GENS5013/AVIA3013

Workplace Safety

Module 6
Physical Hazards

Course Facilitator:
Dr. Carlo Caponecchia

2014 UNSW School of Aviation

Module 6 Physical Hazards

Learning outcomes
At the end of this module, it is expected that students will be able to
list and comment on issues in risk control with respect to physical hazards
identify physical hazards at workplace (e.g. noise, vibration, UV radiation and
heat stress)
outline methods to control the physical hazards
comment on the application of risk management principles in relation to
minimise these risks within the work environment.

Introduction
Physical hazards are common hazards that may arise at work due to the influence of
various forms of energy. Physical hazards include, but are not limited to, noise,
vibration, radiation, pressure and extremes in temperature.

Noise
Noise is one of the most common occupational health hazards across nearly all
industries. In heavy industrial and manufacturing environments, as well as in farms,
cafeterias, noise is one of the main health hazards. Excessive noise can cause
temporary and permanent hearing loss. Annoyance, stress and interference with
speech communication are the main concerns in noisy environments. High noise
levels that interfere with verbal hazards communication and warning signals can
have a significant impact on safety and work performance. Noise can be considered
as an occupational stressor, creating unwanted physiological and psychological
effects leading to a degraded quality of life.
Typically, occupational hearing loss develops slowly and remains unnoticed until a
significant impairment has occurred. Fortunately, noise induced hearing loss is one
of the most preventable health hazards. Prevention of noise-induced hearing loss
can be achieved by implementing an effective hearing conservation program. To
prevent adverse outcomes of noise exposure, noise levels should be reduced to
acceptable levels. The best method of noise reduction is to use engineering
modifications to the noise source itself, or to the workplace environment.

Physics of sound
Sound is a form of energy that originates from a vibrating object (see Figure 1).
When an object (sound source) vibrates it causes slight variations in the air pressure
that can travel through the air or other elastic media. These air pressure variations
travel as waves through the air and produce sound that may convey useful
information. Sound can be detected by the ear and be interpreted by the brain.
(Groothoff, 2013).
GENS5013/AVIA3013 - Workplace Safety - Module 4

Figure 1. Generation of sound waves

(Source: www.ccohs.ca)

When sound is unintelligible or unwanted, or may cause damage to hearing, it is

referred to as noise. Noise can be continuous or impulsive depending on how it
changes over time. While continuous noise remains constant and stable over a given
time period, impulse or impact noise is a very short burst of loud noise which lasts for
less than one second (e.g. the noise of punch press or gunshot).
Our ear can perceive, evaluate and distinguish the differences between various
sounds by virtue of three main perceptual properties that are comparable to different
physical properties of sound including:
composition of pitches or frequencies
loudness or intensity level
timbre or time variation and spectral content
The pitch or frequency of sound refers to the number of pressure variations per
second which is measured in Hertz (Hz). The spectrum of normal healthy human
hearing range is between 20 and 20,000 Hz, and everyday sounds contain a wide
frequency range. Speech communications rely on frequencies ranging between 100
and 5000 Hz. Industrial noise consists of broadband frequencies.
The wavelength is the distance between two similar points on the sine wave. The
velocity of sound (wavelength x frequency), depends on the mass and elasticity of
the conducting medium. In air, sound propagates at about 334 m/s at 20C. In water,
sound propagates at about 1500 m/s, through steel it propagates at about 6000 m/s
(Tranter, 2004; Groothof, 2013).
The loudness of sound can be measured as an intensity level (IL) and more
commonly as the sound pressure level (SPL). Conveniently, sound pressure is
related to sound intensity (I P2), (Tranter, 2004).
Timber is a sound property that enables us to distinguish sounds of different
sources. It is a combination of many factors such as tone, harmonies and how the
GENS5013/AVIA3013 - Workplace Safety - Module 4

sound varies over time. The continuousness of sound relates to whether the sound is
produced constantly or intermittently.

Sound pressure level

Sound pressure is the amount of air pressure fluctuation a noise source creates.
Sound pressure also depends on the surrounding environment and the distance from
the source. The range of sound pressures encountered in many acoustical
environments is usually very wide. Sound pressure is usually expressed in units
called Pascals (Pa). A healthy, young person can hear sound pressures as low as
0.00002 Pa. A normal conversation produces a sound pressure of 0.02 Pa. A
gasoline-powered lawn mower produces about 1 Pa. The sound is painfully loud at
levels around 20 Pa. Thus the common sounds we hear have sound pressure over a
wide range (0.00002 Pa - 20 Pa).
To cover the wide range of common sound pressures, a logarithmic scale, decibel
(dB), is used. The dB scale is more convenient because it compresses the scale of
numbers into a manageable range. By definition, the decibel is a dimensionless unit,
and is related to the logarithm of the ratio of a measured quantity to a reference
quantity. Sound pressure converted to the decibel scale is called sound pressure
level (Lp). Figure 2 compares sound pressure levels in decibels (dB) with sound
pressure in pascals (Pa). The zero of the decibel scale (0 dB) is the sound pressure
of 0.00002 Pa. This means that 0.00002 Pa is the reference sound pressure to which
all other sound pressures are compared on the dB scale.

Figure 2. Comparison of sound pressure level (dB) and sound pressure Pa)
(Source: marchairport.org/Noise2.html)

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Sound pressure level in decibels can be calculated by the following formula (Tranter,
2004):
SPL= 20 log10 p/pref
Where
p is sound pressure (Pa)
pref is the reference sound pressure (Pa)
The decibel scale for sound pressures uses as the reference pressure the lowest
noise that the healthy young person can hear (0.00002 Pa). Therefore, the sound
pressure level of the lowest noise that the healthy young person can hear is equal to:
SPL= 20 log (0.00002/ 0.00002) = 20 log (1) = 20 X 0 = 0 dB
Similarly, the sound pressure level of a typical gasoline-powered lawn mower, which
has a sound pressure of 1 Pa, can be calculated:
SPL= 20 log (1/0.00002) = 20 log (50 000) = 20 X 4.7 = 94 dB
The sensitivity of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency or pitch of the
sound. If a person hears two sounds of the same sound pressure but different
frequencies, one sound may appear louder than the other. This occurs because
people hear high frequency noise much better than low frequency noise.
Noise measurement readings can be adjusted to correspond to this particularity of
human hearing. A particular A-weighting filter which is built into the sound measuring
instrument de-emphasises low frequencies or pitches. Decibels measured using a
sound level meter equipped with this filter are A-weighted and are called dB (A).
WHS regulation on noise normally gives occupational exposure limits in dB (A).
Therefore, A-weighting gives a single number measure of noise level by integrating
sound levels at all frequencies and provides a scale for noise level as experienced or
perceived by the human ear.

Adding of Sound Levels

Sound pressure levels in decibels (dB) or A-weighted decibels [dB(A)] are based on
a logarithmic scale and cannot be simply added or subtracted in the usual numerical
way. For example if one machine emits a sound level of 90 dB, and a second
identical machine is placed beside the first, the combined sound level is 93 dB, not
180 dB. Table 1 shows a simple way to add noise levels (Groothoff, 2013).
The actual sound pressure level can be measured and confirmed using a sound
level meter, when more than two sources are generating noise simultaneously.

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Table 1. Logarithmic addition of noise levels

Numerical difference between
two noise levels (dB)

Amount to be added to the higher of

the two noise levels (dB)

3.0

2.6

2.1

1.8

1.4

1.2

10

0.4

13

Links !
More basic information of noise is available at Canadian Centre of Occupational
Health and Safety (CCOHS) at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_basic.html
Safe Work Australia, Code of Practice of Managing Noise and Preventing Hearing
Loss at Work is available at:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/627/
Managing_Noise_and_Preventing_Hearing_Loss_at_Work.pdf

The Sound Level Meter

A sound level meter or sound meter is an instrument that measures sound pressure
level, commonly used for industrial, environmental and aircraft noise. Noise
measurements usually indicate the combined sound levels from a number of sources
(machinery and materials handling) and background noise (from ventilation systems,
cooling compressors, circulation pumps, etc.).
A basic sound level meter consists of a microphone that converts the pressure
variations into an electrical signal, an amplifier/filter, an exponential time-averaging
circuit, a device to determine the logarithm of the signal, and an indicating meter or
digital display (Figure 3).

GENS5013/AVIA3013 - Workplace Safety - Module 4

Figure 1. A Sound level meter

(Nor131, Norsonic)

Noise Workplace Exposure Standards

Exposure standard for noise is defined in the WHS Regulations as an LAeq,8h of
85 dB(A) or an LC,peak of 140 dB(C). There are two parts to the exposure standard
for noise because noise can either cause gradual hearing loss over a period of time
or be so loud that it causes immediate hearing loss (Safe Work Australia, 2011).
LAeq,8h means the eight hour equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure
level in decibels, referenced to 20 micropascals, determined in accordance with
AS/NZS 1269.1. This is related to the total amount of noise energy a person is
exposed to in the course of their working day. It takes into account of both the noise
level and the length of time the person is exposed. An unacceptable risk of hearing
loss occurs at LAeq,8h values above 85 dB(A).
As the noise level increases, the permitted time of exposure for unprotected ear
decreases. Since the decibel scale is logarithmic an increase of 3 dB therefore
represents a doubling or twice sound energy. This means that the length of time a
worker could be exposed to the noise is reduced by half for every 3 dB increase in
noise level if the same noise energy is expected to receive. Table 2 demonstrates
the length of time a person without hearing protection can be exposed before the
standard is exceeded (Safe Work Australia, 2011; Groothoff, 2013).

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Table 2. Equivalent Noise Exposures

LAeq,8h = 85 dB(A)
Noise Level dB(A)

Exposure Time

85

8 hours

88

4 hours

91

2 hours

94

1 hour

97

30 minutes

100

15 minutes

103

7.5 minutes

109

1.9 minutes

112

57 seconds

121

7.2 seconds

130

0.9 seconds

Basically, a worker who is exposed to 85 dB(A) for 8 hours receives the same noise
energy as someone exposed to 88 dB(A) for 4 hours, if they spend the rest of the
day in a very quiet environment. In both cases the exposure standard is not being
exceeded. However, being exposed to 88 dB(A) for more than 4 hours would mean
that the standard is exceeded. Likewise, if a worker is using a machine that
generates 121 dB(A) then the exposure standard would be exceeded after only 7.2
seconds (Safe Work Australia, 2011).

Noise related hearing loss

Excessive noise affects the normal function of the inner ear (Figure 4), which may
cause temporary hearing loss. After a period of time away from noise, hearing may
be restored. However, with further exposure to hazardous noise, the ear will
gradually lose its ability to recover and the hearing loss will become permanent.
Permanent hearing loss can also occur suddenly if a person is exposed to very loud
impact or explosive sounds known as acoustic trauma. Permanent hearing loss
resulted from the destruction of hair cells in the inner ear. The hair cells in the inner
ear of the cochlea that are destroyed by loud noise cannot be repaired, regenerated
or replaced by any available medical treatments.
Noticeable signs of hearing loss can include the following:

Muffled or distorted hearing

Difficulty hearing sounds (e.g. birds singing, crickets chirping, alarm clocks,
telephones, or doorbells)
Difficulty understanding speech (e.g. during telephone conversations or while
participating in group conversations)
Pain or ringing in the ears (tinnitus caused by excessive loud noise)

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Figure 2. Anatomy of the human ear (Tranter, 2004)

Usually, hazardous noise first affects the ability to hear high-frequency (high-pitched)
sounds. This means that even though a person can still hear some sounds,
conversation will start to sound muffled and a person may find it difficult to
understand what is being said. Communication difficulties occur especially when
there are competing background noises. Modern hearing aids may improve the
ability to hear speech but they are unable to completely restore the clarity of the full
hearing function. Workers exposed to hazardous noise may also experience a
ringing sensation or tinnitus, which could become permanent.
The degree of hearing loss that occurs is dependent on how loud the noise is, how
long someone is exposed to it and, to some extent, individual susceptibility. The
frequency or pitch can also have some effect on hearing loss, since high-pitched
sounds are more damaging than low-pitched ones.
Temporary threshold shift (TTS) can occur after exposure to a high amplitude
noise or impact noise such as a gunshot or an explosion, which can make the hair
cells collapse and flatten temporarily, resulting in temporary deafness. This may last
hours or longer depending on the degree of noise exposure. This temporary hearing
loss may also be accompanied by tinnitus.
Permanent threshold shift (PTS) can occur when severe noise exposure is
repeated over many years, the hair cells in the inner ear become permanently
damaged resulting in permanent hearing loss. Immediate permanent hearing loss
can also occur, when expose to very intense or explosive sounds.
Tinnitus is a ringing, whistling, buzzing or humming in the ear. It is another possible
problem arising from excessive exposure to noise. This distressing condition can
also lead to disturbed sleep, make it difficult to concentrate and lead to anxiety and
depression.
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Links !
For further information about tinnitus retraining therapy visit
Australian Tinnitus Association
http://www.tinnitus.asn.au/

Activity 6.1. Ototoxic Substances and Hearing Loss !

Exposure to a number of common industrial chemicals and some medications can
also cause hearing loss or exacerbate the effects of noise on hearing. These
substances are called ototoxic substances. Ototoxic substances absorbed into the
bloodstream may damage the cochlea in the inner ear and/or the auditory pathways
to the brain, leading to hearing loss and tinnitus. Hearing loss is more likely if
exposure is to a combination of substances or a combination of the substance and
noise.
There is also some evidence that exposure to hand transmitted vibrations can
exacerbate the effects of noise on hearing.
For more information review the following Code of Practice Managing Noise and
Preventing Hearing Loss at Work endorsed by Safe Work Australia in 2011 and find
out about the other causes of hearing loss in the workplace including ototoxic
substances.
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/627/
Managing_Noise_and_Preventing_Hearing_Loss_at_Work.pdf
Outline three major classes of ototoxic substances.
List some work activities that may combine noise and ototoxic substances.
List some ototoxic chemicals find in the workplace.
Other adverse health effects
Noise at levels that do not damage hearing can have other adverse health effects.
This can arise when noise chronically interferes with concentration and
communication. Persistent noise stress can increase the risk of fatigue and
cardiovascular disorders including high blood pressure and heart disease.
Although safe levels to guard against these effects have not yet been fully
determined, as a guide, the risk of adverse health effects can be minimised by
keeping the noise level lower than recommended exposure standards.
To work safely, workers must be able to hear warning signals above any other noise
(ambient noise) at the workplace (Work Safe Australia, 2011).

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Hazard Identification
Hazard identification is important to find out which work activities have the potential
to contribute to hearing loss or other harm caused by noise. Exposure to noise is
cumulative and a worker may perform a number of noisy work activities over time
which, in combination, may expose the worker to hazardous noise. The potential for
noise to be hazardous is not always obvious. Workplace inspection and reviewing
available information can help to identify noise hazards.
A regular walkthrough around the workplace, talking to workers and observing how
things are done may help to identify noise hazards. Finding out where noise is
coming from and which tasks or processes produce noise is important when
designing work tasks and schedules and for workplace monitoring (ie. measuring
noise level).
Initial information regarding noise levels from the manufacturers or suppliers of plant
and equipment used at the workplace can be obtained. Information about hazards
and risks relevant to particular industries and work activities is also available from
regulatory authorities, industry associations, unions, technical specialists and safety
consultants. Consider workers compensation claims and audiometric testing. If a
workers hearing has been affected due to a particular task, a hazard may exist that
can potentially affect other workers.
Take immediate action to control noise where it is possible, for example, it may be
possible to fix loose panels that are vibrating and rattling during machine operation. If
you are unsure about the level of exposure or how to eliminate or minimise the risks
effectively, you should take the next step to assess the risks of hearing loss (Work
Safe Australia, 2011).

Risk Assessment
The noise risk assessment process depends on several factors such as the type of
workplace, the number of workers potentially at risk and the information already
available on noise at the workplace. A noise assessment should be done during a
typical working shift to determine:

the noise levels produced during various tasks

exposure time to noise during each of these tasks

Other factors such as plant, equipment and various sources of noise, the ways work
activities are carried out, the length of the shift and environmental factors (e.g. types
of walls, surfaces, layout of work stations) need to be considered. This means that
adequate information about the tasks and their frequency is needed, so consultation
with workers and their supervisors is essential.
Noise measurements should be taken at 0.1 to 0.2 metres from the workers ear
canal entrance over a period of time that is representative of the noise produced
during the tasks. In most situations the use of a hand-held integrating sound level
meter will produce the most useful information for choosing appropriate noise control
measures. In situations where workers are highly mobile or access for the person
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taking the measurement is difficult or unsafe, it may be more appropriate to use

personal sound exposure meters (dose meters).
Noise measurements should include the combined noise levels of all tools, machines
and processes present as well as the background noise from ventilation systems,
cooling compressors, circulation pumps, etc. To identify which noise sources
contribute most to workers exposures, the noise from each source or work activity
should also be measured separately.
Where a group of workers is exposed to identical sources of noise and their
exposure is likely to be the same, there is no need to a separate assessment for
each worker. A representative assessment can be done for one or more of the
workers.

Noise Control Measures

The most important step in the risk management process involves eliminating, or
where is not possible, minimising the risks so far as is reasonably practicable. The
WHS Regulations require duty holders to work through the hierarchy of controls to
choose the control measure that most effectively eliminates or minimises the risk
(Safe Work Australia, 2011). The hierarchy ranks the ways of controlling the risk of
noise induced hearing loss from the highest level of protection and reliability to the
lowest so that the most effective controls are considered first.
Effective risk control may involve a single control measure or a combination of two or
more different controls. Considering hierarchy of controls workplace hazardous noise
control strategies are indicated here in order of most effective to least effective:
Control at source
The most effective control measure is to eliminate the source of noise completely, for
example by ending the use of a noisy machine. Control at source may also be
achieved by engineering controls, or modification of noise sources or processes, for
example, in the following ways:
- Designing plant or equipment in a way to eliminate or control noise emissions
- Preventing mechanical vibration from being converted to noise sources
- Using noise suspension or damping equipment to reduce noise levels
- Checking the transmission of noise through structures and ducts
- Designing of acoustically sound plant rooms and control rooms where
appropriate (isolation)
- Absorbing acoustic shock by providing resistant rubber or plastic coatings
Control of transmission path
Noise travels via a medium; either air or surface, so cutting off the transmission path
will reduce the worker exposure to noise. It can be achieved by the combination of
engineering and administrative controls:
- Using sound-absorbing baffles between workers and the noise source
- Separating the noisy machine or noisy area using sound enclosures and
absorbing partitions
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Organising schedules so that noisy work is done when less number of

workers are present
keeping people out of noisy areas where possible
limiting the time workers spend in noisy areas and moving them to quiet work
areas before their daily noise exposure levels are exceeded

Personal protection equipment

Personal protection equipment (PPE) or hearing protection (Figure 5) should not be
seen as a noise control device and should only be used when the levels of excessive
noise cannot be controlled effectively by other methods higher on the hierarchy
controls. PPE for noise should not be used as a substitute for engineering or
administrative noise control measures.

Figure 3. Noise protection PPE including ear muff (R) and ear plugs (L)

Personal hearing protectors should be selected and maintained in accordance with

AS/NZS 1269.3 Occupational noise management hearing protector program. This
includes involving workers in the selection of hearing protection (ie. consultation) and
offering a reasonable choice from a range of types of hearing protection.
As we mentioned the use of personal protective equipment should be the final choice
in minimising the risk associated with noise exposure. As all forms of personal
protective equipment, its effectiveness is governed by its application which in turn
affected by human behaviour. Fit and design of some hearing protection devices
may affect by their suitability for use and some workers may have problem wearing
the equipment. In addition, there are also proper maintenance and hygienic reasons
for minimising the use of hearing protection devices (Tranter, 2004).

Links !
More detailed information on noise measurement at workplace including noise
control measures can also be found at:
Safe Work Australia
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http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/627/
Managing_Noise_and_Preventing_Hearing_Loss_at_Work.pdf
WorkCover NSW
http://www.workcover.nsw.gov.au/newlegislation2012/health-and-safetytopics/hazardous-environments/Pages/noise.aspx
Audiometric testing
Regular audiometric testing or pure tone audiometry is an important part of a hearing
conservation program at workplace, and forms a part of an overarching workplace
monitoring program (sometimes called a workplace health monitoring program).
Audiometric testing must be provided within three months of the worker commencing
work. Starting the audiometric testing before people are exposed to hazardous noise
(such as new starters or those changing jobs) provides a baseline as a reference for
future audiometric test results. Regular follow-up tests must be carried out at least
every two years. These should be undertaken well into the work shift so that any
temporary hearing loss can be picked up. More frequent audiometric testing (e.g.
every six months) may be needed if exposures are at a high LAeq,8h, which is equal
or greater than 100 dB(A).
Audiometric testing and assessment of audiograms should be carried out by
competent persons in accordance with the procedures in AS/NZS 1269.4:2005 Occupational noise management - Auditory assessment.
Prior to an audiometric testing program, consultation with workers and their health
and safety representatives should be undertaken. It is important that workers
understand the aim of the audiometric testing is to evaluate the effectiveness of
control measures and protect their hearing.
The causes of any changes in hearing levels over time should be carefully
investigated. When temporary or permanent threshold shifts are revealed through
audiometric assessments or a worker reports a recent diagnosis of tinnitus, review
the control measures are required to determine whether more effective control
measures can be implemented so that workers do not have to rely on personal
hearing protectors.

Activity 6.2 Noise in industry !

Noise is a common issue in many industries such as construction and trades,
manufacturing, energy, mining, and transport and storage. Noise exposure can occur
in some industries that you might not immediately consider, including hospitality and
entertainment (e.g. cafes, nightclubs).
Use the information from the following links to help you compare the sources of
noise to which people working in industries and those working in a night club could
be exposed.
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http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/hazards/dangers/noise/industry/index.htm#.U9
TArOOSxe8
http://www.hospitalitymagazine.com.au/food/news/hospitality-workers-exposed-todangerous-noise-lev
Compare the sources and likely periods of exposure to those sources.
What types of controls could be used in each case?
Comment on whether you think these are likely to be effective controls? Why or why
not?

Vibration
Approximately 24% of Australian workers were exposed to vibration in their
workplace (Safe Work Australia, 2010). The industries where workers had the
highest likelihood of reporting exposure to vibration were Agriculture, forestry and
fishing, Transport and storage and Construction. The occupations in which workers
had the highest likelihood of reporting exposure to vibration were machinery
operators and drivers, technicians and trades workers and labourers. 43% of
vibration-exposed workers were exposed to hand-arm vibration only, 38% were
exposed to whole body vibration only and 17% were exposed to both hand-arm and
whole body vibration (Safe Work Australia, 2010).
Two main types of vibration that workers are exposed to are included Hand-arm
vibration (HAV) and Whole-body vibration (WBV).
Hand-arm vibration (HAV)
HAV refers to vibration that is transmitted through the hand and arm, generally from
hand-held or guided power tools such as angle grinders, drills, jackhammers and
chainsaws.The mechanical vibration transmitted to the human hand-arm system,
causes risks to the health and safety of workers, in particular, vascular, bone or joint,
neurological or muscular disorders.
Whole-body vibration (WBV)
WBV refers to vibration transmitted through entire body generally from the floor or a
seat by mobile or fixed machines where the operator is standing or seated. The
mechanical vibration transmitted to the whole-body, causes risks to the health and
safety of workers, in particular, lower-back morbidity and trauma of the spine.

Vibration adverse effects

Occupational exposure to hazardous levels of vibration is associated with a range of
adverse health outcomes, including vibration white finger, carpal tunnel syndrome,
musculoskeletal disorders and neurological disorders. The combination of the
following disorders resulted from exposure to hand-arm vibration is known as handarm vibration syndrome (HAVS).

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Vibration White finger (VWF)

A form of Raynauds disease where the blood vessels and nerves in the hands and
fingers are damaged causing symptoms such as blanching, numbness, tingling,
pain, loss of grip strength and reduced sensation touch (Figure 6). This is a vascular
disorder that can be found in people whose occupation involves their hands being
exposed to vibration, and is seen in pneumatic drill operators.

Figure 6. Vibration induced White finger

(www.hse.gov.uk/vibration/)

Carpal tunnel syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome is often the result of a combination of factors that increase
pressure on the median nerve and tendons in the carpal tunnel, rather than a
problem with the nerve itself. Work related contributing factors include trauma or
injury to the wrist, work stress and repetitive use of vibrating hand tools. Symptoms
are pain, tingling, muscle weakness and numbness in the forearm and hand.
Musculoskeletal disorders
Musculoskeletal disorder is an injury of the musculoskeletal system causing bone,
joint and soft tissue damage, pain in the hands and arms, and reduced muscular
strength. While it can happen from vibration-related tasks, musculoskeletal disorders
may arise in combination with other work-related factors such as prolonged sitting,
lifting and awkward postures to cause increased risk of back disorder. This type of
disorder may occur suddenly or over a prolonged period of time.
Neurological disorders
Neurological disorders from exposure to vibration include tingling and numbness of
the fingers and hands, leading to reduced sensory perception and loss of dexterity.

Exposure Assessment
Human exposure to vibration should be evaluated using the method defined in
Australian Standard AS2670.1:2001-Evaluation of human exposure to whole body
vibration. In the case of human exposure to HAV, the method that should be used is
defined in Australian Standard AS2763:1988Vibration and shock-Hand transmitted
vibration - guidelines for measurement and assessment of human exposure.

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It is also encouraged that employers should regularly monitor and review the
exposure levels of workers, assess the control measures in place and undertake
regular medical checks of workers.

Vibration Control Measures

A variety of vibration control measures are available that can be implemented in the
workplace in order to eliminate or minimise the risks of vibration exposure (Tranter,
2004; Groothoff, 2013). The selection of a vibration control measure will depend on
the characteristics of the vibration exposure (e.g. magnitude of vibration, source of
vibration and whether the vibration is intermittent or constant) and the characteristics
of the workplace.
Elimination, redesign and engineering controls should be implemented over
administrative controls. The isolation of the vibration source can be effective control
mechanisms. In term of engineering controls, the source of vibration can be
minimised by increasing the stiffness of the source to reduce the resonance, using
anti-vibration mountings.
Examples of administrative controls to minimise vibration exposure are:
Implementing job rotations or work breaks to reduce exposure to vibration
Purchasing tools with minimal vibration
Implementing safe work procedures and stand operating procedures
Providing training on adjusting and operating equipment to reduce exposure
It is important that workers are aware of the risk associated with vibration exposure.
Early prevention through exposure monitoring of vibration exposure can help to
reduce the chronic health effects from the vibration related diseases.

Links !
Safe Work Australia
National Hazard Exposure Worker Surveillance
Exposure to vibration and the provision of vibration control measures in Australian
workplaces can be found at:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/swa/about/publications/pages/rp201007nh
ewsvibrationexposureandprovisionofvibrationcontrol
Safe Work Australia
National Code of Practice for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders from
Performing Manual Tasks at Work
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/382/
Draft_NCOP_Preventio_Musculoskeletal_Disorders_Manual_Handling.pdf
See the Appendix 3.B of this Code of Practice for guidance on controls the risks of
exposure to vibration during manual tasks.
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More information of vibration is available at Canadian Centre of Occupational Health

and Safety (CCOHS) at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration/vibration_effects.html
You can see Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Fact Sheet at:
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/carpal_tunnel/detail_carpal_tunnel.htm

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UV Radiation and Heat Stress

Outdoor workers and workers who spend a large proportion of their time outdoors
are at risk due to the nature of the work that can expose them to excessive UV
radiation and heat stress. The examples of such occupations are:

building and construction workers

taxi, bus and truck drivers
police and traffic officers
agricultural and farming workers
landscape and gardening workers
fisheries workers
road workers and municipal employees
postal workers, delivery and courier services
outdoor sports coaches
ski instructors and lift operators
mining and earth resources workers
swimming pool and beach lifeguards
forestry and logging workers
dockyard, port and harbour workers

UV Radiation
Radiation is a type of energy traveling in the form of either electromagnetic waves or
high speed particulates. There are two types of radiation including ionising and
nonionizing. Radiation is ionising when it has sufficient energy to remove an electron
from an atom of a molecule gamma and x ray waves and , and neutrons
particles). Non-ionising radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength greater
than 100 nanometre (nm) that does not have sufficient energy to ionise the matter
with which it interacts. Non-ionising radiation includes ultraviolet (UV), visible (Vis),
infrared (IR), radiofrequency and extremely low frequency radiation (Schmid and
Wakelam, 2013).
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the highest energy form of non-ionising radiation. UV
radiation is referred to that spectrum of the electromagnetic waves between x rays
and visible light. UV radiation is divided into three bands including UVC, UVB and
UVA from the highest to lowest energy (Figure 7).
Sunlight is the greatest source of UV radiation. However, man-made ultraviolet
sources also include several types of UV lamps, arc welding, and mercury vapour
lamps. UV radiation is widely used in industrial processes and in medical and dental
practices for a variety of purposes, such as killing bacteria, creating fluorescent
effects, curing inks and resins, and phototherapy and sun tanning. Different UV
wavelengths and intensities are used for different purposes.

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Figure 7. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves including UV bands

Adverse Health Effects

While some UV exposure is essential for our health, e.g. stimulating vitamin D
production in the body, excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation is associated with
different types of skin cancer, sunburn, accelerated skin aging, as well as cataracts
and other eye diseases. The severity of the effects depends on the wavelength,
intensity, and duration of exposure. The medium wave UV (UV-B) is the most
destructive form of UV causes skin burns, erythema (reddening of the skin) and
darkening of the skin. Chronic exposures increase skin aging and the risk of
developing skin cancer (Schmid and Wakelam, 2013).
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation is cumulative and can cause sunburn in the short
term and over long periods of time can lead to eye damage and increased incidence
of skin cancers including melanoma. The UV radiation produced by the sun is a
known carcinogen (IARC, 2011). Epidemiological studies revealed the increasing
risk of fair skinned populations to develop melanoma-type tumours particularly in
geographic locations close to the equator (Ramirez et al., 2005). Even though
statistics have shown a trend towards a reducing incidence rate of melanoma among
Australians, Australia still has the highest incidence percentage of melanoma in the
world. Queensland has the highest rate of skin cancer in Australia.
Sunburn
Sunburn is an inflammation of the skin caused by overexposure to UV radiation from
the sun. High doses of UV radiation can kill most of the cells of the epidermis. A
similar burn can follow overexposure to a sun tanning lamp.
Sunspots
Sunspots are rough, dry, or crusty patches on the skin caused by excessive
exposure to UVR, usually over a long period of time also known as actinic keratoses.
It is not cancer but may be considered to be pre-cancerous changes.
Skin cancer
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Skin cancer is a serious disease that can cause disfigurement and death. It is the
most common cancer in Australia. Skin cancer is caused by an accumulation of
overexposure to ultra violet radiation (UVR) from the sun or artificial sources
penetrating the skin and damaging living cells. The UV index measures the daily
levels of UV radiation and when the UV index is three or above it can damage the
skin or lead to skin cancer.
There are three main types of skin cancer named after the type of cell in the skin
from which they originate including Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC), Squamous Cell
Carcinoma (SCC) and Melanoma. BCC is the most common but least dangerous.
SCC is less common than BCC and not as dangerous as melanoma but may spread
to other parts of the body if left untreated. Melanoma is the most dangerous type of
skin cancer. A melanoma appears as a new spot, or an existing spot, freckle or mole
that changes and can be anywhere on the body. If left untreated, the cancer cells
can spread to other parts of the body. Nearly all skin cancers can be cured if
detected and treated early.
Eye damage
The eyes are very sensitive to UV radiation particularly to UVB and UVC. Even a
short exposure of a few seconds can result in a painful, but temporary condition
known as photokeratitis and conjunctivitis. Photokeratitis is a painful condition
caused by the inflammation of the cornea of the eye. The eye waters and vision is
blurred. Conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the conjunctiva which becomes swollen
and produces a watery discharge. It causes discomfort rather than pain and impaired
vision. The resulting condition, is generally known as welders flash because it may
often occurs after welding.
The UV Index
UV Index is a measure of UV radiation level. It provides a daily forecast of the
expected risk of overexposure to the sun. The Index predicts UV intensity levels on a
scale of 1 to 11+, where 1 indicates a minimal risk and 11+ means an extreme risk of
overexposure.
The UV index forecast can be found on the Bureau of Meteorology BOM website at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/charts/UV.shtml

UV Radiation Control Measures

Avoiding overexposure to ultra violet radiation (UVR) is the best way to control UV
hazardous effects. At workplace exposure to UV radiation can be controlled through
the implementation of a comprehensive sun safety policy.
Engineering controls for outdoor workers include the provision of shade cover or
canopies. In the context of non-solar sources of UV radiation, suitable engineering
controls measures would include opaque barriers and UV radiation blocking filters.
Administrative controls for outdoor workers include:
increasing amount of shade available
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reorganising work schedules where possible so that outdoor tasks are done
before 10.00 am and after 3.00 pm
training and educating staff
providing and ensuring that workers use appropriate personal protective
equipment including appropriate protective hats, long sleeves clothing,
sunglasses and SPF 30+ water-resistant broad-spectrum sunscreen
ensuring workers drink plenty of cool water.
moving where possible the jobs indoors or to shady areas or rotating workers
between indoor and outdoor tasks to lessen total UV exposure

In the context of non-solar sources of UV radiation, administrative controls would

include warning signs, keeping staff at a safe distance and limiting the time during
which UV radiation sources are switched on. Training of supervisors and employees
should be undertaken for workers exposed to solar and non-solar sources of
radiation.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
It is also important to supply and recommend PPE such as sunscreens, hats with
wide brims or long flaps, sunglasses and loose protective clothing to cover skin. The
protective clothing is loose fitting, made of close weave fabric and provides
protection to the neck and preferably to the lower arms and legs. Hats should shade
the face, neck and ears and have a wide brim (8-10cm). If hard hats have to be
worn, they should have attached neck flaps. Sunscreen should be a minimum SPF
15, and be broad-spectrum, that is blocking UVA and UVB, and to be applied
regularly and liberally to exposed skin. Sunglasses should be close fitting, of a wrapround design and block at least 99% UV radiation. In the context of non-solar
sources of UV radiation, arc welders in particular need to be provided with purposespecific protective equipment.
For personal protection follow these simple steps:
avoid or minimise sun exposure time between 10.00 am and 3.00 pm
Slip on some sun-protective clothing - that covers as much skin as possible
Slop on broad spectrum, water resistant SPF30+ sunscreen.
Slap on a hat - that protects your face, head, neck and ears
Seek shade
Slide on sunglasses - make sure they meet Australian Standards
In summary, UV radiation has numerous useful applications but increased
awareness and control of UV hazards are needed to prevent accidental and
occupational over exposures.

Links !
More detailed information on UV radiation is available at:
Queensland Government
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/hazards/index.htm#.U9W-cOOSxe8
Ultraviolet
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/ultravioletradiation.html
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Further readings:
A series of Australian Standards have been published which cover Sun protection.
AS/NZS 1067:2003 Sunglasses and fashion spectacles
AS/NZS 2604:1998 Sunscreen products - Evaluation and classification
AS/NZS 4399:1996 Sun protective clothing - Evaluation and classification
WorkCover NSW
Skin Cancer and Outdoor Workers: A guide for workers
Skin Cancer and Outdoor Work: A Guide for Employers

Heat Stress
Working out in the sun or in other hot environments such as around furnaces,
smelters, or boilers can cause considerable thermal stress. Heat stress occurs when
heat is absorbed from the environment faster than the body can get rid of it. Several
factors may contribute to heat stress, such as type of work activity, surrounding air
temperature/humidity level and aspects of an individuals physical condition.
In scientific terms, in order to maintain the thermal equilibrium and prevent illness or
injury, a thermal balance must be maintained in the body, which is usually
represented by the following equation (Di Corleto, 2013):
H= M C R K E
Where:
H= net heat accumulation by the body
M= metabolic heat output
C= convective heat input or loss (can be positive or negative)
R= radiant heat input or loss (can be positive or negative)
K= conductive heat input or loss (can be positive or negative)
E= evaporative cooling by sweating (always negative)
Therefore, during any activity, the human body automatically attempts to maintain a
fairly constant internal temperature even though when exposed to varying
environmental conditions. To keep internal body temperatures regulated in hot
conditions, the body has to get rid of excess heat by evaporating sweat and varying
the blood flow to the skin. These responses are controlled by the brain and usually
occur when the blood temperature exceeds 37 degrees centigrade. However, our
body cannot always deal adequately with extreme heat conditions resulting to heat
related adverse effects. Factors that may contribute to heat-related health problems
at work include:

climatic conditions (e.g. high temperature, high humidity and low air velocity)
inadequate cooling off or rest periods
insufficient water consumption
Exposure to other radiant heat sources (e.g. oven, furnace or melting and
smelting processes)
inappropriate clothing

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individual factors such as age, general physical fitness and weight

life style factors that may cause dehydration (e.g. poor diet or alcohol and
caffeine consumption)
individual medical conditions that may cause heat stress (e.g. diarrhoea,
vomiting and hypertension, diabetes or heart disease)
medication that may affect the body temperature regulation

Heat stress adverse effects

Heat stress can affect our health in different ways, and some people are more
susceptible than others due to individual conditions, illness or medication that may
encourage the early onset of heat stress. Heat related illness can occur when the
body is unable to cool itself adequately and body temperature rises. The
consequences of heat stress are also included the reduction of safety and
productivity.
Heat stress related symptoms may vary from mild heat rash or cramps to heat
exhaustion or the more severe and potentially fatal heat stroke (Di Corleto, 2013).
The warning signs of heat stress include painful muscles spasms or cramps, heavy
sweating, difficulty in thinking clearly, slurred speech, blurred vision and dizziness or
fainting.
Heat rash is an intense, itchy red skin rash, due to the blockage of the sweat ducts
from prolonged wetting of the skin. It can be prevented by keeping the skin dry,
wearing suitable clothing and moving to a cooler with less humid environment.
Heat cramps usually affect people who have sweated a lot during heavy working
activity. These painful muscle cramps usually affect the abdomen, arms or legs.
Cramps may be an early symptom of the more severe condition of heat exhaustion.
Heat exhaustion is a serious condition that can develop into heat stroke. It is a
physiological response to depletion of fluid and salt due to excessive sweating.
Warning signs include heavy sweating, paleness, muscle cramps, tiredness and
weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting and fainting.
Lay the person in the shade, remove outer clothing, provide cool water and fan
vigorously to increase evaporation. If symptoms are persistent seek medical
attention immediately.
Heat stroke is a medical emergency, caused by a rise in core body temperature. A
person suffering heat stroke becomes confused, and may stagger or collapse. The
skin may be either dry or wet.
Call an ambulance and apply urgent first aid. Remove outer clothing, wet the skin
and fan vigorously to increase evaporation.

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Control Measures Against Heat Stress

Hydration
Maintaining adequate hydration is one of the most important practices to deal with
heat stress. During prolonged work in hot conditions, our body is able to sweat up to
one litre per hour. Unless this fluid is replaced by drinking, progressive dehydration
will result. Food must be consumed at meal breaks in order to replace electrolytes
and maintain energy.
Engineering controls
Control the temperature using engineering solutions such as:
reducing radiant heat emissions from hot surfaces and plant (e.g. by
insulation and shielding)
using ventilation and air-conditioning
using humidity reduction methods (e.g. installing a dehumidifier)
using automation and mechanisation of physically demanding tasks
Administrative controls
Apply administrative controls to reduce the exposure time by:
Gradual adjustment to workload when starting or returning to work in hot
conditions (generally takes about a week)
Providing regular drinking to maintain workers in a well-hydrated state
using appropriate clothing (e.g. loose fitting or air cooled clothing)
using temporary shelters (e.g. buildings, umbrella)
providing shade for rest and meal breaks.
medical screening (e.g. heat tolerance)

Links !
More detailed information on heat stress is available at:
Queensland Government
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/hazards/index.htm#.U9W-cOOSxe8
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Heat Stress
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/heat_control.html

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Activity 6.3 Other workplace physical hazards!

The OHS information regarding other workplace physical hazards can be found at:
Queensland Government
Workplace Health and Safety Queensland
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/hazards/index.htm#.U9WvA-OSxe8
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Physical hazards
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/
List some other workplace physical hazards.
Do you think working in extreme cold condition can also be a physical hazard?
List some jobs or industrial activities in which workers may expose to cold conditions.
Outline the associated risks and,
Outline the best preventive and control measures.

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References
Australian Bureau of Meteorology (2010). UV index. Australia Bureau of
Meteorology, Melbourne, Australia.
Barile, F. A. (2010). Clinical toxicology: Principles and mechanisms by Frank A.
Barile. Informa Healthcare, New York.
Chang, T. Y, Liu, C. S., Huang, K. H., Chen, R. Y., Lai, J. S. and Bao, B. Y. (2011).
High-frequency hearing loss, occupational noise exposure and hypertension:
a cross-sectional study in male workers. Environmental Health. 10:35, 1-8.
http://www.ehjournal.net/content/10/1/35
Di Corleto, R. (2013). The thermal environment. In Principles of occupational health
& Hygiene: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, (Reed et al., Eds.), pp. 396-418. Allen
& Unwin Academic, Sydney, Australia.
De Gruijl, F. R. (1999). Skin cancer and solar UV radiation. European Journal of
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European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. (2005). Expert forecast on
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Faurschou, A., and Wulf, H. C. (2007). The relation between sun protection factor
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Groothoff, B. (2013). Noise and vibration. In Principles of occupational health &
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Groothoff, B. (2007). Noise and vibration. In Principles of occupational health &
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NOHSC. (2000). National Standards for Occupational Noise (NOHSC:1007(2000)).
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Ramirez, C. C., Federman, D. G., and Kirsner, R. S. (2005). Skin cancer as an
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Safe Work Australia (2013). Guide on Exposure to Solar Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR).
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Shaath, N. A. (1997). The chemistry of sunscreens. In Sunscreens Developments,

Evaluation, and Regulatory Aspects (N. J. Lowe, N. A. Shaath, and M. A.
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