Chemistry Notes Y11 - Goodefdgw

2.1 The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures.
1.1 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of the
particle theory;
Useful links:
http://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/particle01.html
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/165/169061/blb9ch0102.html
What is The Particle Theory?

The kinetic theory of matter (particle theory) proposes that all matter consists of many, very
small particles which are constantly moving or in a continual state of motion. These motions
include vibration, rotation and translation.
So, what are elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of this theory? In the particle
theory, what a particle is is not defined - a particle may be an atom, a molecule or an ion.
(a)The smallest particle that an element can be composed of is an atom - if you have a lot of
atoms of one kind, you have an element; (eg. helium - He, sulfur - S, sodium - Na). There
may be single atoms or very large numbers as in metallic elements.
1
(b)Sometimes, atoms of one kind stick together in pairs - these particles are called
molecules of an element; (eg. hydrogen - H2, oxygen - O2, nitrogen - N2)

1
(c)Sometimes, atoms of different kinds stick together in fixed, whole number ratios; these
are molecules of a compound; the compound has different properties from the properties of
the elements from which they are formed. (eg. water - H2O, sulfuric acid - H2SO4, glucose
- C6H12O6)
1
(d)If the particles - individual atoms or molecules are different from each other, are not in a
fixed ratio and have the same properties as those of the component elements, it is a mixture.
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/165/169061/blb9ch0102.html
Another good website with a great graphic:

http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/elements.html
Exercise 1: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then answer questions 1 - 12 in
Hegarty.
Due Wednesday 4/2/09.
1.2 Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to
separate components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt and
water;
This dot point will be (has been) covered in practical lessons. Refer to your Practical Record
Book.
1.3 Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to

estimate its percentage composition;
When planning to do this exercise, think about:
1.
what data you need to collect;
2.
whether the data are qualitative or quantitative;
3.
what uncertainty the data have;
4.
how many significant figures are in each measurement;
5.
what are the units for the data collected.
(Please note that data is a plural word; the singular is datum although data is often used
as a singular word. I use it in the traditional sense.)
Practical report 1. Write a report on your investigation. It should be in the form shown in
this link: Practical write-up.
1.4 Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the available evidence available evidence to:
1.
* identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation;
2.
* identify the products of separation and their uses;
3.
* discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used.
When carrying out this research, think about whether the data you are collecting are reliable
and accurate and how you know they are reliable and accurate. (A good scientist hearing a
statement of fact, will always have in the back of his mind - How do you know that? That
would include what you read on one of these pages or in a textbook.)
You could find out about how 1.
aluminium oxide is obtained from bauxite (lithosphere);
2.
sodium chloride is obtained from sea water (hydrosphere);
3.
lanolin is obtained from wool (biosphere).
Practical report 2. Write a report on your investigation.

It is critical that this is ALL YOUR OWN WORK. That means that if you are referring to
other peoples work, you acknowledge their intellectual property rights by properly citing
their work. Use the method adopted by Wikipedia.
1.5 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures, elements and compounds;
Remember that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures, elements and compounds.
(You will need to know what the words biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere refer to. It would also be a good idea to give some examples of mixtures,
elements and compounds.)
1.
biosphere: mixture - blood; element - oxygen; compound - haemoglobin
2.
lithosphere: mixture - granite; element - gold; compound - silica (silicon dioxide

SiO2)
3.
hydrosphere: mixture - sea water; element - oxygen; compound - water
4.
atmosphere: mixture - air; element - oxygen; compound - carbon dioxide
1.6 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures
of:
* solids of different sizes;
* solids and liquids;
* solids dissolved in liquids;
* liquids;
* gases;
1.
solids of different sizes - filtration
2.
solids and liquids - decantation/evaporation/centrifuging/filtration
3.
solids dissolved in liquids - evaporation/crystallization/froth flotation;
4.
liquids - distillation;
5.
gases - distillation;
1.7 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth
materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations; (prep)
A useful link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_process
1.8 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and
other scientists;
A useful link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis
1.9 Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations
to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the preliminary course;
This is a skill that you will develop as we proceed (in the same way that your language skills
develop with use).
For the time being, you should at least understand that:
1.
Chemists use a shorthand to represent particles and to describe what is happening

in a chemical reaction.
2.
Atoms of an element are shown as single capital letters (eg. H for hydrogen), or a
capital followed by a lower case (eg. He for helium);
3.
Molecules of an element are shown as for atoms, but with a subscript number (eg.
H2 for a hydrogen molecule and O2 for an oxygen molecule);
4.
Molecules of a compound are represented by the component elements with

subscripts indicating the numbers of atoms of each kind in the molecule (eg. H2O for water
and H2O2 for hydrogen peroxide);
5.
Multiple numbers of atoms or molecules are indicated by large numbers placed in

front of the formula (eg. 2H2O for two molecules of water);
6.
Brackets are sometimes used to indicate more complex molecules eg. Al2(SO4)3.
7.
You MUST be able to remember the symbols for the first 20 elements in the
Periodic Table and all the common elements (including Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Br, Ag, Sn, I,
Ba, Au, Hg, Pb).
2.2 Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found
uncombined.
2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its
existing as an uncombined element;
A good way to do this is to compare two elements - gold and aluminium.

Gold is an unreactive metalliic element. It is so unreactive, that aqua regia (a mixture of
hydrochloric and nitric acids in the ratio of 3:1) will dissolve it. Yet it is quite commonly
found in nature as an element, even though it is a comparatively rare element. In fact, it is
quite rare to find compounds of gold.
So, unreactive found in nature as an element. ( = implies) Conversely, found in
nature as an element unreactive.
Aluminium is a reactive metallic element. It is so reactive, it is not possible to hold a test

tube containing aluminium reacting with water. (The aluminium is first cleaned with sodium
hydroxide solution.)
So, reactive not found in nature as an element; not found in nature as an element
reactive.)
[I will place a video of one of my students holding such a test tube here - or you can go to:
http://au.youtube.com/watch?v=yTMScbIMnfw.]
Aluminium is never found in nature as an element (unless it is discarded human rubbish). Yet
it is one of the most common atoms on Earth. Bauxite is a very common aluminium ore huge reserves are found in northern Australia - one mine alone produces six million tonnes of
bauxite every year.
(Aluminium naturally forms a protective layer of oxide that slows the rate of reaction of the
metal underneath, but the passage of times ensures all aluminium on Earth will finally be
returned to the oxide.)
The reason for the relationship? Reactive elements have had a very long time to react with
something else and so the chances of its being found unreacted is very small.
An exception to the rule is oxygen - it is abundant as an element yet quite reactive. How can
you account for this?
Hegarty.
Due Friday 13/2/09.
2.2 Plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including
malleability, hardness and electrical conductivity and some uses of a range of common
elements to present information about the classification of elements as metals, non-metals or
semi-metals;
When planning to do this exercise, think about:

1.
what data you need to collect;
2.
whether the data are qualitative or quantitative;
3.
how you should present the data;
4.
how many significant figures are in each (quantitative) measurement;
5.
what are the units for the data collected.
Practical report 5. Write a report on your investigation.

It is critical that this is ALL YOUR OWN WORK. That means that if you are referring to
other peoples work, you acknowledge their intellectual property rights by properly citing
their work. Use the method adopted by Wikipedia.
2.3 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical
properties;
Metals are (usually) solids and are always good conductors of heat and electricity, are
malleable (can be beaten into shape) and ductile (can be drawn into wires without
deforming).
Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity and are not usually malleable or
ductile.
Semi-metals (boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium) or

metalloids have properties intermediate between metals and non-metals. They are semiconductors of electricity.
2.4 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties;
Metals have uses that correspond to their properties and abundance. Because alloys of iron
are cheap and malleable, they are used for cars, trucks and trains.
Aluminium alloys are also malleable but lighter than iron and therefore they are used for
aeroplane bodies and increasingly for railway rolling stock and truck and car parts. The main
disadvantage of aluminium is that it is much more expensive than iron because of the large
amount of electricity needed to produce it.
Copper is an excellent conductors of electricity so electrical wiring is generally made out of
copper. Copper is not an abundant element in the Earths crust, so although it is relatively
easy to smelt, it is expensive because it is not as abundant as other metals.
Hegarty.
Due Wednesday 18/2/09.
2.5 Analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of
metals and non-metals;
When carrying out this research, think about whether the data you are collecting are reliable
and accurate and how you know they are reliable and accurate. (The key word is analyse.)
Practical report 6. Submit a 100 - 200 word summary of your analysis.
2.6 Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present
information about the classification of elements as:
1.
metals, non-metals and semi-metals;
2.
solids, liquids and gases at 25 deg. C and normal atmospheric pressure;
By now, you should be automatically thinking about how you know that the data are reliable
and accurate.
Please ask for 2 copies of this table in Word to shade. Identify metals, non-metals and semimetals in one copy, and solids, liquids and gases at room temperature and pressure in a
second copy.
Useful videos on the elements:

http://www.periodicvideos.com
3. Elements in Earth materials are present as compounds because of their interactions at the
atomic level.
3.1 Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting;
The particles in elements, compounds and mixtures are continuously moving and interacting.
The speed of the movement depends on the temperature of the element compound or
mixture. (In fact, the temperature and movement are essentially the same thing.)
Interact could mean collide or it could mean the particles exchange parts, combine parts
or separate parts.
The higher the temperature, the more likely and more violent the collisions and the greater
the chances of the particles changing (atoms re-arranging) during the collision.
3.2 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number;

Recall the structure of atoms from Year 10 - they have a central nucleus composed of
positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, with negatively charged electrons in orbit
around the nucleus.
http://web.buddyproject.org/web017/web017/ae.html
Atomic number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus.

Mass number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
The lightest atom has only one proton and one electron (no neutrons). It therefore has an
atomic number of 1 and a mass number of one. This is the most common isotope of
hydrogen.
The most common isotope of helium has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. It therefore has an atomic
number of 2 and a mass number of 4.
The atom in the diagram above has 7 protons and 5 neutrons. It therefore has an atomic
number of 7 and a mass number of 12.
It is the number of protons in the nucleus that determines the name of the element.
1 proton hydrogen
2 protons helium
7 protons nitrogen
The number of neutrons in the atoms of an element can vary. Most hydrogen atoms have no
neutrons but a few do have one or even two neutrons. So hydrogen atoms usually have a
mass number of 1, but may sometimes have a mass number of 2 or even 3.
Similarly, carbon has an atomic number of 6 (always) and usually a mass number of 12 (6
protons + 6 neutrons) but may sometimes have a mass number of 13 or 14
You may find it useful to use www.scootle.edu.au to revise this. Click on Student PIN
access at the top of the page, use the Student PIN WXYVBV and choose any of the
exercises or all of the exercises.
http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/47.html is also a good source of information and
interactive activities.
Hegarty.
Wednesday 25/2/09
3.3 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms;

The nucleus determines the name of the element. The electrons determine its chemical
behaviour.
The electrons are arranged in different orbitals or shells or energy levels.
The maximum number of electrons allowed in the innermost orbital is 2.
The maximum number of electrons in the second orbital is 8.
The maximum number of electrons in the third orbital is 8, until there are electrons in the
fourth orbital - then the maximum is 18.
So the electron arrangement for the first 20 elements are:
H 1; He 2;
Li 2,1; Be 2,2; B 2,3: C 2,4; N 2,5; O 2,6; F 2,7; Ne 2,8;
Na 2,8,1; Mg 2,8,2; Al 2,8,3; Si 2,8,4; P 2,8,5; S 2,8,6; Cl 2,8,7; Ar 2,8,8;
K 2,8,8,1; Ca 2,8,8,2
You do not need to bother yourself with orbital arrangements beyond calcium, but good
chemistry students are always interested!! So here are a few more ...
Sc 2,8,9,2; Ti 2,8,10,2; V 2,8,11,2; Cr 2,8,13,1; Mn 2,8,13,2; Fe 2,8,14,2; Co
2,8,15,2; Ni 2,8,16,2
Perhaps you can see why these elements are so similar and why they are called transition
elements?
At the end of the transition elements (metals) we are back to the formula of adding electrons
to the outer shell. Ga 2,8,18,3 - is neither a transition element nor a metal.
Exercise 6: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then answer questions 35 - 37 and 40
- 48 in Hegarty. Wednesday 4/3/09
3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining of losing electrons;
A quick reminder: it is the number of protons that identifies the element; it is the electron
arrangement that determines the chemical properties of an atom.
Atoms can gain or lose electrons. (So atoms can do both.) When they do, their element
name does not change but their chemical behaviour does change - dramatically.
Atoms cant gain or lose protons; if they gain or lose electrons, it follows that the atom then
has an electric charge because the number of protons and electron is no longer equal.
Gaining electrons leaves the atom with a negative charge; losing electrons leaves the atom
with a positive charge.
Charged atoms (or groups of atoms) are called ions.
Atoms can only gain or lose atoms if other atoms are losing or gaining them.
Lets look at a famous example of atoms losing and gaining electrons.
Sodium atoms have 11 protons and an electron arrangement of 2,8,1. Chlorine atoms 17
protons and an electron arrangement of 2,8,7.
Sodium atoms can lose an electron to achieve the electron arrangement of neon - 2,8.
Chlorine atoms can gain an electron to achieve the electron arrangement of argon - 2,8,8.
This leaves the sodium atoms with a positive charge, Na+ and the chlorine atoms with a
negative charge Cl-. They are now ions - sodium and chloride ions.
The reaction between sodium metal and chlorine gas (initiated by water).
The reaction between calcium metal and sulfur (initiated by heat).
Hegarty.
Tuesday 17/3/09
3.5 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals;
Inspection of the Periodic Table and the electron arrangement of the elements allows us to
predict the ions that atoms can form.
Elements in Group I can form ions with a single positive charge - like Na+. Elements in
Group II can form ions with a double positive charge - like Ca2+. Elements in Group III can
form ions with a triple positive charge like Al3+.
Elements in Group VII can form ions with a single negative charge - like Cl-. Elements in
Group VI can form ions with a double negative charge - like O2-. Elements in Group V can
form ions with a triple negative charge like N3-.
When ions form this way, a salt is formed. Examples of salts formed this way include
sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium fluoride (MgF2), lithium oxide
(Li2O), potassium nitride (K3N), strontium phosphide (Sr3O2), aluminium arsenide (AlAs),
boron iodide (BI3), indium telluride (In2Te3).
Exercise 8: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then answer questions 51- 59 in
Hegarty.
Wednesday 18/3/09
3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

1.
the formation of ions
2.
the electron sharing in some simple molecules;
Lewis electron dot structures for atoms:
Lewis electron dot structures for ions of elements:
Lewis electron dot structures for ionic compounds:
lithium fluoride:
lithium oxide:
The source of the above diagrams is - http://www.ausetute.com.au/lewisstr.html
3.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions;
In 3.4 above, we saw how atoms can form ions by gaining and/or losing electrons. A
common mistake made by students is to think that molecules of sodium chloride are formed
this way. Sodium chloride molecules do not exist.
These ions arrange themselves in a crystal lattice, each sodium ion surrounded by six chloride
ions and each chloride ion surrounded by six sodium ion - a sodium chloride salt crystal.
http://wikis.lib.ncsu.edu/index.php/Halite-NaCl
Hegarty.
Wednesday 18/3/09
3.8 Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals,
ionic compounds and covalent compounds;
Models are extremely valuable in all science. They help us to understand things it is
impossible to see. Take this exercise very seriously - constructing and using models are
powerful ways to understand, remember and communicate about the nature of matter.
Practical report 8. Construct models of a metal, a salt and a covalent substance. Prepare
drawings of your 3 models.
3.9 Construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions;
In 3.4, you learned how atoms gain or lose electrons to become charged particles called
ions. It is necessary to show how this happens using chemical equations.
Using the famous example:
Na(s) Na+ + eCl2(g) + 2e- 2Cl These two half equations can be added together and balanced:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
Exercise 10: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then write half equations and
balanced overall ionic equations for the following reactions:
1
(a)lithium metal reacting with oxygen;
(b)magnesium reacting with sulfur;
(c)calcium reacting with iodine.
3.10 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other;
Notice that in the above equation the product is written as 2NaCl(s). This seems to suggest
the molecules of sodium chloride are produced. Solid sodium chloride does not exist as
molecules. As noted in 3.7, sodium ions are surrounded by chloride ions and chloride ions
are surrounded by sodium ions as in the diagram.
Other substances do exist as molecules - both elements and compounds. Molecules can be
single atoms or a greater number (>2) atoms joined by a chemical bond. Molecules are
particles which can move independently of each other. Solid metals and solid salts cannot be
molecular.
Examples of substances which exist as molecules: H2(g), H2O(l), H2SO4(l), CH4(g)
HCl(g), C8H18(l), NH3(g), He(g).
[This is not a neat definition (in my opinion) - is cellulose a molecule? or a sodium ion in
solution?]
3.11 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules
with more than one atom;
As suggested in the dot point above, some molecules have a single atom (the noble gases
such as helium) or more than one atom - either elements (such as diatomic elemental gases)
or compounds.
This may not be what you are used to - but the syllabus requires you to call single separate
atoms (like Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe molecules).
3.12 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons;

So far we have studied how ions form and are held together in a crystal lattice. What holds
molecules consisting of more than one atom together?
The ions in an ionic crystal obey the octet rule by gaining or losing electrons. Molecules are
held together by shared electrons so that each atom obeys the octet rule by sharing electrons
with other atoms.
In ammonia, the nitrogen atom has 5 electrons of its own and 3 electrons shared with 3
hydrogen atoms. Each H atom has 2 electrons in its outer shell - one of its own and one
shared with nitrogen.
In the diatomic gas oxygen (O2), each atom has 6 electrons and 2 more shared with the other
atom.
3.13 Construct formulae for compounds formed from

* ions;
* atoms sharing electrons;
It is not possible for you to construct formulae for compounds unless you know the
combining power of the elements.
This is not difficult if you know the electron configuration of the atoms or the position of the
element on the Periodic Table of the Elements. There are only 2 difficulties:
1.
the groups of atoms that form ions - sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-) and phosphate
(PO43-) are the common examples;
2.
the atoms which have variable valency - this is usually identified by their oxidation
state (eg. copper(II), cobalt (III), iron (II)).
1 4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources.
4.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of the
rearrangement of particles;
When you cut a piece of paper the particles are rearranged. Physical or chemical change?
When you open a bottle of soda water, the pH (acidity) changes. Physical or chemical
change?
When you dissolve sodium chloride in water, you start with two substances that do not
conduct electricity and finish with one that does. Physical or chemical change?
I dont know the answers to these questions - I dont expect you to. Just try to visualise
whats happening at the atomic level.
http://www.av8n.com/physics/chemical-physical.htm#sec-intro is an excellent page on the
subject of the folly of trying to distinguish between physical and chemical change.
I am happy if you can visualise the difference between dissolving, reacting and melting at the
particle level. Especially if you can explain the differences in terms of what bonds are being
broken and made in each kind of change.
4.2 Plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a
carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide as the
products of the reaction;
Copper carbonate is suitable. Zinc carbonate can also be decomposed and the gas evolved
can be tested using a drop of limewater suspended on the end of a stirring rod.
This experiment should be written up in the form Aim, Method (including risk
assessment), Results and Conclusion.
(Sodium and calcium carbonates cannot be decomposed using a bunsen burner.)
Practical report 9. Submit your practical report. Include a balanced chemical equation in
your conclusion.
4.3 Summarise the differences between boiling and the electrolysis of water as an example of
the difference between physical and chemical change;
Here we go again - physical versus chemical change!

Boiling and electrolysis are very different processes. Lets just consider what happens at the
atomic level and not worry about whether the processes are physical or chemical changes.
When water boils, the hydrogen bonds between the molecules are broken and individual
molecules are freed as gas molecules.
When water is electrolysed, the bonds between the atoms in within the water molecules are
broken and new bonds form so that hydrogen gas molecules and oxygen gas molecules are
formed.
4.4 Gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

1.
observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of the use of this
reaction;
2.
observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that
water is a compound and identify an application of the use of this reaction;
A good reference for the first is www.chem-toddler.com. The darkening of silver chloride is
a decomposition reaction - silver chloride is decomposing to form dark metallic silver and
chlorine gas. This is a very simple version of the exposure of black-and-white photographic
paper to light.
You should have a thorough understanding of what a Hofmann voltameter does and what it
reveals about water.
(Voltameter is an historical artefact - the original instruments were used to determine
electric current.)
It is important to realise that the relative volumes of hydrogen and oxygen gas produced are a
result of Avogadros hypothesis - Equal volumes of gas, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain the same number of particles.
Practical report 10. Write a brief report on your observations of these two reactions.
Include balanced chemical (preferably ionic) equations.
4.5 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring in everyday life;
Recall junior science Energy is the ability to cause changes/do work/make things happen. (Without energy,
nothing happens.)
Energy can be changed from one form into another.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
When energy is released during a chemical reaction, chemical (bond) energy is changed
into heat (or electric or light) energy. Such reactions are exothermic.
When energy is absorbed during a chemical reaction, heat (or electric or light) energy is
changed into chemical (bond) energy. Such reactions are endothermic.
Hegarty.
Wednesday 25/3/09
4.6 Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of
water tracing the movements of and changes in arrangement of molecules;
Models again. Take this task very seriously. It will help you enormously in your
understanding of chemistry. Try to model changes in intermolecular bonds as well as
changes in intramolecular bonds.
Practical report 11. Write an analysis of the two processes including diagrams showing
what happens at the atomic level.
4.7 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an
indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them.
The word bond means much the same thing in chemistry as in everyday life. The stronger
the bond between two things, the harder they are to break.
If a chemical reaction is exothermic, the total bond energy in the product(s) is less than that in
the reactants.
If a chemical reaction is endothermic, the total bond energy in the product(s) is more than that
in the reactants.
Therefore, energy can be treated like a component of the reaction. For example -
2H2O(l) + electrical energy 2H2(g) + O2(g) (electrolysis - endothermic)

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + heat energy (combustion - exothermic)
We therefore know that the bond energy of hydrogen and oxygen gas is more than the bond
energy in the equivalent amount of liquid water.
3.1 Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years.
1.1 Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including
contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys;
(1) Gold (ca) 6000BC A very malleable metal, so its use has been restricted to jewellery and
other decoration. It has some use in computers because of its resistance to corrosion in
connections.
(2) Copper,(ca) 4200BC Originally only used for decoration but by 3000BC it was
sometimes used for weapons. In modern times it is commonly used for wiring, plumbing
and heating.
(3) Silver,(ca) 4000BC Harder than gold but softer than copper, silver was originally used as
a precious metal like these metals. Modern uses include in dentistry as an amalgam.
(4) Lead, (ca) 3500BC Lead is a very ductile metal and is therefore useful in plumbing and
flashing. It is also poisonous and this has restricted its use in many applications (eg. paint
and petrol) in modern times. Modern uses include in bullets, batteries, ceramic glazes, sound
deadening, and as shielding in nuclear reactors and x-ray rooms.
(5) Tin, (ca) 1750BC Tin has very few uses as a pure metal because it has almost no metallic
properties at all. Its principal uses are as a coating on steel, especially to prevent corrosion
and contamination of food, and as an important component of alloys such as bronze, pewter,
and die-casting alloy.
(6) Iron,smelted, (ca) 1500BC
Useful link (the source of my information)

http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html
1.2 Gather, process and present information from secondary sources on the range of alloys
produced and the reasons for the production and use of alloys.
Practical report 1. Write a report on the range of alloys and their uses.
1.3 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how
these relate to their properties;
Alloys are mixtures of metals (or metals with non-metals, especially carbon). The
proportions of the components can be varied to suit the application.
Solder, for example is an alloy of tin and lead but the proportion of tin can vary from 30% to
60% depending on the best time for the mixture to solidify. Electricians prefer solder to set
quickly but plumbers prefer it to set slowly.
Steel Adding other elements to iron can greatly affect its hardness, magnetic properties,
corrosion resistance and brittleness. Nickel makes a harder steel (iron alloy), silicon
improves its magnetic properties in electromagnets, chromium improves its corrosion
resistance (stainless steel).
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc but it has better malleability than either of these pure
metals. It is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where
low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings, ammunition, and valves; for plumbing
and electrical applications; and extensively in musical instruments such as horns and bells for
its acoustic properties. It is also used in zippers. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass)
Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin as the main additive. In most applications, it is superior
to iron - especially because of its corrosion-resistance.
The following website is a useful and interesting discussion about metallic bonding and the
reasons why alloys have different properties from the metals from which they are made:
http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/ch104-08/metallic.htm
1.4 Analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the
modern era and possible future developments to a consideration of the chemistry of metals
and their extraction.
(Interesting story is that Napoleon the Third invested an enormous amount of State money in
the development of aluminium (initially for use in the military) and after two years effort had
produced a little more than 2 kg of metal. The investment was written off and the
aluminium that was produced was used to produce the first set of aluminium cutlery. Visiting
dignitaries used the silver service, visiting heads of states used the gold service and visiting
monarchs used the aluminium service (such was the value of aluminium at that time).
Practical report 2. Construct a timeline for the Bronze and Iron Ages and the modern era.
Include the approximate times of the discovery of methods of extraction of significant metals,
especially bronze, iron and aluminium.
1.5 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore;
When a metal reacts with other elements (eg. oxygen), energy is released. It follows that
separating the metal from metal compounds requires an energy input. The more reactive an
element, the more energy is released when it reacts - then, the more energy is required to
separate the element again. For example, because mercury is such an unreactive metal, it is
very easy to extract metallic mercury from its oxides. On the other hand, aluminium is a
reactive metal and huge amounts of electricity are required to extract it from its ore (bauxite).
1.6 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200
years ago.
As methods of generating energy to separate metals from their ores, more metals became
available. Initially, energy from burning fuels such as wood, charcoal and coal were used
allowing people to smelt copper, then iron. Later, the development of methods of producing
large, high energy electric currents allowed the electrolysis of molten metal salts. Using
electrolysis, valuable metals such as aluminium and titanium became available as well as
chemically interesting metals such as sodium, potassium and the other alkali earth metals.
3.2 Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their uses.
Go to www.chem-toddler.com to see the reaction of iron with sulfur and aluminium with
bromine. (Spectacular!!)
2.1 Perform a first-hand investigation and/or process information from secondary sources to
determine the metal activity series;
It is difficult to determine the activity series quantitatively - some metals (eg. aluminium)
develop a passivating layer; some metals (eg. gold, silver) are too valuable to test; some (eg.
potassium, cesium, rubidium) are too reactive for a school laboratory.
Some of the reactions will therefore be described from secondary sources.
Undertake and report on a first-hand investigation to test how vigorous the reaction between
as many metals as possible and water, dilute hydrochloric acid and oxygen.
Use the format in [practical write-up] but record the results qualitatively rather than
quantitatively.
Practical report 3. Summarise the information you have gathered and suggest an activity
series of the metals.
2.2 Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen;
The observable changes when a metal reacts with a dilute acid or with water, are that the
metal disappears as a gas appears. The gas appears as small bubbles in the acid on the
surface of the metal. When a metal reacts with oxygen, the metal is replaced by a white or a
brown powder.
2.3 Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on
their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids;
2.4 Construct word and balanced formula equations for the reaction of metals with water,
oxygen, dilute acid;
When metals react with dilute acid, hydrogen gas and a salt are produced:
The general (ionic) equation is:
2M(s) + 2H3O+ (aq)
2M+(aq) + H2 (g)
+ 2H2O (l)
or, alternatively:
M(s) + H3O+(aq)
M+(aq) + H2(g)
+ H2O(l)
With water:
2M(s) + 2H2O (l)
2M+(aq) + H2(g)
+ 2OH-(aq)
With oxygen, the product is a metal oxide:
2M (s) + O2(aq)
2MO(aq)
Practical report 4. Write balanced ionic equations for the reaction of at least two metals
with each of water, oxygen and dilute hydrochloric acid.
2.5 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons;
When metals react with acids, they lose electrons to hydrogen ions so that a metal ion and
hydrogen gas are formed. In fact, hydrogen can be thought of as a metal - hydrogen is then
just another metal competing with other metals for electrons. With reactive metals such as
sodium, the hydrogen wins; in the case of less reactive metals such as copper, the hydrogen
loses and the copper wins!
2.6 Construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when
metals react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids;
M(s)
M+(aq) + e-
2H3O+(aq) + 2e-
2H2O(l)
2M(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
H2(g)
+ 2H2O(aq)
2M+(aq) + H2(g)
1.
NOTES: 1. Hydrogen ions do not exist in isolation - they are surrounded by water
molecules. This is indicated in equations by representing hydrogen ions as hydronium ions H3O+(aq).
1 2. In the above half equations, the number of electrons lost and gained must be the same. If
the metal is univalent, the half equation must be doubled before adding the two halfequations together.
Hegarty.
Due Friday 9/5/09.
2.7 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their
reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals;
When using a metal in a particular application, its chemical reactivity is an important
consideration. Copper is an unreactive metal so it can be used in a wide range of applications
such as for hot water plumbing where other metals would quickly corrode.
Sometimes metals are used because they are reactive. Magnesium or zinc blocks are often
attached to the hulls of ships because they corrode in such a way as to protect the steel hulls.
Zinc coatings on corrugated iron are applied for this purpose. (You will learn more about
sacrificial protection in the HSC course.)
Aluminium and magnesium powders are used in fireworks because they burn readily
producing cooured flames.
2.8 Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the
Periodic Table;
The most reactive metals are those in Group I of the Periodic Table - Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs.
Closely following are those of Group II. There is a small group of unreactive metals at 78
(platinum), 79 (gold) and 80 (mercury). Other relationships are more complicated. For
example copper at 29 is quite unreactive but zinc at 30 is much more reactive.
2.9 Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
metals;
The electrons of an atom are arranged in shells or orbitals. Across the first period (row) of
the Periodic Table from lithium (3) to neon (10), one proton is added to the nucleus and one
electron is added to the outermost shell. Because the nuclear charge is increasing, it becomes
more and more difficult to remove an electron from the outer shell. Also, as the nuclear
charge increases, the outer shell is pulled closer to the nucleus.
The largest atom in this period is therefore lithium, and the smallest is neon! It is also much
easier to remove an electron from lithium than from neon.
The same sequence is found in the next period, from sodium to argon. The largest atom
(sodium) is the lightest and the smallest atom (argon) is the heaviest. The atom which gives
up an electron to most easily is sodium (because it is furthest away from the nucleus).
Perhaps you can see why cesium is the most reactive metal of all?
NOTE: It is not possible to observe the reactions of francium because it is radioactive, has a
very short half-life (22 minutes) and there are no more than a few grams of it in the entire
crust of Earth!
First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the first electron from the outermost
shell of an atom. It is very easy to remove the outermost electron from cesium (375.7 kJmol1) and much harder to remove one from helium (2372.3 kJmol-1).
3.3 As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that patterns in their
physical and chemical properties could be used to organise the elements into a Periodic Table.
3.1 Recall an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure;
Atoms behave like hard, incompressible spheres. On the other hand they are mostly empty
space. The nucleus has 99.9% of the mass of the atom but is only about one millionth its
volume. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, each with about the same mass,
although only the protons have positive charge. Electrons have negligible mass but their
negative electric charge is equal in size to the charge on a proton, but negative.
1.
In this model, the size of the particles is greatly exaggerated.
http://www.users.bigpond.com/sinclair/fission/Fission2.html
3.2 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its origins, the
original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction;
An excellent link: Development of the Periodic Table
* Antoine Lavoisier attempted to classify the 33 elements known in 1787.

* Johann Lobereiner recognised the existence of triads in the 40 elements known in 1829.
The triads were elements like lithium, sodium, potassium and carbon, nitrogen, oxygen. The
atomic weight of the middle element is the average of the atomic weights of the other two.
* John Newlands developed his law of octaves in around 1865, when he recognised that
when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, there was sometimes a
similarity between the properties of every eighth element. Unfortunately, the pattern only
sometimes occurred.
* Dmitri Mendeleev listed elements in order of increasing atomic weight in a table, using
the chemistry of the elements.
Doing this enabled Mendeleyev to correctly predicted the properties of elements not yet
discovered.
3.3 Process information from secondary sources to develop a Periodic table by recognising
patterns and trends in the properties of elements and use available evidence to predict the
characteristics of unknown elements both in groups and across periods;
Practical report 4. Suggest properties of some of the 4 elements you are not familiar with by
using the patterns in the periods and groups.
3.4 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and
1.
electrical conductivity;
2.
ionisation energy;
3.
atomic radius;
4.
melting point;
5.
boiling point;
6.
combining power (valency);
7.
electronegativity;
8.
reactivity;
9.
http://61.19.145.8/student/m5year2006-2/502/group11/index.html
* Electrical conductivity: At the most basic level there are two groups of elements - metals
and non-metals. It is important to be able to remember the dividing line between these two
groups. As can be seen in the above table, the line occurs to the right of the elements 4, 13,
32, 51 and 84. The elements boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As),
antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po) are known as metalloids. Some of the
allotropes of carbon (C), phosphorus (), tin (Sb), selenium (Se) and bismuth (Bi) also display
borderline properties.
Metals have good conductivity, non-metals have poor conductivity, metalloids have
intermediate conductivity.
1.
* Ionisation energy: First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one
electron from the neutral atom. This depends on the size of the atom - the smaller the atom,
the harder it is to remove one electron. Size decreases across a period. (NOT A
MISPRINT.) Size increases down a group. It follows that the element with the highest first
ionisation energy is helium and the element with the lowest is cesium (or francium if you
could find some).
2.
* atomic radius: As was pointed out (above) size decreases across a group. This is
not what you would first expect - atomic mass is increasing yet atomic radius is decreasing.
This is especially important when you remember that the last element or two or three are
gases with very low density but high density atoms! (If you dont see the contradiction, read
it again.) So the atom with the greatest radius in a period is the FIRST one, and the atom
with the smallest radius is the LAST (heaviest) one. As might be expected, atomic radius
increases down a group. So the smallest atom is helium and the largest is cesium.
(Franciums atomic radius has not been measured.)
3.
* melting point:
4.
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/periodic/faq/melting-point-trend.shtml
From this we can say - metals have high melting points, non-metals have low boiling points.
Thats because the stronger the forces between the atoms of an element, the higher the
melting point.
1.
* boiling point: In general the trends in boiling point are the same as those for
melting point.
2.
* combing power (valency): Combing power matches the number of electrons in the
outermost shell of the neutral atom. Group I - valency +1; Group II - valency +2; Group III
- valency 3+; Group IV - valency 4+ or 4-; Group V - valency 3-; Group VI - valency 2-;
Group VII - valency 1-; Group VIII - valency 0.
* electronegativity: Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a

compound. In general, the trend in electronegativity in the periodic table closely mirrors the
trends in first ionisation energy. Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases
down a group.
* reactivity: Atoms with close to a full outer shell (Group 1 and Group VII) are the most
reactive. Atoms with a full outer shell are very unreactive (or non-reactive). Group II and
Group VI atoms are fairly reactive and Groups III to V range from unreactive to moderately
reactive. Cesium is large, with one weakly held outer electron - it is therefore the most
reactive metal. Fluorine is small with seven outer shell electrons - it is therefore the most
reactive non-metal. One would expect the most violent reaction to occur between the
elements cesium and fluorine. (Although, not the most violent of all chemical reactions.)
3.4 For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of
each reactant.
4.1 Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadro's
number);
Chemistry is a very useful subject - it enables us to make new substances. But if an industrial
process is to make the new substance, the quantities needed must be carefully measured.
How can you do that?
Lets say you want to make 10 kg of sodium metal from sodium chloride. How much sodium
chloride would you need and what volume of chlorine gas would be produced?
A sodium atom has a mass of 3.8206 x 10-23g. A chlorine molecule has a mass of 1.1974 x
10-22g. The density of chlorine gas is 3.21 g/L at 1atm and 0oC. The arithmetic involved is
quite complex, so it needs to be simplified. The first step is to forget about the absolute mass
of individual atoms and molecules and to consider their RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES.
If a hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron and helium has two protons and two
electrons, you might expect the atomic weight of helium to be exactly twice the atomic
weight of hydrogen. It isnt.
If you know that helium also has two neutrons and that the electron is essentially massless,
you might expect the atomic weight of helium to be 4 times that of hydrogen. It isnt.
If all the atoms of any one element had the same number of neutrons, the table of atomic
masses would (or could) be whole numbers. They dont so they arent.
A typical carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons - its called carbon-12. It is the standard
against which all atomic weights are compared. A few carbon atoms have more than or less
than 6 neutrons. The average atomic weight of carbon is 12.01078.
On this scale, some relative atomic masses (rounded off to the nearest 0.5g) are: hydrogen 1,
helium 4, carbon 12, nitrogen 14, oxygen 16, sodium 23, chlorine 35.5. So these are the
masses of some atoms (in relative atomic mass units).
Since carbon atoms are 12 times as heavy as hydrogen atoms, if you had 1g of hydrogen and
12g of carbon, you would have equal numbers of atoms. The number of atoms you would
have is 6.02 x 1023.
If you had 12.01078 grams of ordinary carbon (a small handful), you would have one mole of
it.
The mole is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.
This number of atoms is the number of atoms in one mole of atoms of ANY element. The
number is 6.02 x 1023.
This number is the number of anythings in a mole of anythings in the same way that a dozen
is 12 anythings.
A mole of carbon-12 contains 6.02 x 1023 carbon-12 atoms.
A mole of ordinary carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 ordinary carbon-12 atoms.
A mole of hydrogen gas contains 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen gas molecules.
A mole of elephants contains 6.02 x 1023 elephants (and fills the visible Universe).
A mole of methane contains 6.02 x 1023 methane molecules.
A mole of helium contains 6.02 x 1023 helium atoms.
A mole of eggs contains 6.02 x 1023 eggs.
A dozen eggs contain 12 eggs.
A dozen elephants contains 12 elephants.
A dozen carbon-12 atoms contains 12 carbon-12 atoms.
A dozen hydrogen molecules contains 12 hydrogen molecules.
A dozen hydrogen molecules contains 24 hydrogen atoms.
A mole of hydrogen molecules contains 6.02 x 1023 hydrogen molecules.
SUMMARY:
1 mole of any thing is 6.02 x 1023 things.
1 mole of a pure substance is the atomic or molecular weight of that substance in grams.
SAVE TIME. Go back and read every line above until you understand it. And remember
Confucius: Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.
When you thoroughly understand the above dot point, you are on your way to understanding
stoichiometry - the calculation of measurable relationships between the reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.
4.2 Process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations in
terms of mole ratios;
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
When you wrote this equation earlier in the course, you probably interpreted it as 2 atoms of
sodium reacts with 1 molecule of chlorine to produce two molecules of sodium chloride.
Your new interpretation of the equation should be: 2 moles of sodium react with 1 mole of
chlorine to produce two moles of sodium chloride.
In other words 46g of sodium reacts with 71g of chlorine to produce 117g of sodium
chloride.
Exercise 5: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then answer questions 36 - 45.
4.3 Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen;
Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form a white powder - magnesium oxide. If the
mass of oxygen reacting with a known mass of magnesium can be determined, the ratio of the
masses of magnesium to oxygen can be determined. From this, the formula of magnesium
oxide can be determined.
Exercise 6: Read the relevant parts of your textbooks then answer questions 46 - 51.
1.
4.4 Perform a first-hand investigation to measure the mass ratios of metal to non-metal(s) in a
common compound and determine its empirical formula;
The usual metal used in such investigations is magnesium. The difficulty lies in allowing
enough oxygen into the reaction vessel without losing any of the oxide produced.
The reaction must be in a porcelain crucible with lid which has been carefully weighed.
Submit a report on your investigation, including a risk assessment.
Practical report 6. Submit a full report on this investigation, including a (pre-written) risk
assessment, results table and conclusion.
4.5 Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and
apply this to the mole concept;
(Joseph) Gay-Lussacs Law of Combining Volumes: The ratio between the combining
volumes of gases and their reaction product, if gaseous, can be expressed in small whole
numbers.
Hydrogen gas reacts with chlorine gas to produce hydrogen chloride gas according to the
following equation:
H2(g) + Cl2(g)
2HCl(aq)
Gay-Lussacs Law predicts that there will be a simple relationship between the volume of the
reacting gases and the volume of the product gas. It turns out that 1 litre of hydrogen gas
reacts with 1 litre of chlorine gas to make 2 litres of hydrogen chloride gas (if all the volumes
are measured at the same temperature and pressure).
4.6 Recount Avogadro's law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept;
Gay-Lussacs Law led (Amadeo) Avogadro to formulate Avogaros Law:
Equal volumes of gas, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain the
same number of particles.
If you want to understand chemistry, you must remember, reflect on and understand this
better than you can remember your middle name.
1 mole (6.02 x 1023 particles) of any gas, has a volume of 22.71 litres at 100kPa pressure and
273.15K.
1 mole (6.02 x 1023 particles) of any gas, has a volume of 24.79 litres at 100kPa pressure and
298.15K.
You dont have to remember this but you DO have to understand its significance.
4.7 Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae;

When we write NaCl it is important to remember that there is no such thing as a molecule
of sodium chloride. NaCl tells us that the ratio of sodium to chlorine atoms in sodium
chloride is 1:1. NaCl is an empirical formula.
CH4 is a molecular formula - molecules of CH4 exist and are composed of one atom of
carbon bonded to 4 atoms of hydrogen. CH4 is also an empirical formula because it tells us
the ration of hydrogen to chlorine atoms in CH4.
Ethylene (=ethene) has the molecular formula C2H4 - a molecule of ethylene is composed of
two atoms of carbon bonded to 4 atoms of hydrogen. Ethylene has the empirical formula
CH2.
3.5 The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth
of use in the community.
5.1 Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits
of natural resources.
According to Wikipedia:
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid formed through geological processes that has a
characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical
properties.
According to Wikipedia:
An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals such as gemstones and metals that can be
extracted through mining and refined for use.
It follows that ores are minerals with an economic value.
5.2 Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual
abundances and relative costs of production;
The commercial price of a metal is determined by three factors:
1.
abundance of ores containing the metal;
2.
cost of production of the metal from its ore;
3.
demand for the metal.
Gold is the most expensive of the metals commonly used. Its high price is a result of its low
abundance. It is relatively easy to produce but the demand is high. As the demand for the
metal has increased, some mines that were formerly abandoned have been reopened.
Hillgrove is such an example. It was formerly operated to produce antimony but as the price
of gold has increased the mine has been producing significant quantities of gold, antimony
and tungsten.
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in Earths crust. The cost of production of aluminium
is high because the extraction process is difficult and involves the use of large amounts of
electrical energy.
5.3 Discuss the importance of predicting yield in the identification, mining and extraction of
commercial ore deposits;
Lets imagine youve had a tip about the share market! A friend has told you that a mining
company has found an enormous gold deposit. The minerals in the deposit contain 10g/T
gold. Would you invest your life savings in the company and become a billionaire or are
would you be throwing your money away?
Depends, doesnt it? Is the mine at Broken Hill which has well developed infrastructure or is
it in a remote valley in New Guinea? What is the cost of extracting this gold from the rocks
containing it? Whats going to happen to the price of gold in the future?
5.4 Explain why ores are non-renewable resources;

When minerals are dug up, they do not grow back. Living things are the only renewable
resources.
5.5 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium;

According to Wikipedia, the steps are
1. Cans are first separated from waste, using an eddy current separator. (I dont think this
happens in Australia, except that in some larger centres the recycling is sorted this way.)
2. Cans are shredded into small, uniform pieces to reduce volume and simplify automated
handling by machines.
3. Pieces are mechanically and/or chemically cleaned to reduce contamination impurities.
4. Pieces are compressed into blocks to minimize oxidation losses when melted. (The surface
of aluminium readily oxidizes back into aluminium oxide when exposed to oxygen.)
5. Blocks are loaded into the furnace and heated to 750 C 100 C to produce molten
aluminium.
6. Dross is removed and the dissolved hydrogen is degassed. (Molten aluminium readily
disassociates hydrogen from water vapor and hydrocarbon contaminants.) This is typically
done with chlorine and nitrogen gas. Hexachloroethane tablets are normally used as the
source for chlorine. Ammonium perchlorate can also be used, as it decomposes mainly into
chlorine, nitrogen, and oxygen when heated.
1 7.Samples are taken for spectroscopic analysis. Depending on the final product desired, high
purity aluminium, copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, and/or magnesium is added to alter the
molten composition to the proper alloy specification.
1 8.The furnace is tapped, the molten aluminium poured out, and the process is repeated again
for the next batch. Depending on the end product it may be cast into ingots, billets, or rods,
formed into large slabs for rolling, atomized into powder, sent to an extruder, or transported
in its molten state to manufacturing facilities for further processing.
5.6 Justify the increased use of recycling of metals in our society and across the world;
Metals are non-renewable resources. As reserves in the Earths crust become harder to find
and extract, the costs rise and we may run out of these metals if they are not recycled and
reused.
Recycling is often more energy efficient and less polluting. Recycling aluminium takes about
10% of the energy needed to extract it from bauxite and produces about 5% as much carbon
dioxide.
5.7 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved
in the extraction of copper from one of its ores;
For a more complete description, see the Wikipedia article from which the following is
condensed.
This description is of the process used to extract copper from high grade chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2).
1 1. Physical separation from rock. The rock bearing the chalcopyrite is crushed and ground
in a ball mill. The ore is then mixed in water with chemicals which make the copper sulfide
minerals hydrophobic. Air is forced through the slurry and the hydrophobic sulfide particles
are carried to the surface where they are skimmed off. This process is called froth flotation
and the product is called copper concentrate.
1 2. Smelting. Silica (SiO2) and limestone (CaCO3) are mixed with the concentrate and
smelted at 1200oC in an exothermic reaction to form a liquid called copper matte which can
be tapped and a slag which is floated off the matte.
1 3. Conversion to blister. The matte produced by the smelter is around 70% copper, primarily
as copper sulfide mixed with iron sulfide. The sulfur is removed by blowing air through
molten matte. This removes the sulfur as sulfur dioxide.
2CuS(s) + 3O2(g) 2CuO(s) + 2SO2(g)
CuS(s) + 2CuO(s) 3Cu(s) + SO2(g)

4 In a parallel reaction, the iron sulfide is converted to iron silicates.
5 The product is known as blister copper because of the bubbles on its surface caused by the
bubbles of air forced through it when molten.
1 4.Reduction. Natural gas is forced through molten blister copper to remove remaining
oxygen. This produces copper which is about 99% pure.
1 5.Electrorefining. The copper is refined by electrolysis. Very pure copper cathodes are used,
with the impure copper formed the anodes. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of 3% 4% copper sulfate and 10% to 16% sulfuric acid. A current at a potential of only 0.2 to 0.4
volts is required. The copper is now 99.99% pure.
2
4.1. Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas
1.1 Define the terms solute, solvent and solution;

According to Purdue University:
1.
Solute The substance that dissolves to form a solution
2.
Solvent The substance in which a solute dissolves
3.
Solution A mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent
4.
5.
The following rules can be used to decide which component of a solution is the solute
and which is the solvent:
6.
* There are three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. Any reagent that
undergoes a change in state when it forms a solution is the solute.
7.
* If neither reagent changes state, the reagent present in the smallest amount is the
solute.
1.
Examples of Solutions:
2.
1.2 Identify the importance of water as a solvent;

Water is also a good solvent due to its polarity. Substances that will mix well and dissolve in
water (e.g. salts) are known as "hydrophilic" (water-loving) substances, while those that do
not mix well with water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as "hydrophobic" (water-fearing)
substances. The ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the
substance can match or better the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate
between other water molecules. If a substance has properties that do not allow it to overcome
these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules are "pushed out" from the water, and do not
dissolve. Contrary to the common misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not
"repel", and the hydration of a hydrophobic surface is energetically, but not entropically,
favorable.
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water molecules
(Hydration). The relatively small size of water molecules typically allows many water
molecules to surround one molecule of solute. The partially negative dipole ends of the water
are attracted to positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive
dipole ends.
In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble
in water, and nonpolar substances such as fats and oils are not. Nonpolar molecules stay
together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to
hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with nonpolar
molecules.
An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into Na+
cations and Cl- anions, each being surrounded by water molecules. The ions are then easily
transported away from their crystalline lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute
is table sugar. The water dipoles make hydrogen bonds with the polar regions of the sugar
molecule (OH groups) and allow it to be carried away into solution.
[Wikipedia]
1.3 Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere;
1.4 Perform an investigation involving calculations of the density of water as a liquid and a
solid using - density = mass/volume;
Determining the density of water is fairly straightforward - measure the mass of a given
volume by weighing it in a tared (weighed) measuring cylinder.
The density of ice can be more problematic. Measuring volume is the problem. You could
drop an ice cube into water and measure the change in volume of the water, but ice floats its not all in the water.
A possibility that has occurred to me is to immerse an ice cube in olive oil on a balance. The
change in the volume of liquid and the change in mass when the ice is added can both be
measured.
Heres something else to consider - What does a measuring cylinder measure? Does it
measure the volume of liquid it contains or the volume of liquid it delivers? There is a
difference!
The textbook values for the density of liquid and solid water are 1024 kgm-3 and 917 kgm-3
respectively.
Practical report 1. Submit a report on your investigation.
1.5 Analyse information by using models to account for the differing densities of ice and
liquid water;
The following Java applet helps you to understand the open crystal structure of ice: Java
applet
1.6 Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as:
1.
- a constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism;
2.
- a habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats;
3.
- an agent of weathering of rocks both as a liquid and solid;
4.
- a natural resource for humans and other organisms;
Cells. Only plants can make food - in a process called photosynthesis. The raw materials
for photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide. Water is also the major component of all
cells, being the solvent for the chemical reactions occurring in them.
Environment. Water has specific heat capacity which is higher than almost any other
substance. In simple language this means that water is harder to warm up than other
substances. As a result, the temperature of bodies of water such as oceans fluctuates much
less than the temperature of terrestrial habitats. The movement of air between ocean areas
and dry land evens out the air temperature.
Weathering. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks in situ. (It should be distinguished from
erosion which is the wearing away of rock. Water causes erosion of rocks by causing
particles carried by it to grind away rock. This could be rocks carried by moving ice or sand
carried by fast flowing water.) Water causes weathering of rocks in two main ways - frost
wedging and hydraulic action. Frost wedging is the freezing and expansion of water within
rocks. Hydraulic action is the explosive release of air caused by waves crashing against rocks
containing trapped air.
A natural resource. Since water is such a major component of the bodies of living things, it
is a most important natural resource for them - they have to drink water. It is essential for
most industrial processes and contributes significantly to our energy reserves as
hydroelectricity. Many (if not most) organisms live in water and many that do not, rely on
aquatic organisms for food.
4.2 The wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence of its molecular
structure and hydrogen bonding.
2.1 Construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide to
identify the distribution of electrons;
The electrons are drawn as dots or crosses to signify the atom that they came from.
Notice that all the hydrogen atoms have two electrons - one from the hydrogen atom and one
from the other atoms. Also, each non-hydrogen atom is surrounded by 8 electrons - their own
plus contributions from the hydrogen atoms. All the atoms have a stable outer shell of 8 (or
2 in the case of H) electrons.
Notice also the similarity between water and hydrogen sulfide..... which leads to the
question: Why is water a liquid while hydrogen sulfide is a gas at room temperature?
2.2 Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences
in their molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points;
Shapes: water - bent; ammonia - triangular pyramid; hydrogen sulfide - bent
M.P:
B.P.
water 0oC;
ammonia -77.7oC;
water 100oC; ammonia -33.34oC;
hydrogen sulfide -85.5oC

hydrogen sulfide -60.7oC.
Melting and boiling points of molecules indicate the strength of the forces between them.
Since water has a significantly higher melting and boiling points, the strengths of the bonds
between molecules must be stronger between water molecules than between ammonia
molecules or hydrogen sulfide molecules.
(Note that the tetrahedral angle - as in methane, is 109.5oC. The angle formed by a water
molecule is 104.5o.)
2.3 Describe hydrogen bonding;

When two atoms form a covalent bond, sharing electrons, they generally do not share
equally. (That is, unless the two atoms are the same.) One atom will be slightly more
negatively charged than the other. The difference between the electronegativities of hydrogen
compared to oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine or fluorine, the difference is significant. That makes
a bond between hydrogen and oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine or
hydrogen and fluorine polar. If the distribution of the hydrogen atoms around the molecule is
symmetrical, the molecule is not polar. If the molecule is not symmetrical (as in the case of
water, ammonia and hydrogen chloride) then the molecule itself is polar. Now, one part of
the molecule is attracted to another part of another molecule. In the case of water, the
hydrogen atoms of one water molecule are attracted to the oxygen atoms of other molecules the water molecules are bonded to each other by a hydrogen bond.
You may wonder why there is no hydrogen bonding in hydrogen sulfide. The difference in
electronegativities of hydrogen and sulfur is much less than between hydrogen and oxygen
(or the other atoms mentioned above - N, Cl and F). Water is a liquid at room temperature
because of hydrogen bonding.
Just out of interest, here are the electronegativities of the elements. Check out the differences
between hydrogen and oxygen (1.14), hydrogen and nitrogen (0.84), hydrogen and sulfur
(0.38). Perhaps you are starting to wonder - whats the difference between an ionic bond and
a covalent bond?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity
2.4 Identify water as a polar molecule;

The real difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond is reflected in the properties
of the substance. Ionic bonds produce substances which melt well above room temperature,
conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water. Covalent bonds produce substance
which boil well below room temperature (except water) and which do not conduct
electricity. Molecules with atoms of different elements, which are not symmetrical are polar
(because the covalent bonds are polar). Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms,
covalently bonded, and non-symmetrical, so it is polar.
2.5 Process information from secondary sources to graph and compare the boiling and
melting points of water with other similar sized molecules;
Straightforward - should take you a few minutes. Think carefully about the kind of graph
you should use. Is this a case of continuous data?
Practical report 3. Submit graph(s).
2.6 Identify data and process information from secondary sources to model the structure of
the water molecule and effects of forces between water molecules
Making models to explain phenomena is a very important part of science. How else can you
understand something you cant see.
Check out Notes on 8.4.2 in the Domain of Skills.
Practical report 4. Submit a report on your investigation in the form of photographs of your
models.
2.7 Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces;
Polar means having poles. Pole has many meanings but in this context it means
electrically positive and negative parts. A polar molecule has a slightly positive (+) and
slightly negative (-) parts. (Slightly compared to the charge on one electron.)
Dipole means having two different poles. Two polar molecules attract each other - there is
a dipole-dipole force between them. (Magnets have a magnetic dipole, so two magnets
attract each other. The attraction is magnetic rather than electric.)
2.8 Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces :
1.
-surface tension;
2.
-viscosity;
3.
-melting and boiling points;
1. Surface tension. Why does a tap drip (rather than slowly flow)? Why does water bead
on the paint of a clean car? How can the insects called water striders walk on water?
Images from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension
Water molecules adhere to each other much like greasy ball bearings stick to each other. As
the greasy ball bearing are harder to extract from than clean ones, so water molecules stick to
each other. In the case of the molecules, the grease is the hydrogen bonds.
1 2. Viscosity.
2 Viscosity is the ability of a substance to resist flow. It is a measure of the ease with which
molecules move past one another.
3 Viscosity depends on the attractive force between the molecules.
4 Viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature - the increasing kinetic energy
overcomes the attractive forces and molecules can more easily move past each other.
Viscosity effects are commonly observed in honey. In hot weather, honey quickly and easily
flows off a knife but in cold weather it only slowly flows off the knife. In very cold weather
it may be difficult to spread the honey. The honeys viscosity depends on its temperature.
3. Melting and boiling points. The relatively high melting and boiling points of water
(compared to other molecular substances such as methane and ammonia) arise because of the
strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds that are characteristic of water.
(This may sound like a circular argument: Water has a high b.p. because of its hydrogen
bonds which we know about because water has a high b.p.. In fact, we can explain the
strength of the hydrogen bond by comparing the electronegativities of hydrogen and oxygen.)
1.
4.4 The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their solubility, and
precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together
4.1 Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates, using solubility
data;
When a soluble salt dissolves in water, it dissociates into ions. If the ions that would form an
insoluble salt are present, they do (form an insoluble salt).
For example, sodium iodide dissolves in water (to form sodium and iodide ions). Similarly,
lead nitrate dissolves. If solutions of lead nitrate and sodium iodide are mixed, a yellow
precipitate immediately forms - its insoluble lead iodide. Remaining dissolved are sodium
and nitrate ions.
http://www.dkimages.com/discover/DKIMAGES/Discover/Home/Science/Physicsand-Chemistry/Experiments/General/General-171.html4.2
It follows that if you know the solubility of salts you can predict whether or not a
precipitation reaction will occur.
4.2 Construct ionic equations to represent the dissolution and precipitation of ionic
compounds in water;
The ionic equation representing the above precipitation reaction is:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI 2(s)

The other ions (sodium and nitrate ions) are not included in the equation because they are not
involved in the reaction - they are spectator ions.
4.3 Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation occur;
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/292705/893/Representation-of-an-ionicsolid-dissolving-in-water
A diagram modelling dissolution of an ionic solid (like sodium nitrate). Precipitation is
essentially the reverse of the processes in dissolution.
For dissolution to occur:

1 (a)hydrogen bonds between some water molecules must be broken;
1 (b)ionic bonds between ions in the solid must be broken;

1 (c)bonds between water molecules and ions must form (as in the above diagram).
If the energy required for steps i and ii is less than that released in step iii, then dissolution
will occur.
For precipitation to occur:
1 (a)bonds between water molecules and ions must be broken;
1 (b)ionic bonds between ions must form;
1 (c)hydrogen bonds between the water molecules previously surrounding the ions must form.
If the energy required for steps i and ii is less than that released in step iii, then precipitation
will occur.
4.4 Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution;

All atoms, molecules and ions are in constant motion. In simple terms, particles can have 3
kind of motion: change in position; rotation; vibration. As a result, ions are constantly
changing position relative to each other and distributing themselves evenly throughout the
solution.
4.5 Present information in balanced chemical equations and identify the appropriate phase
descriptors (s), (l), (g) and (aq) for all chemical species;
The phase (solid, liquid, gas, aqueous ion) for each species represented in a chemical
equation is indicated by a subscript (s), (l), (g) or (aq).
4.6 Perform a first-hand investigation, using micro-techniques, to compare the solubility of

appropriate salts in solution through precipitation reactions;
4.7 Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution
using c = n/V;
A solution may be dilute, concentrated or saturated. These are concentrations expressed
qualitatively. Concentrations are expressed quantitatively as molarity. A 1.0 molar solution
has a molarity of 1.0 mol L-1. c = n/V, where c is concentration, n is number of moles of
solute and V is the volume of the solution in litres. Hence, n = c x V and V = n/c.
4.8 Carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given
masses of solute and volumes of solution;
4.9 Explain why different measurements of concentration are important;

Other quantitative measure are commonly used. They include:
1.
grams per litre (gL-1);
2.
percentage composition by mass;
3.
parts per million (ppm).
Which measure is used can depend on the order of magnitude of the concentration (ppm for
very small concentrations) or on whether it is more convenient to measure volume or mass.
Sometimes which measure is used depends on tradition. Titration traditionally uses mol L-1
whereas industry generally uses % composition.
1.
Soluble more than 0.1 mol L-1;
2.
Slightly soluble between 0.001 and 0.1 mol L-1;
3.
Insoluble less than 0.001 mol L-1.

4.5 Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids
5.1 Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance;

Many students have difficulty distinguishing between heat and temperature. (This difficulty
probably arises because to heat in everyday language means to raise the temperature
of.) One way to understand the difference is to compare a teaspoon of boiling water with a
bucketful of boiling water. Both are at 100oC, but if poured onto a person, the bucketful
would cause a much greater injury because it has much more heat energy.
For many years many scientists believed that heat is a fluid (called caloric). It has been
shown that heat is a measure of the vibration of particles, but it may be useful to think of heat
as behaving like a fluid. A bucket of boiling water contains more caloric than a teaspoon of
boiling water.
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of material.
Quantitatively, specific heat capacity (C) is measured in J g-1 K -1 or kJ kg -1 K -1. (C =
-H/mT)
Specific heat capacity is a very useful quantity for chemists. If we know it value for a
particular substance (especially water) it can allow us to find out how much energy is
released in chemical reaction by using that energy to raise the temperature of a known
material (usually water).
5.2 Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents;
Water has one of the highest specific heat capacities of all known substances. Ammonia is the
only common liquid with a higher value.
Cwater = 4.1813 kJ kg -1 K -1.
Cammonia = 4.7000 kJ kg -1 K -1.
Cethanol = 1.41 kJ kg -1 K -1.
Cchloroform = 0.55 kJ kg -1 K -1.
5.3 Explain and use the equation H = -mCT;

Specific heat capacity (C) is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a given mass of material. Water has a specific heat capacity of 4.1813 kJ kg
-1 K -1. It follows that it takes 4.1813 kJ of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water by 1 K. If there is more heat, the temperature rise will be greater, or a larger mass can
be heated. If C is larger, then a proportionally larger amount of heat will be required.
1.
Lets say we use a bunsen burner fuelled by methane gas to raise the temperature of 200 mL
of water by 40oC. How much heat was released in the flame (assuming the unlikely
outcome of the heat raising the temperature of the water only)? The specific heat capacity of
water is 4.18 kJ kg -1 K -1.
H = -mCT
= 0.20 x 4.18 x 40 (the mass of 200 mL of water is 200g or 0.2 kg)
= 33.44 kJ
5.4 Explain how water's ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in chemical
reactions;
The problem answered in the above dot point illustrates how this is done.
5.5 Choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the change in
temperature
when substances dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution;
5.6 Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples;
Sometimes, when a substance dissolves in water the temperature increases. In this case, we
say that the dissolution is exothermic.
DANGER! Many students take this to mean heat is given out, implying that heat energy
is created. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. In an exothermic reaction, chemical
energy is converted to heat energy.
In an exothermic reaction, the total chemical energy of the substances decreases, so the
enthalpy (chemical energy) change is negative.
Examples of dissolutions that are exothermic include sodium hydroxide (Hsol = - 44.45 kJ
mol -1), potassium hydroxide (Hsol = - 13.77 kJ mol -1), hydrochloric acid (Hsol = -
17.89 kJ mol -1), sulfuric acid, nitric acid and acetic acid (Hsol = - 0.36 kJ mol -1) acid and
anhydrous copper sulfate.
5.7 Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and give examples;
Sometimes, when a substance dissolves in water the temperature decreases. In this case, we
say that the dissolution is endothermic.
DANGER! Those same student from the previous warning now say endothermic reactions
absorb heat so the solution gets hot! In fact, endothermic dissolutions are cold. Heat energy
is taken from the surroundings and turned into chemical energy.
In an endothermic reaction, the total chemical energy of the substances increases, so the
enthalpy (chemical energy) change is positive.
Examples of dissolutions that are endothermic include ammonium nitrate (Hsol = + 6.14 kJ
mol -1), potassium chlorate (Hsol = + 9.89 kJ mol -1) and sodium chloride (Hsol = + 3.89
kJ mol -1).
Examples of dissolutions that are exothermic include hydrochloric acid (Hsol = - 17.89 kJ
mol -1), ammonia (Hsol = - 7.29 kJ mol -1) and potassium hydroxide (Hsol = - 17.10 kJ
mol -1).
5.8 Process and present information from secondary sources to assess the limitations of
calorimetry
experiments and design modifications to equipment used;
In dot point 5.3 above, a problem referred to assuming the unlikely outcome of the heat
raising the temperature of the water only. Of course, a large amount of heat raises the
temperature of the glass, other equipment and the air. The water, having been heated also
loses heat to the surroundings. We can reduce the heat loss using insulation, by limiting the
temperature rise of the water (and hence its loss to the air). The best way to do this is to use a
bomb calorimeter:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/72493/4705/Cross-section-of-a-typicalbomb-calorimeter
The pressures inside the vessel can be very large - hence bomb calorimeter.
5.9 Explain why water's ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life on
Earth
generally;
Water has an unusually high specific heat capacity (4.1813 kJ kg -1 K -1) - much larger than
air (about 1.0 kJ kg -1 K -1). It follows that the daily fluctuation in the temperature of air is
much great than that of water. Aquatic, especially marine organisms are adapted to live in an
environment with a relatively small temperature range compared to those that are terrestrial.
The existence of oceans also moderates the temperature fluctuation of the air, especially in
coastal areas. People living in Sydney are surprised by the frosts and high temperatures on
the same day in places like Broken Hill and Moree.
5.10 Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a
body of water is affected by thermal pollution.
Source: Wikipedia
Many industrial processes rely on cooling water, especially electric power production. The
result is that they return the water to the environment at a higher temperature than they
receive it. The temperature of the source water is then polluted by heat.
Warm water has less dissolved oxygen than cold water, so organisms may be killed by
oxygen-depleted hot water.
Warm water also increases metabolic rate in cold-blooded organisms, requiring them to
consume more food. The number of organisms that can be supported then declines because
of reduced food supply.
Large temperature increases may kill organisms directly by denaturing their proteins.
Sometimes the release of cold water from large reservoirs can kill organisms.
5.1 Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of energy.
1.1 Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy and recall the raw
materials for this process.
Plants (nearly all plants) make their own food from two inorganic compounds - water and
carbon dioxide. The source the water from the soil and the carbon dioxide from the air. The
energy for the process is obtained from sunlight. The process is endothermic - that is, the
Suns energy is converted into the chemical energy in the food - glucose initially.
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g)
1.2 Outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from carbon dioxide as
the important step in the stabilisation of the Sun's energy in a form that can be used by
animals as well as plants.
Photosynthesis is essential for almost all living things on Earth. (A few organisms rely on a
similar process that does not depend on solar energy. This process is chemosynthesis.)
Living things need energy for life processes - growth, movement, assimilation of food,
reproduction. The only way they can obtain this energy is by consuming the output of
photosynthesis - glucose and other energy rich compounds derived from glucose. Animals
(and non-photosynthetic parts of plants) are not able to convert solar energy into other forms
of useable energy - they must obtain their energy as chemical energy in food.
1.3 Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal, petroleum and natural
gas.
Humans use vast amounts of fossil fuel for their energy needs - coal and natural gas for
electricity generation, petroleum and natural gas for transport. The energy in coal, petroleum
and natural gas is derived from plants that have fossilised, retaining the energy they trapped
using photosynthesis.
5.2 There is a wide variety of carbon compounds.
2.1 Identify the position of carbon the the Periodic Table and describe its electron
configuration.
Carbon has the atomic number 6 and the electron configuration 2,4. It is the fourth element
in group 2 and is a semi-metal or a metalloid - its properties are intermediate between those
of a metal and a non-metal.
2.2 Describe the structure of diamond and graphite allotropes and account for their physical
properties in terms of bonding.
Some materials may exist in different crystal forms - this is called polymorphism. If the
polymorphs are elemental solids, they are called allotropes. Diamond, graphite and
fullerenes are polymorphs or allotropes of carbon. The structures of diamond and graphite
are shown in the above graphic.
* Diamond is the hardest mineral known to man, Graphite is one of the softest.
* Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
* Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, Graphite is a very good lubricant.
* Diamond is usually transparent, Graphite is opaque.
* Diamond crystallizes in the Isometric system and graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal
system.
Somewhat of a surprise is that at surface temperatures and pressures, graphite is the stable
form of carbon. In fact, all diamonds at or near the surface of the Earth are currently
undergoing a transformation into graphite. This reaction, fortunately, is extremely slow.
All of the differences between graphite and diamond are the result of the difference in their
respective structures. Graphite has a sheet like structure where the atoms all lie in a plane and
are only weakly bonded to the graphite sheets above and below. Diamond has a framework
structure where the carbon atoms are bonded to other carbon atoms in three dimensions as
opposed to two in graphite. The carbon-carbon bonds in both minerals are actually quite
strong, but it is the application of those bonds that make the difference.
It may seem strange that one of the softest minerals (and a very slippery lubricant) is the
high-strength component in composites used to build automobiles, aircraft, and golf club
shafts. It is the weakly bonded sheets that slide by each other to yield the slipperiness or
softness. Yet when those sheets are rolled up into fibers, and those fibers twisted into threads,
the true strength of the bonds becomes apparent. The threads are molded into shape, and held
in place by a binder (such as an epoxy resin). The resulting composites have some of the
highest strength-to-weight ratios of any materials (excluding, of course, diamond crystals and
carbon nanotubes).
References:
http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/ELEMENTS/GRAPHITE/GRAPHITE.htm and
http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/diamond/diamond.htm
2.3 Perform a first-hand investigation, analyse information and use the available evidence to
model the differences in atomic arrangement of diamond, graphite and fullerenes.
http://www.people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter3.pdf
2.4 Process and present information from secondary sources on the uses of diamond and
graphite and relate their uses to their physical properties.
The previous dot point relates structure to properties - this one relates uses properties to
uses.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite, http://geology.com/minerals/diamond.shtml and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond are good sources of information.
2.5 Identify that carbon can form single, double or triple covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms.
Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell, an ideal arrangement for covalent bonding. Carbon
atoms always have four covalent bonds - these can be to other carbon atoms, or to other kinds
of atom - typically hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur.
2.6 Explain the relationship between carbon's combining power and the ability to form a
variety of bonds and the existence of a large number of carbon compounds.
The ability of carbon to form stable covalent bonds with other atoms allows an enormous
range of compounds to exist. As a result chemical compounds are generally identified as
organic or inorganic.
2.7 Identify data and choose resources from secondary sources such as molecular model kits,
digital technologies or computer simulations to model the formation of single, double and
triple bonds in carbon atoms.
This is a critical exercise. Construct models of methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane,
hexane, heptane and octane. Then construct models of ethene and ethyne, then 1-propene, 2propene and the isomers of C4H8.
A good reference for this exercise is http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Bonding/LabModelBuilding/Lab-ModelBuilding-1.html, starting at Part II.
A variety of carbon compounds is extracted from

organic sources very good
http://science.as.edu.au/11_Che
mistry/5.3.html
5.5 The rate of energy release is affected by factors such as types of reactants.
5.1 Describe combustion in terms of slow, spontaneous and explosive reactions and explain
the conditions under which these occur.
There are 3 requirements for combustion (as every firefighter learns). They are fuel, oxygen
and heat. Fire will not occur if one or more of these three things is missing. Fires are
extinguished by removing one of these three things.
Whether combustion is slow, spontaneous, fast or explosive depends on the relative amounts
of heat, fuel and oxygen. It also depends on the surface area of the fuel.
Slow combustion. A campfire is often hard to light because there is not enough heat and
oxygen. Blowing on the fire may provide more oxygen. If the fuel is wet, the campfire will
not burn well because water lowers the temperature. Even if the fire lights, there may be a
lot of smoke because combustion is incomplete and large amounts of carbon are produced.
When the fire is burning well because the fuel is dry and the coals are hot, there will be much
less smoke.
Another reason the fuel in a campfire will not light may be that the surface area of dry fuel is
too small so that there is minimal contact with the surrounding oxygen and heat. Using fine,
dry kindling will help the fire to burn.
Spontaneous combustion. Sometimes fuels will ignite spontaneously because of a increase
in temperature from other factors than a flame. Hay will sometimes burst into flames. This
is common when the hay is damp, encouraging the growth of decomposer organisms,
especially bacteria and fungi. The heat generated by their metabolism diffuses slowly out of
the straw, so that the temperature can reach a point that allows spontaneous combustion.
Pistachio nuts, unprocessed cotton, boiled linseed and some other substances can ignite
spontaneously in this way.
Some metals, especially sodium and potassium and reactive metal powders can also ignite
spontaneously when wet.
Explosive combustion. Explosive combustion occurs when a large amount of hot gas is
produced in a very short period of time. This can happen when the fuel is finely divided and
well mixed with oxygen, air or compound that can act as oxidisers. The internal combustion
engine works by vapourising petrol in air and then sparking the mixture, causing an
explosion.
5.2 Solve problems, identify data, perform first-hand investigations and gather first-hand data
where appropriate, to observe the impact on reaction rates of:
- changing temperature;
- changing concentration;
- size of solid particles;
- adding catalysts.
5.3 Explain the importance of collisions between reacting particles as a criterion for
determining reaction rates.
When substances react, what is happening at the atomic level?
Why do gases react so much more readily than solids? (Compare the rate of the reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen with the rate of aluminum reacting with iron oxide. The latter
is highly exothermic, but does not occur unless the temperature of the mixture is significantly
heated.) Gas particles collide with large numbers of other gas molecules, making reaction
between them possible. Atoms in a solid can only react, if at all, on the solid surfaces.
Why do substances in solution react so much more rapidly than as solids? (For example, the
reaction of lead nitrate and potassium iodide is very slow unless in solution, when it is almost
instantaneous.) In solution, the salts exist as hydrated (but nevertheless charged) ions. As
solids, the ions are locked in a crystal lattice.
It would seem that reaction rate depends on the rate of collision between particles, other
things being equal.
5.4 Explain the relationship between temperature and the kinetic energy of particles.
Temperature is a function of the motion of particles - at high temperature, particles have more
kinetic energy and collisions between them are more frequent. Supplying activation energy
1.
is equivalent to increasing kinetic energy and hence the chance of collision between reacting
particles.
5.5 Describe the role of catalysts in chemical reactions, using a named industrial catalyst as
an example.
Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed.
A familiar example is the use of a catalyst in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide is unstable, and slowly decomposes to water and oxygen.
H2O2(l) H2O (l) + O2 (g)
There is a rapid increase in the reaction when manganese dioxide (MnO2) powder is added.
If the black powder is filtered from the reaction vessel (to separate in from the water) it can
be reused many times over.
An industrial example of a catalyst (which will be referred to again next year) is the use of
powdered iron in the production of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen.
5.6 Explain the role of catalysts in changing activation energy and hence the rate of chemical
reaction.
Catalysts reduce activation energy. The reacting particles do not need as much kinetic energy
to collide. Effectively, one species is adsorbed onto the surface of the catalyst. The chance of
particles colliding is increased if one species is trapped.

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2.1 The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures.

What is The Particle Theory?

molecules of an element; (eg. hydrogen - H2, oxygen - O2, nitrogen - N2)

Another good website with a great graphic:

1.3 Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to

When planning to do this exercise, think about:

what data you need to collect;

whether the data are qualitative or quantitative;

what uncertainty the data have;

how many significant figures are in each measurement;

what are the units for the data collected.

* identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation;

* identify the products of separation and their uses;

* discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used.

You could find out about how 1.

aluminium oxide is obtained from bauxite (lithosphere);

sodium chloride is obtained from sea water (hydrosphere);

lanolin is obtained from wool (biosphere).

Practical report 2. Write a report on your investigation.

biosphere: mixture - blood; element - oxygen; compound - haemoglobin

lithosphere: mixture - granite; element - gold; compound - silica (silicon dioxide

hydrosphere: mixture - sea water; element - oxygen; compound - water

atmosphere: mixture - air; element - oxygen; compound - carbon dioxide

solids of different sizes - filtration

solids and liquids - decantation/evaporation/centrifuging/filtration

solids dissolved in liquids - evaporation/crystallization/froth flotation;

A useful link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_process

A useful link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis

Chemists use a shorthand to represent particles and to describe what is happening

Molecules of a compound are represented by the component elements with

Multiple numbers of atoms or molecules are indicated by large numbers placed in

A good way to do this is to compare two elements - gold and aluminium.

Aluminium is a reactive metallic element. It is so reactive, it is not possible to hold a test

When planning to do this exercise, think about:

what data you need to collect;

whether the data are qualitative or quantitative;

how you should present the data;

how many significant figures are in each (quantitative) measurement;

what are the units for the data collected.

Practical report 5. Write a report on your investigation.

Semi-metals (boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium) or

Practical report 6. Submit a 100 - 200 word summary of your analysis.

metals, non-metals and semi-metals;

solids, liquids and gases at 25 deg. C and normal atmospheric pressure;

Useful videos on the elements:

3.2 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number;

Atomic number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus.

3.3 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms;

The reaction between calcium metal and sulfur (initiated by heat).

3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

the formation of ions

the electron sharing in some simple molecules;

Lewis electron dot structures for atoms:

Lewis electron dot structures for ions of elements:

Lewis electron dot structures for ionic compounds:

The source of the above diagrams is - http://www.ausetute.com.au/lewisstr.html

(a)lithium metal reacting with oxygen;

(b)magnesium reacting with sulfur;

(c)calcium reacting with iodine.

3.12 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons;

3.13 Construct formulae for compounds formed from

Here we go again - physical versus chemical change!

4.4 Gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

2H2O(l) + electrical energy 2H2(g) + O2(g) (electrolysis - endothermic)