chapters 19 and 26)
Thymus
(Undergoes atrophy
during adulthood)
Adipose Tissue
Thymosins
KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES

ACTH
TSH
GH
PRL
FSH
LH
MSH
ADH
Leptin
Resistin
Suprarenal Glands
Each suprarenal gland is

Adrenocorticotropic hormone
subdivided into:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Medulla:
Growth hormone
Epinephrine (E)
Prolactin
Norepinephrine (NE)
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Cortex:
Luteinizing hormone
Cortisol, corticosterone,
Melanocyte-stimulating hor*mone
aldosterone, androgens
Antidiuretic hormon (= AVP=Vasopressine
Digestive Tract
Numerous hormones CCK,
(detailed in Chapter 25)
Pancreatic Islets
Testis
Insulin, glucagon
Gonads
Testes (male):
Androgens (especially
testosterone), inhibin
Ovaries (female):
Estrogens, progestins,
inhibin
Ovary

Figure Gross Anatomy and Histological Organization of the Pituitary Gland and Its Subdivisions$$$$$
Mamillary
body
Third
Median
ventricle eminence
HYPOTHALAMUS
Optic chiasm
Infundibulum
Diaphragma
sellae
Pars
tuberalis
Adenohypophysis
(anterior lobe)
Pars
distalis
Neurohypophysis
(posterior lobe)
Pars
intermedia
Sphenoid
(sella turcica)
Relationship of the pituitary

gland to the hypothalamus
10
Figure 19.2 Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Organs
HYPOTHALAMUS
Secretion of
regulatory hormones
to control activity of
pars distalis (anterior
lobe) of pituitary gland
Production
of ADH and
oxytocin
Control of (sympathetic)
output to suprarenal
medullae
Preganglionic
motor fibers
Suprarenal gland
Medulla
Neurohypophysis
(posterior lobe)
of pituitary gland
Pars distalis
(anterior lobe)
of pituitary gland
Hormones secreted
by pars distalis of
pituitary gland
control other
endocrine organs

Release of
ADH and
oxytocin*
Secretion of
epinephrine and
norepinephrine
11
An Overview of the Endocrine System
The Hypothalamus (RH)
Secretes regulatory hormones (RH)
Stimulating releasing hormones (SRH)
inhibiting releasing hormones (IRH)
Acts as an endocrine organ
Releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)= arginine

vasopressine (AVP) and oxytocin to the pituitary
gland
Contains autonomic nervous system

centers
Exerts control over t
12
The Pituitary Gland = HYPOPHYSIS
The Adenohypophysis = SH
Consists of five different cell types
Thyrotropes: release thyroid-stimulating

hormone (TSH)
Corticotropes: release adrenocorticotropic

hormone (ACTH) and melanocytestimulating hormone (MSH)
Gonadotropes: release follicle-stimulating

hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH), prolactin* (PRL)

13
Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), also called somatomedin C

=> IGH => role in childhood growth and continues to have
anabolic effects in adults.
14
The Pituitary Gland
The Hypophyseal Portal System
Within the infundibulum is a plexus of

capillaries
Capillaries are fenestrated
Regulatory hormones leave the

hypothalamus and pass through the portal
vessels to the adenohypophysis

15
Figure The Pituitary Gland and the Hypophyseal Portal System$$$$$$

Supraoptic Paraventricular
nuclei
nuclei
Mamillary
body
HYPOTHALAMUS
Optic
chiasm
Superior hypophyseal artery

Capillary
Beds
ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
OF PITUITARY GLAND
Infundibulum
Portal veins = BRIDGE between

the neural release
from the hypothalamic n.
AND the anterior hypohysis
Inferior hypophyseal artery
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
OF PITUITARY GLAND
Endocrine cells
Hypophyseal veins

16
Figure 19.4 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets$$$$
Hypothalamus
Direct Control
by Nervous
System
KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES
Direct Release
of Hormones
Indirect Control Through Release

of Regulatory Hormones
Sensory Osmoreceptor
stimulation stimulation
Regulatory hormones are released into

the hypophyseal portal system for delivery
to the anterior lobe of the pituitary
Medulla
Adenohypophysis of
pituitary gland
ACTH
TSH
GH
PRL
FSH
LH
MSH
ADH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Antidiuretic hormone
Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland
ADH
Suprarenal
gland
ACTH
Cortex
TSH
Epinephrine and
norepinephrine
Liver
Thyroid
gland
Kidneys
GH
Oxytocin
MSH
PRL
FSH
Males: Smooth
muscle in ductus
deferens and
prostate gland
LH
Somatomedins
Females: Uterine
smooth muscle and
mammary glands
Glucocorticoids
(cortisol,
corticosterone)
Bone, muscle,
other tissues
Mammary
glands
Ovaries
of female
Testes
of male
Melanocytes (uncertain
significance in healthy
adults)
Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)
Inhibin
Testosterone

Estrogen
Progesterone
Inhibin
17
CONCLUSION
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
LOCAL RELEASE and LOCAL ACTION
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
Gland SECRETION , BLOOD TRANSPORT,
DISTANT ACTION
Epiphyseal Gland= Pineal Gland
Hypothalamus =RH (RHLH=GnRH)
Anterior Hypophysis = SH (FSH)
Target Organ: Gonades

18
Figure 17.8 Autonomic Distribution of the Parasympathetic Output

Pterygopalatine ganglion
N III
Lacrimal gland
Eye
Ciliary ganglion
PONS
N VII
Salivary glands
Submandibular
ganglion
N IX
Otic ganglion
N X (Vagus)
Heart
Lungs
Autonomic plexuses
(see Figure 17.9)
Liver and
gallbladder
Stomach
Spleen
Pancreas
Large intestine
Pelvic
nerves
Small intestine
Rectum
Spinal
cord
S2
Kidney
S3
S4
KEY
Preganglionic neurons
Ganglionic neurons
Uterus
Ovary
Copyright
2006 Pearson
Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
8/26/13
Dr. C.Gerin,
Anat227
Penis Scrotum
19
Urinary bladder
Figure 17.4 Anatomical Distribution of Sympathetic Postganglionic Fibers
Eye
PONS
Salivary
glands
Sympathetic nerves
Superior
Cervical
sympathetic
ganglia
Middle
Heart
Inferior
Gray rami to
spinal nerves
T1
T1
T2
T2
T3
T3
T4
T4
T5
T5
T6
T6
T7
T7
T8
T8
T9
T9
T10
T10
T11
Postganglionic fibers
to spinal nerves
(innervating skin, blood
vessels, sweat glands,
arrector pili muscles,
adipose tissue)
Lung
Celiac ganglion
Superior
mesenteric
ganglion
Liver and
gallbladder
Stomach
T11
T12
L1
L1
L2
L2
Lesser
splanchnic
nerve
L4
L5
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
Spleen
Pancreas
Large intestine
Lumbar
splanchnic nerves
L3
L3
L4
Sympathetic
chain ganglia
Greater
splanchnic
nerve
T12
L5
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
Cardiac and
pulmonary
plexuses
Small intestine
Inferior
mesenteric
ganglion
Suprarenal
medulla
Sacral
splanchnic
nerves
Kidney
Spinal cord
KEY
Preganglionic neurons
Ganglionic neurons
Coccygeal
ganglia (Co1)
fused together
(ganglion impar)
Uterus
Ovary
Penis Scrotum
20
Urinary bladder
Figure The Regulation of Thyroid Secretion
Hypothalamus
releases TRH
Homeostasis
Disturbed
Decreased T3 and
T4 concentrations
in blood or low
body temperature
TRH
Anterior
lobe
Pituitary
gland
HOMEOSTASIS
Anterior
lobe
Normal T3 and T4
concentrations,
normal body
temperature
Adenohypophysis
releases TSH
TSH
Homeostasis
Restored
Increased T3 and
T4 concentrations
in blood
Thyroid
gland
Thyroid follicles
release T3 and T4
Copyright
2006 Pearson
Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
8/26/13
Dr. C.Gerin,
Anat227
21
NOW
GROSS ANATOMY DISSECTION
MODEL OBSERVATION
DESCRIPTION
LAB EXERCISES

22
Hormones
Hormones chemical substances secreted by cells

into the extracellular fluids to the blood stream
Regulate the metabolic function of other cells
Have lag times ranging from seconds to hours
Tend to have prolonged effects
Are classified as amino acid-based hormones, or

steroids
Eicosanoids biologically active lipids with local

hormonelike activity
Hormone Action
Hormones alter target cell activity by one of two

mechanisms
Second messengers:
Regulatory G proteins
Amino acidbased hormones
Direct gene activation
Steroid hormones
The precise response depends on the type of the

target cell
Mechanism of Hormone Action
Hormones produce one or more of the following

cellular changes in target cells
Alter plasma membrane permeability
Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate mitosis
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action:

cAMP Second Messenger
Hormone (first messenger) binds to its receptor,

which then binds to a G protein
The G protein is then activated as it binds GTP,

displacing GDP
Activated G protein activates the effector enzyme

adenylate cyclase
Adenylate cyclase generates cAMP (second

messenger) from ATP
cAMP activates protein kinases, which then cause

cellular effects
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action: cAMP

Second Messenger
Extracellular fluid
Hormone A
Adenylate cyclase
Hormone B
GTP
GTP
GTP
Receptor Gs
GTP
GTP
2
Gi
GDP
GDP
ATP
Catecholamines
ACTH
FSH
LH
Glucagon
PTH
TSH
Calcitonin
Receptor
GTP
cAMP
5
Inactive
protein
kinase A
Active
protein
kinase A
Triggers responses of target

cell (activates enzymes,
stimulates cellular
secretion, opens ion
channels, etc.)
Cytoplasm
Figure 16.2

PIP-Calcium
Hormone binds to the receptor and activates
G protein
G protein binds and activates phospholipase
Phospholipase splits the phospholipid PIP2* into

diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP3 (both act as second
messengers)
DAG activates protein kinases; IP3 triggers release of

Ca2+ stores
Ca2+ (third messenger) alters cellular responses**

PIP Mechanism
Extracellular fluid
Hormone
DAG
4
2
GTP
GTP
Receptor Gq
GTP
Catecholamines
TRH
ADH
GnRH
Oxytocin
GDP
IP3
Phospholipase C
5
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasm
Active
protein
kinase C
PIP2
Inactive
protein
kinase C
Triggers responses
of target cell
6
Ca2+ Ca2+- calmodulin
Figure 16.3
Steroid Hormones
This interaction prompts DNA transcription to

produce mRNA
The mRNA is translated into proteins, which bring

about a cellular effect
Steroid
hormone
Cytoplasm
Steroid Receptorhormone
chaperonin
complex
Receptor-hormone
complex
Molecular
chaperones
Binding
Hormone
response
elements
Chromatin
Transcription
mRNA
mRNA
Nucleus
Ribosome
Translation
New protein
Figure 16.4
Target Cell Specificity
Hormones circulate to all tissues but only activate

cells referred to as target cells
Target cells must have specific receptors to which

the hormone binds
These receptors may be intracellular or located on

the plasma membrane
Target Cell Specificity
Examples of hormone activity
ACTH receptors are only found on certain cells of

the adrenal cortex
Thyroxin receptors are found on nearly all cells of

the body
Target Cell Activation
Target cell activation depends on three factors
Blood levels of the hormone
Relative number of receptors on the target cell
The affinity of those receptors for the hormone
Up-regulation target cells form more receptors in

response to the hormone
Down-regulation target cells lose receptors in
response to the hormone
Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms

free or bound
Steroids and thyroid hormone are attached to

plasma proteins*
All others are unencumbered
Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Concentrations of circulating hormone reflect:
Rate of release
Speed of inactivation and removal from the body
Hormones are removed from the blood by$$$$$:
Degrading enzymes
The kidneys
Liver enzyme systems
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
Three types of hormone interaction
Permissiveness one hormone cannot exert its

effects without another hormone being present
Synergism more than one hormone produces the
same effects on a target cell
Antagonism one or more hormones opposes the
action of another hormone
Control of Hormone Release
Blood levels of hormones:
Are controlled by negative feedback systems
Vary only within a narrow desirable range
Hormones are synthesized and released in response

to:
Humoral stimuli (blood)
Neural stimuli
Hormonal stimuli
Humoral Stimuli
Humoral stimuli secretion of hormones in direct

response to changing blood levels of ions and
nutrients
Example: concentration of calcium ions in the
blood
Declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates the

parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid
hormone)
PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the

stimulus is removed
Humoral Stimuli
Figure 16.5a
Neural Stimuli
Neural stimuli nerve

fibers stimulate hormone
release
Preganglionic
sympathetic nervous
system (SNS) fibers
stimulate the adrenal
medulla to secrete
catecholamines* NA, A
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Nor
adrenalin_-_Noradrenaline.svg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Adr
enalin_-_Adrenaline.svg
Figure 16.5b
Hormonal Stimuli
Hormonal stimuli release of hormones in

response to hormones produced by other endocrine
organs
The hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior

pituitary
In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate targets to

secrete still more hormones
Hormonal Stimuli$$$$
Figure 16.5c
Nervous System Modulation
The nervous system can override normal endocrine

controls
For example, control of blood glucose levels
Normally the endocrine system maintains blood

glucose
Under stress, the body needs more glucose
The hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous

system are activated to supply ample glucose
Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary Gland

(Hypophysis)
Pituitary gland two-lobed organ that secretes
nine major hormones
Neurohypophysis posterior lobe (neural tissue)

and the infundibulum
Receives, stores, and releases hormones from the

hypothalamus
Adenohypophysis anterior lobe, made up of

glandular tissue
Synthesizes and secretes a number of hormones
Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary Gland

(Hypophysis)
Figure 16.6
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Posterior Lobe
The posterior lobe is a downgrowth of
hypothalamic neural tissue
Has a neural connection with the hypothalamus

(hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
Nuclei (of what?) of the hypothalamus synthesize

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Anterior Lobe
The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an
outpocketing of the oral mucosa
There is no direct neural contact with the

hypothalamus
Anterior Lobe
There is a vascular connection, the hypophyseal

portal system, consisting of:
The primary capillary plexus
The hypophyseal portal veins
The secondary capillary plexus
PLAY
InterActive Physiology : The Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis
Anterior Lobe
Figure 16.6
Adenophypophyseal Hormones
The six hormones of the adenohypophysis:
Abbreviated as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and

PRL
Regulate the activity of other endocrine glands
In addition, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC):
Has been isolated from the pituitary
Is split into ACTH, opiates, and MSH
Activity of the Adenophypophysis
The hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus to the

anterior pituitary
Releasing hormones stimulate the synthesis and

release of hormones
Inhibiting hormones shut off the synthesis and

release of hormones
Activity of the Adenophypophysis
The tropic hormones that are released are:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Growth Hormone (GH)
Produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior lobe

that:
Stimulate most cells, but target bone and skeletal

muscle
Promote protein synthesis and encourage the use of

fats for fuel
Most effects are mediated indirectly by

somatomedins
Growth Hormone (GH)
Antagonistic hypothalamic hormones regulate GH
Growth hormonereleasing hormone (GHRH)

stimulates GH release
Growth hormoneinhibiting hormone (GHIH)

inhibits GH release
Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
GH stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and

cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
Direct action promotes lipolysis and inhibits

glucose uptake
Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone

(GH)$$$$
Figure 16.7
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)
Stimulates the normal development and secretory

activity of the thyroid
Triggered by hypothalamic peptide thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH)
Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on the

pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of
TSH
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release

corticosteroids
Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing

hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
Internal and external factors such as fever,

hypoglycemia, and stressors can trigger the release
of CRH
Gonadotropins
Gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone

(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Regulate the function of the ovaries and testes
FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and

girls
Triggered by the hypothalamic gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH) during and after

puberty
Functions of Gonadotropins
In females
LH works with FSH to cause maturation of the

ovarian follicle
LH works alone to trigger ovulation (expulsion of

the egg from the follicle)
LH promotes synthesis and release of estrogens

and progesterone
Functions of Gonadotropins
In males
LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to

produce testosterone
LH is also referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating

hormone (ICSH)
Prolactin (PRL)
In females, stimulates milk production by the

breasts
Triggered by the hypothalamic prolactin-releasing

hormone (PRH)
Inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy
Suckling stimulates PRH release and encourages

continued milk production
The Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic

Hormones
Posterior pituitary made of axons of
hypothalamic neurons, stores antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) and oxytocin
ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in the

hypothalamus
ADH influences water balance
Oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle contraction in

breasts and uterus
Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger

mechanism

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Corrected by Dr. C.Gerin

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Endocrine System

The nervous system and the endocrine

The nervous system: produces short-term,

The endocrine system: produces long-lasting,

Major Endocrine Organs

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Autocrines and Paracrines

Autocrines chemicals that exert effects on the

The endocrine system releases chemicals

Secreted by a gland or gland-like structure

target organ or tissue distant

Therefore, response = distant site in the

The main endocrine organs are:$$$$$

Epiphysis = Pineal gland (pine cone; melatonine)

Pituitary gland = Hypophysis

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

An Overview of the Endocrine System

Other endocrine tissues are:

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

The Endocrine System$$$$$$

Pineal Gland= epiphysis

Pars distalis (anterior lobe):

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES

Each suprarenal gland is

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Relationship of the pituitary

Figure 19.2 Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Organs

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

An Overview of the Endocrine System

The Hypothalamus (RH)

Secretes regulatory hormones (RH)

Stimulating releasing hormones (SRH)

inhibiting releasing hormones (IRH)

Acts as an endocrine organ

Releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH)= arginine

Contains autonomic nervous system

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Exerts control over t

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Pituitary Gland = HYPOPHYSIS

Consists of five different cell types

Thyrotropes: release thyroid-stimulating

Corticotropes: release adrenocorticotropic

Gonadotropes: release follicle-stimulating

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), also called somatomedin C

The Pituitary Gland

The Hypophyseal Portal System

Within the infundibulum is a plexus of

Capillaries are fenestrated

Regulatory hormones leave the

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Figure The Pituitary Gland and the Hypophyseal Portal System$$$$$$

Superior hypophyseal artery

Portal veins = BRIDGE between

8/26/13 Dr. C. Gerin, Anat227

Figure 19.4 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets$$$$

KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES