t ;.

"

, ,I

. , ..

' II

. ,i

"
,

~
"

"

,II

t II na

""

,
\

"

... :

"

. ..

"

"'-

,.

<!

"

!.

"

I
I

,
"'

..

0-

:i.:t-l

"II";
'",
I

!oj

I"'

"

I I"

,;

"

, ,

.;

,..:...'

, -,...

"'
,

vIsIon ;11

RIO

OOK

to Elizabeth lind Walter PlIepcke

vIsIon "'

P,II.I Titeoilltld, Chic"flO

on

THIRD PRI NTING

by the author

Hori;onl ;

Vienna, 1921

(wi th L. Kassak ); Vienna, 1922

,uale re i, Photo graphie, Film ; '\Iunich, 1925
Bue h n e u e r Ku e n . tle r

Die Bu ehn e in Baulla"' (wit h O. Sch lemmer); i\ 'lunich, 1925

Von Mat erial zu A rchi,e k,ur ; l' Iunich , 1928
60 Fo ro&; Leipzig, 1930
Th e Nero Vi' ;Oll ; New York, 1930, 1938, 1946
T e le hor ;

Bmo, 1936

S treel Mark el. o f L o ndon (with M. Benedetta)

London, 1936
E lon Po rtrait ( with B. Ferguson); London, 1937

Ox f o rd U n iver. it y Ch eSI

( with 1. Betjeman)

Londo n, 1937

COPYRI GHT 1947 BY S IBYL MOHOLYNAGY, CHI CAGO

ALL RIGHTS RES ERVED

PRINT":O AND HOUND IN THE UNITE!) STATES OF AMERI CA

UY THI:: WISCONSIN CUN EO PRESS

101

eUJoNl

This book is written for the artist and the layman, for everyone interested in his
relationship to our existing civilization. It is an extension of my previous book.
"The New Vision". But whil e "The New Vision" gave mainl y particulars about the
educational methods of the old Bauhaus, "V is ion in Motion" concentrates on th e
work of the Institute of Des ign, Chicago, and presents a broader, more general view
of th e interrelatedn ess of art and life. Recognizing th e arts as an integ ral part of
our existence, thi s book takes as its basic premi se the unity of th e arts with life.
Thus this book is an attempt to add to the politicosocial a biological " bill of righl$"
asserting the interrelatedness of man 's fundamental qualities, of his intellectual
and emo ti ona l requirements, of his psychological well bein g and his ph ys ica l health.

It proposes that new tools and techn ologies cause socia l changes; that they shift
ways of production, possessions, wealth, and power; yet th ough the inev itable logic
of new technologies. offerin g easy advantages for lab or sav in g and profit making, is
willingl y accepted on pragmatic intellectual terms, it is stubbornly opp osed in th e
emoti on a l sphere, where man clings to obsolete sta ndards and empty co nventions
of the past. unapp roachable by logical argument and often against his best interests.
This emotional prejudice

or inertia- is the grea t hindrance to necessa ry adj ustments

and social r eforms. The remedy is to add to our intellectual literacy an emoti onal
literacy, an education of the senses, the ability to articulate feelin g through the
means of express ion. \Vi!hout th e ba lanced performance of inte ll ect and feeling,'

man becomes crippled, one-sided. Only the combination fosters growth and leads to
an assurance of judgment, security of existence. The goal is to make available to
everyone the ways of expression which culmi~ate in the arts. Self-expression, which
on the highest level becomes art, forms the opening wedge to that otherwise
unreachable realm, the subcon sc ious 'feelings". Trained and articulated in this way,
the emotional forces will be sublimated.
The contemporary arts try to establish a new morality and a new ethics not hampered
by metaph ysical absolutes. \Vithin this large scheme the work of the Institute of
Design, Chicago: stands as a laboratory of the new trends. And though its investigations have been cen tered around the training of the industrial designer, my hope
is that the principles and the sco pe of its program, as they are outlined in this
volume and as they will be repo rted on also in future "i.d." books, will become
an incentive to our whole general education, from the kindergarten to the university.
As to the illustrations, the logical source was the work of the teachers and students
of the ]nsti tute and my own experiments. Beyond this, the paintings of the abstract
artists in this country are emphasized. Their achievements are a fine testimony to
the commo n platform of creative people all over the world, clarifying the fundamentals of the visual and other means of exp ress ion. Unfortunately. many valuable
examples had to be omitted because the number of illustrations and the size of this
volume are already beyond the original limit sel.
Through the publisher's generosity, ] was able to make some progress toward a new
book form on which I have been experimen tin g for twenty-five years. I have always
held that- for a better visual communication- text and illustration should be welded
together. ]Ilustra ti ons should accompany the copy and not be searched for. In this
book I use a layout which seems better adapted to the present printing technique
of machine typesetting and letterpress than the conventional book form of previous
periods. Here, all the illustrations are placed where mentioned in the text, either
smallsized on the large margin, or largersized within th e main text or on the
opposite page. The result is (at least this was intended) a fun ctional Auidity and
greater legibility, that is, a better communication. ]n the first chapter. where no
pictures have been used, the illustrations become verbal, in the form of quotations
or remarks. These are set in italics in order to separate them from the captions and
text.
This book is integrated in its text and illustrations, but it also considers the impatient
reader, who, at first unwilling to plow through the written arguments, may enjoy the
pictorial material. Stirred by this, he may then proceed to read brief cap tions,
glossaries, and footnotes until his appetite is whetted to explore the main text.

T he illustratio ns of the sl udents' work ore ma rl..ed with

with a thicker circle 0

t h in 0, t hose of l he fa culty

Page

7-9
9
10-12

13-32

Foreword
Acknowledgment
Introduction
L Analyzing the Situation
Vision in Motion
The Discrepancy-The Inalienable Rights-Specialists Moral Obligations DiminishIndivisible Educati07l,-O/ficial and Unofficial Education-Oonfusion Around Sci
ence-The Propaganda Machine-Careerisls-Liberal Ed1LCation-Stabilizing the
Transilory-Secondhand Facts-Attempts at Improvements-The Task 0/ this Genera
tion-Oapacities-Fear-The Amateur-The Function of Art- The uPro/essional"
Artist-Art and Science.

33-62

II. New Method of Approach

Design for Life

Axioms-Quality of R elationships-Designing is Not a Profession but an AttitudeDesign Potentialities-Established Paths of Thought-Forms and Shapes-The Age
of A ssemblage-Streamlining-New Working Conditions-Other Social ImplicaiionsEconomy of Production- The Role of Intuition-The . 1 "1//lfOflrdl- f) is.~('millatioJl
0/ Knowledg e-Menial Ad;ustment.

63-357
63-112

111_ New Education

a) general outline

Organic Approach

The Ba ckground-The Bauhaus- The z,-'oundation (Basic) Course- Policy-'1'he Edv.

cational Technique-Practising Oorrelatums-Scienlific Ouriosity- Common Denominator-Aptitude Tesls: T'ocalio nal Guidance-Hand Sculptures-Weight SculpturesTactile Structures },[easuring Exercise-Machine Exercise-Sheels, Slabs, JointsGlass, ~MiTrOT and Spatial Exercises- j)fotion Studies Emphasis on UObjeciive"
Quality- The Specialized Workshops- The Architectural Deparlmenl-.Mechanical
Drafting-Space llIodulalor- The Primitive House-Contemporary House-The.
"argeT Concept 0/ Struciure- Spatifll Concepts-Social Planning.

Page
1133~ 7

b) integration-the arts

Pointing

113169

Issues-Cubism-Distortion---Attempts of Rendering Motion-The System of Oub; ]".

- Visual Fundamentals-Solutions of Legibility-Vision in Motion-I n Defense of
"Abstract" Art--Stages in Space Interpretation On Color-From Pigments to Colored Light-UOptophonetic".

170215

Photograph y

Colo r Photography- Biad: and White-Photographic Quality-Teaching Photography

Photograph y lVilhout Camera ( Photogram)- Light ],[odltlalor-Olher ExperimentsPhotographic F lsion- Eight Varieties of Photographic Vision- Image Sequences;
Series-Photogen ic l' ers/ts Pholo creal il'e-X ew Dir pciiolls-S Ilperimposil ion-Photomontage.

216243

Sculpture

The General Situation- Aspects of Representatio~ Ji'undamental Attitudes in Treating .Materials-Volum e Creatio11r-The Fit:e Stages of Volume Modulation (Articulalion}-Parallel Phenom efla- Volume Modulator : First Stage, Second Stage , Third
Stage-Successio'l in Tim e-A mpli{ication- Fourth Stage-Fifth Stage- 7'he H istory
of Kin etic SC'Ulpture- Duality of Volume~8c ulptuTaI Develo pment and Emotionnl
Experience.

244269

S plice- Tim e Proble m &

Ren dering Motion. (sV(Lce- lime ) on the Static Plane- Sveed-A nalysis of Speedr--Transparency and Light- Photographic Practice-Sy mbols- Mobile ArchitectureExposition A rrhiiprtnre, Display, Theater , Dallce-Space-Timef
270291

lIolio n I'i clllre&

The Situation- The Problem-The Visual-LIght- Abstract Film- Documentary

Film- Pioneers-Sou1Id Pilm- Film Cutting ( Montag e)-Ge nuine Technique for the
Sound Film-Color Film and Long -Shot .Montage- The Visual Axis-Oolor Economy
- Pro jection-The To-sks of Film Production- In st itute of Light- Film Script .

292352

Literature
First Steps- r rrbalizerl Communication- lVhitman and Lautreamont- A pollinaire.
Morgenstern, Stein-F'uturism-"The Geometrical and Mechanical Splendor"-The
New TYVogrophy- R imbaud-Dadaism-H ans Arp- Tristan Tzara- Bugo Ball , Rickard lluelsenbeck-I\url Schwitlers- TVriling s of th e Psychotic-Children's verses<Sound alld Number Manic-The New Poetry A1rived-S-u.rrealism- Arl and SocietySigmund Ji't'eud-J amcs J oyce-Pinnegans Wak e-Freedom and Unpredictability.

353357

Gro up Poetry

Group Po etry as uWord- Modulalor"-lnditidual Work.

358361

IV. A Proposa l
Youth Ollly-ParliflJJlf'nt of Social Design.

362-367

In dex

aehfto,,,ledgment
Bes ides my than ks to th e publi : :- her for hi s supp ort, my gratitude goes to the facult y
and studen ts of the Inst itute of Des ign, Chicago j to its Boa rd and Chairman. Thei r

ent hus iasm, ideas. a nd comradeship ca rri ed me through these yea rs and made possible
a co mm on achievement.
I would al so like to express m y sin cere appreciation to the Rockefeller F oundati on,
Ne w Yo rk , whose und erstandin g a nd ge neros it y enabled me La finish thi s hook.
Thanks is due O. M. F orkerl fo r hi s efforts in behalf of the technical production of

the book.
In the English fo rm ula tion of these pages I needed mu ch advice and I a m in debted to

my fri end s, F. C. Fassett , Jr.,

J. B. Foley, Martin Diamond , Leslie L. Lewi s, J ohn

Sweeney, Trude Morris, a nd- most of all- to my wife S ibyl, for their patience and
e\er.ready \\ illing ness to help.

I hea rtil y th a nk for the use of cut s a nd photogra phs the follow in g persons and agencies:
Americon Photography , Boston, Moss., Figs. 225227, 235, 254, 257, 259,
2600, 273, 274, 277, 280, 282, 322
ArchItectu ral Forum, N. Y., Figs. 36, 54, BB, 94, 96, 138, 207, 350-353,
359, 360
Architectural Record, N. Y., Fig. 135
Art Institute of Chica go, Figs. 182, 334
Arts and Architecture , Los Angeles, Fig. 139
Baltimore & Ohio Ratlrood Co., Fig. 39
Burrouqhs Welcome & Co. (U.S.A.), Inc., FIg. 246
Mary Callery, N. Y., Fig. 343
Chicogo Tribu ne, Chicago, Figs. 2, 335
Ea stman-Kodak, Rochester, N. Y., Fig. 222
"etc," Chicago, Figs. 205, 303
Ethyl Gosohne Corporation, N. Y., Ftg. 3780
foley & Co., Chicago, Fig. 'II
Furmture Age, Chicago, Figs. 85, 125
General Electric Co., Plastics Division, Pittsfield, Mass., Fig. 45
General Printing Ink Co., N. Y., Figs. 24, 25, 208, 209
B. F. Goodrich, Akron, 0., Fig. 432
Institute of Design, Chicago, Figs. 10, 174-177, 314, 329
Intenors, Whitney Publications, Inc., N. Y., Figs. 57, 58, 61, 66, 73, 95,
97,98, lOS, Ill, 124,246
Kenyon ReVIew, Gambier, 0., Fig. 330
life, N. Y., FIgs. 223, 354, 358
The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Figs. 29, 38
Maga:z:ine of Art, Washington, D. C., Ftg. 337
Metropolitan Museum, N. Y., Fig. 163
Whnicam Photography, Cmcmnati, 0., FIgs. 11, 33, 42, 185, 190, 224,
228, 231, 2<14, 247-253, 261272

Mode rn Art Society, Cincinnati, 0., Figs. 188, 203, 240

Modem Industry, N. y " Figs. I, SO, 84, 110
Modern Plastics, N. Y., Figs. 30, 34, 35, 43, 67, 69, 76, 77 , 107-109,
114116
More Busmess, Chicago, Figs. 217, 297
Barbara Morgan, N. Y., Fig. 26
Museum 01 Modern Art, N. Y.. Fig. 131
NotIOnal Art Gallery (Chester Dale and Rosenwald Collections), Woshington, D. C., Figs. 147, 155
Norton Gallery and School of Art, West Palm Beach, Fla., Fig. 194
Parker Pen Co., Janesville, Wis .. Fig. 40
Penrose Annual, London, Figs. 215, 216
Philadelphia Museum of Ar t, Fig. 206
Plastic Progress, Chicago, Figs, 23, 86
Pocahontas Press, Chicago, Fig. 26
Prinhng Quarterly, Chicago, Fig. 326
Science News Letter, Washington, D. C .. Fig. 278
Seng 6 Co., Chicago, Figs. 67-69
Technology Review, M.LT., Cambridge, Mass., Figs. 245, 258, 275, 276,
28t, 284, 285, 345, 346, 390
Paul Theobc:ld. Publisher, Chicago, Figs. 1<12-14<1, 237, 361, 363
Timber. Ottawa, Canada, Figs. 87, 89, 90
Tricolor, N. Y., Figs. 229, 236, 290, 291, 336, 340
Upholstering, N. Y.. Figs. 91, 92
Union Teacher, Chicago, Figs. 54, 74, 75
Westinghouse Research Lamp Laboratories, Bloomfield, N. J., Fiq. 349
W. B. Wheeler, Ltd., Boston, Figs. 18, 397
Felix Wltzinger, Carlton College, Fig. 168

L. Moho ly.Nagy

Chicago, 1946

Introduction

To state th e case is al most too simp le:

The industrial revolution opened up a new dimension-the dimension of a new

science and a new technology which could be used for the realization of all-embracing
relationships. Con temporary man threw himself into the experience of these new rela-

tionships. But sa turated wi th old ideologies. he approached the new dimension with
obsolete practices and failed to translate his newly ga ined experience into emo tional
language and cultural reality. The result has been and still is misery and conflict,
brutality and anguish, un employ ment and waf.
Emoti onally most people live within the old dimensions of anachronistic fixations,
tribal prejudices. They are immune against any suggestion for a better use of their
resurces because in our verbalistic society all such arg uments can be answered by
cou ntera rguments for the preservation of the statu s quo. What is needed is a rediscover y of the eleme nts of existence, work, recreation, and a fearless demonstration
of their fundamentals relative to our tim e without paralogy. We have to free the
elements of existence from histo ri c accreti ons, from the turgid symbolism of past
association, so that th eir functi on and effectiveness will be unimpaired .
Theoreticall y, man is the sum total of his psychophysical, intellectual, and emotional po tentiali ties. H is reason in g power parallels the emotional forces. What he
knows, he co uld also feel if he wou ld train himself in both spheres. In fact, this is
his historic struggle, to arrive at an integra ted life in which he would fun cti on to the
fullest of his ca pacities through a synthesis of the intellectual and the emotional,

10

through the coordination of penetr3tive thinkin g and profound feelin g. To reach this
goal-to feel what we know and know \\ hat we feel- is one of the tasks of our
gene ration.

To achieve ulis integrated state there is need for a well-balan ced social orgaOlza-

tion and an appropriate ed ucation ; an educati on for personal g rowth a nd not a mere
training in skills for the purpose of profit; a social organiza ti on in which everyone
is utilized to hi s highest capacity.
In the training of the hwnan intellect there is an official standard, co mprising
logical thought ca tegories, the set mechanism of syll og ism and rhetori c_ But there is
also a need for co rrelated perceptive and emotional education . This is not even yet
acknowledged. At present Ule nonintell ectual development of the individual is entirely

his private affair, co nfined to a hit-or-miss approach. The consequence is emotional

i.l literacy, whi ch means to be without compass, without assurance of feeling, in a
complex, immensely extended world .
Generally, the mechanism of feeling is set in motion by a network of sensations
both from with in and without. The mechanics of inner sti muli is as yet unexplored,
although psychoanalysis attempted revolutionary explanations abo ut the subconscious,
its trauma s, repressions, regressio ns, and wishfulfilm ents. If not sublima ted or released, such psychic maelstroms beco me the foci of con Ai cts.
More is known about emotiona l activation fr o m without, starting with simple
Se!lSory experiences, which serve as basic material for the ex ternali zation- that is
the expression-of emotional life. Expression on a hi gh level produ ces art which is
the most effecti ve agent for emoti onal a rti cul ati on. It is a sociopsychologi cally dangerous mistake to allow art to be classified as remote

a lu xury- a nonessen tial.

One of the functions of the artist in society is to put la yer upon la yer, stone
upon ston e, in the organization of emoti ons; to reco rd feelings with his particular
means, to g ive stru cture and refi nement as well as direction to the inn er life of his
co ntemp ora ries. It is the artist's duty today to penetrate yet-un seen ranges of the biological functions, to search the new dimensions of the industrial society and to tran slate the new findin gs into emotional orien tati on . The artist unconsciously disentangles
the most essential strands of ex istence from the contorted and chaotic complexities
of ac tuali ty, and weaves them into an emoti ona l fab ri c of compellin g va lidity, characteristic of himself as well as of hi s epoch. This ability of selection is an outstanding gift based upon intu itive power and insight. upon judgment and kn owledge, and
upon inner responsibility to fundamental biological and social laws which provoke a
reinterpretation in every civilization. This intuiti ve power is present in other creative
workers, too, in philosophers, poets, scientists, technologists. They pursue the same
hopes, seek the same meanings, and- a lth ough the content of th eir work appears to
be d ifferent-the trends of their approach and the background of th eir activity are
identical. They a1l must draw from the same source, which is life in a certain society,
in a certain civilization. This basic identity is the common denominator, the desire

II

today to find and investigate the fundamentals in every field so that they can become
co nstructive parts of a new civilization.

The problem of our generat ion is to bring the intellectual and emoti onal, the social
and technolog ical components into balanced pla y ; to learn to see and feel them in
relationship.
Without this interrelatedness there remains on ly the disjunctive technical skill of
handling human affairs. a ri gidity stifling biological and social impulses; a memo
orized, not a lived life.

VISion In 111011011

vision in m Olion
is simultaneous grasp. Si multaneo us g ra sp is creative perrormance-seeing, feeling
and thinkin g in relationship and not as a series of isolated phenomena. It instan
tan eo usly integrates and tran smutes sin gle elements into a coherent whole. This is
va lid for physical vision as well as r or the abstract.
vision in mOlion
is a sy nonym fo r sim ultan ei ty and spacetime; a means to comprehend th e new di

menslOn.

VlSLOn
z.n molwn

is seeing while moving.

vision in mOlion
is seei ng moving objects ei ther in reality or in forms of visual representation as in
cubism and futuri sm. In the latter case the spectator, stimulated by the spec ific means
of rendering, recreates mentally and emoti onally th e o ri ginal motion.
vision in motion
also signifies planning, th e projective dynamics of our visionar) facu lties .

uTh e head is n ot m ore 11 atil'e to the heart." ( Hamlet )

12

analy zing tb e situation

the discrepancy
S ince the industrial revolution our civilization ha s suffered from a gro wing discrepancy between ideo log ica l potenti ality and actua l realizati on.
The metamorph os is of the world th rough mass prod ucti on, mass d istr ibution, and
mass communi cati on forced man to think in eco nomi c term s an d organ ize his

bus iness affairs on a global sca le. But hi s life philoso ph y remain ed provin cial. He
abso rbed the tech no logical and econom ic aspects o f the industrial revolution with

surpr is in g speed but with out an und erstandin g of th eir manifold implica tions, never
rea li zin g th ei r dangerous a nti biolog ical an d asocia l dy namics if accepted with out
planni ng. Th e new tech no logical trend s deve loped rapidl y but their social effects
soon got out of cont rol. In spite of ex ultan t fo recasts, th e prod igio us potenti alities
for health y livi ng, the fair participation in the benefits o f mass produ ced goods,
the persisten t hopes to genera te harmonio us social relationshi ps. have as yet not been
ful fi ll ed.

Man has inve nted pseudofundament als to ca mou fl age the ancient ail ment of econom ic
ineq uality and sq ualor. Only very slow ly if at all, have the ma ni fo ld adva nt ages of
the amaz ing tech nica l improvemen ts seeped dow n to the bottom of the economic
pyra m id.

(The last census revealed a staggering percen tage of America n homes

without plumbing, electrici ty, cooking gas, or adequate heat ing insta ll ations.)
The great metamorphosis served mainly for the accumula ti on of ind ivid ual profitsj
for a ~harp increase in the destructiveness of co mpetitio n decided by force; by a

13

social ethics based on economic superiority rath er than on the principles of justice.
Th e r esult was an open fight between labor and m'anagement , and a half.hidden,
smouldering class struggle between th ose who co uld afford the benefits of technologi ca l progress and those who co uld not. These ills, with their resultant monopoConcerning the idea 0/ "competition"
and "natural selection" Julian Hu xley
states (in "Evolution: Th e Modern
Synthesis," Harper & Brothers ) that
"Iuture human progress is dependent on
an increase 0/ intraspecific (i.e ., within
th e same species) cooperalion until it
preponderates over intraspecific com
petition." He sees the future 0/ man in
the development 0/ man's capacities.
"There are many obvious ways in which
the brain's level 0/ per/ormallce could
be genetically raised--in acuteness 01
perception, memory. synthetic grasp and
intuitwn, analytic capacity, mental en
ergy, creative power, balance, and judg
ment." " Increase 0/ control, increase 0/
independence, increa,se 0/ internal coor
dination; increase of knowledge, means
01 coordirutting knowledge, 0/ elabor
ateness and intensity 01 feeling-those
are trends 01 the most general order."

listi c and fascist tendencies, finally led to repea ted world wars whi ch were cruel
attempts to win ca pitalistic com petition , and to check the upward spiral of the social
progress so vigorously undertaken by th e American and French revolutions. Our
generati on must stop the r ecurrence of th ese wars by understanding the hazards of
a planlessly expanding industry which, b y the blind dynamics of comp et ition and
profi t, autom atically leads to conflicts on a world sca le.
The soc ial and economic chaos of the world and the intellectual , emot iona l: and spiritual miser y of th e individu a l are appalling. There is, however~ no use blaming
ea rli er generati ons or specific nati ons whose actions ap parentl y laid the basis for the
prevailing confusion. \Vhat they did and how th ey did it we re th e effects of shortterm m easures resulting eith er from lack of imaginati on or class-determined actions
and social ignorance. It is th e duty of our generation to poi nt out thi s fact in order
to counteract the assumption that a providential p ower is behind human short comings
and an injurious eco nomic and social machi ne r y; that not we but our ancestors are
respons ibl e for our plight. We can hope for improvement only after we have surrendered metaph ysica l interpretations in favor of a scientifi c analysis o f human
history. Tradition is man-made and m ust be consta ntl y reevaluated, adhered to, o r

He also speaks about a " . . . . . wide

spread laLlacy- namely, thar natural se
lection and the adaptations that it pro
motes must be lor the good 01 the spe
cies as a whole, lor rhe good 0/ the
elJoluing type pursuing a longrange
trend, lor the good 01 the group . ... In
actual /act ," he states, ",(;e find that
intraspecific selection frequently leads
to results which are mainly or wholly
useless to the species or type as a
whole." "This conclusion is 0/ larreach
ing importance. It disposes 0/ the no
tion, so assiduously rationalized by the
militarists in one way and by the laissez.
Caire economists in aflother, that all man
needs to achieve lurther progressive evo
lution is to adopt the most thorough.
going competition: the more ruthless
the competition, the more efficacious the
selection, and accordingly the better the
results." ... "But we now realize that
the results 0/ selection are by flO means
necessarily <good,' from the point 0/
lJiew either 0/ the species or 0/ the pro
gressive evolution ollile. They may be
neutral, they may be a dangerous bal.
once 0/ useful and harmful, or they may
be definitely deleterious. For the states
man Dr the eugenist to copy Us methods
is both loolish and wicked."

d isca rded. depending up on fundamental, common needs, not up on delusions which

only extenuate socia l g uilt.
By concentrati ng insight, passion and sta mina, we may recover the neglected fundamenta ls. Our generation must accept the challenge to reinvestigate the elements of
health y li ving so that these ca n be used as yardsti cks to clarify con d iti ons around us.
By integrating this newly ga ined knowledge with th e ex istin g soc ial dynamics, we
cou ld direct our steps towards a harmony of individual and socia l needs.

the inalienable rights

The industrial revoluti on started wi th an en thusiastic emphas is on huma n va lues.
The American and French Revolution s were test fights. Although the chan ge from
hand icraft and shop-manufactured goods of feudalist soc iety to modern machine
product ion was a technologi cal shift, the accent was in the beginning not so much on
econom ic aspects as on biological and social ones. This was even more strongly emphasized later when the individualis ti c nature of th e crafts was superseded mo re by
the social character of machine productio n in fac tories. The enthu siasm gene rated
by the slogan "libertc, fraternit c, egalite" quickly liquidated the paternalistic tran s~ ressions

of the nobility; and the preamble to the America n Declaration o f Ind e-

pendence, written years bzfore the French Revolution, stated " th at al1 m en are
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certa in in alienable rights:
that among these are li fe, liberty and the pursu it of happiness: that to secure these

14

ri ghts CO\'ern ments are instituted amo ng men, derivin g their just power from the
consent of the gm'erned: that wheneve r any fo rm of Government beco mes destructive
of these end s, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and to institute new
GO\'ernm en t, lay ing its foundat ion on such principles, and organi zin g its powers in
such forms, as shall seem most likely to effect th eir safety and happin ess."
The creative bourgeo is forces had th e since re intenti on of makin g these principles
work. However , th e task of building a new society was enorm ous, and th e methods
of reali zation were lim ited by the un conscious dependence upon the previous struc
ture. The bourgeo isie concentrated all its power on the task of breaking the might
of the nobility. In so doin g it mo\'ed into the place and functi on of th e feud al master.
~There

the prince had previously reigned. the me rchant was now the ruler. But he was
far fro m sharing his liberated life with the fourth class-the workers. The bourgeoisie
fought aga inst the di scrim inatio ns of the class above it, but inherited the ancient
ideology of superiority over th ose on the nex t lower level with whom it was not co n
sidered fi t to share th e respo nsibilities of government. In fact, in the later phases of
capitalism, the nobi li ty. other wise purely vesti gial , was permitLed furth er ex istence in
ord er to traditionalize th at myth of superi ority.
specialists
Industry ex panded quickl y. The happil y prospering businessma n needed a vast num
ber of mechanics, engi neers, and superviso rs to fulfill the profit requirements of an
eco nomic strategy which se rved exclusively the demands of mass.producti on pros
per ity. The co mmon denominator was quick specializa tion, wi thout an y considerati on
of biological fu ndamentals. Vocational schools were founded for th e requ ired specialists. Fields of producti on were specia li zed an d seg regated from each oth er in the
hope th at the output would be greater if they were not distracted by mani fold interests.
Creati,'e abilities, concentrated on I imited problems, produced stunnin g results, ex
pandi ng the boundaries of the capital istic eco nomy.
The wheels of industr y turned fast a nd p rompted a clear div isio n of all labo r, ne
glecti ng everythi ng but these divided fun ctions. All former responsibility an d pride
of th e craftsman in the wholeness of a product was now eliminated. P artici pation in
the massproductio n process was li mited to the execution of a small detail. As the
labore r was dep rived of the incenti ve an d assura nce of workin g for a creative result
dependent upon his abilities for com pletion, the vital fl uid which, as in a battery,
carries the current from one uni t to the oth er, evaporated. He became inani mate,
wo rking in the maze of tunnels and ga ngways of the speciali zed labyrint hs.
Wi th growing industrial opportunities the en ti re educational sys tem au ained avoca
tional aspect. Schools lost sight of their best potential qualit y: universality. They
lost their sense of synthesis to the extent of a complete separa tion of the various types
of experience. On the other ha nd "prosperity" increased, and wi th it the temptation
to enlarge profits. Everyone seemed satisfied. Production figures and balance sheets
"spoke for themselves," being sufficien t justification of traini ng for profit. High

15

premiums were paid for labor-saving devices, automatic machines. The specialists,
proud of their abilities which could be translated into dollars and cents, knew more
and more about less and less. With the exception of a few, their complex biological
capacities became inert, their vision narrowed.
moral obligations diminish

The specialists had much detailed knowledge but th eir work Roated in the air, missing
both human and social directi on, They were busy within their own territory of specialized ta sks which had train ed them to "mind their own business," neutralizing
human sympa thi es. the natural social reflexes of a healthil y developed individual.
This was Ul e age of isolation, marked by fierce competition between specialists in the
same field who at the same time maintained an attitude of laissez Jaire toward all
others; co nsequentl y lessenin g th e sense of obli gati on to cooperate, and fostering an
unwillin gness to share in the co mplex problems of soc iety. The specialists worked to
the best of their ability, aiming at an optimum performance of their given task, But
their actions were detennined by unrelated thinkin g. without the broad vista of social
planning.
Early capitalists had accepted the basic premise of protestantism that man's grea test
virtue is his conscience, responsible onl y to himself and God. They communicated
personally with "providence" when a decision had to be mad e, and felt them selvess -rightly or wrongly- as execu tors of God's will in th e ma na gement of th eir merchant
empires. Today no one feels even this responsibility, neither th e abstract stockholder
nor the usually inactive board of directors.
Irresponsibili ty prevails everywhere. An adverti sing artist, for insta nce, makes a
layout for the sale of a product. He is responsible for nothing but his own art; that is,
his professional standard. The merchant sells th e product which is advertised. But
he is not responsible for its possibly inferior conte nts, as it is already packed before
it reaches him. The manufacturer is not responsible either because he only finan ces
the production; the formula comes from th e hired stafT of a research laboratory
trained to produce results which will compete with products on the market. Altogether, responsibility has been subdivided to the evasive ness of the microscop ic.

16

indivisible educslion
At the dawn of human history preliterar y education was by myth and folktale which
had nothing but the spoken word to wield influence. Boundless fantasy created test
cases of human endurance, co urage, kindness and intelligence, instilling in the hearer
a deep feeling of responsibility by the inevitability of cause and consequence: the
good was rewarded and the evil punished, and it was up to the hero to choose the
right side. The human urge to follow great examples, and to co ntinu e the threads
of the old tales, inspired originality, challenged skill, and broadened knowledge. The
solutions of the heroic fi gures \\ ere ideal solutions of problems facing man. These
provided him with guidance and a deep inner securit y embedded in a greater tradition that had found ways of coping with life. And ever) " here, th ey \\ ere surrounded
by paintings, sculpture and architecture.
Later, education, already removed from the close co ntact with the elements and the
soil as in Greece, had to broaden its sco pe. Mind as well as body had to be developed
simultaneously; skill and shrewdness were no longer enough. In the Greek gymnasium
the curri culum of elementary and high school (to the age of sixteen ) co nsisted of
play and sport "in order to eliminate the doctor" as Plato said.

~Then

social adjust-

ment and health were well established, the education of the mind was started. Emotional development was molded by co ntact with th e arts, especially through music.
Even when learning mathematics, the pupils sa ng the rul es in chorus.
In intellectual training, importance was given to the grasp and enjoyment of logical
co ncepts, categorical thinkin g; the organized approach to probl ems, the ability to
contemplate and think independentl y.

official and unofficial education

In the Middle Ages th e " leader" edu cation of th e privil eged benefited only a small
number of people. But within thi s small g roup th e emphasis was again put upon the

integration of all abilities, including sports, music, scie nce, philosophy, hi story, literature, sculpture, and painting. Tn that society, until the French Revo lution, th e toilers
had th e role of beasts of burden- no literacy was needed for th eir wo rk.
Yet even they enj oyed on a modest level, a totality of ex istence through their arts,
crafts, and folk fes tivals, songs. mu sic, and dance and an all.embracing com mon
religion.
This preliterary culture was destroyed by th e industrial revoluti on beca use skill ed and
semiskilled labor had to be acquai nt ed with a multitude of printed technical instructi ons. This necessity did not seem to be a bad basis for a democratized gene ral educati on whi ch had long been the desire of visionary ed ucators. A wholesale literacy
seemed at first to open new and happy vistas for everyo ne. But, paradoxically, mass
distribution of schooling accomplished a negative miracle. The speed y dispensation
of education for immediate use neglected biological o ri entation wi thout which the
urge for creative activity was lost and wi th it the most important aid to maturity and
judgment. It provided the masses with a quick training but threw overboard its

17

"But I thank Gad, there are no free

schools nor prinling, and I hope we
shall not have these IIILndred years; lor
learning has brought disobedience, and
heresy, and sects into the world, and
printing has dimlged them, and libels
against the best government. God keep
us from both." (Sir William Berkeley,
governor of Virginia, in the year 1671,
in ansllJer to inquiries by the lords com
missioners of foreign plantations. 1n
William Waller Hening, "The Stawtes
at Large." N. Y. 1823. Vol. II, p. 517.)
King James II, on ascending the English
throne in 1685, sent this instruction to
Governor Dongan, in New York: "And
for as much as great in convenience may
arise by the liberty 0/ printing within
our province of New York; you are to
provide by all necessary Orders that noe
person keep any press for printing, nor
that any book, pamphlet or other matters whatsoever bee printed without your
special leave and license first obtained."
(In John Clyde Oswald, "Printing in
the America.s.")

purpose, namely, that " not kn o wl edge but the po wer to acquire knowledge is the goal
o f ed ucatio n. " .

Exactl y thi s was circumvented. The masses received a training by

verbalizati on, emph as izing the process of receiving instead of producing. The goal
was no t to express oneself, to think independentl y and be al ert, but to " appl y" educa.
ti on fo r r unni ng machin es acco rdin g to instructi on.
This may not have been obvious at the beg in nin g of mass education. Only after the
machi ne age had shed its revolutionar y character as the g reat liberati on from the
to il and slaver y of lllanu al labor, d id its masters think of meth ods to stabilize the
privileges of a new rulin g class. ]n addition to law and j ustice, which were amended
to hand le overt offenses against the statu s quo, other, more subtle dev ices for its
prese rvati on we re fo und . Amo ng th ese dev ices th e most effi cient was and still is the

unofficial educati on which tr ies to confuse even th e meager knowledge han ded out by
the official educa tion in o rder to ma ke it ineffective for social orien tation. This un official educa ti on is the sum total of a tho usan d f orces which tr y to influence public
opinion, from adver tisi ng to town hall meetings, from art to science; a might y propaganda machi ne ru n by intr icately inter woven interests of lobbyists a nd pressure
groups, monopolists and h ired politicians from whose ten tacles there is almost no
escape.

con.fusion around scien ce

As common sense grew in to organ ized science and scientific resea rch became more
and more independent of metaphys ics, th e scientists ha d q ui te a battl e to stabilize their
ha rdwon new pos itions. Complications arose when they tried to investigate sub jects
wh ich were co nsidered taboo either because they served the interes ts of a socially
priv il eged gro up or because they were roo ted in the theo logica l sphere of the supernatural.
For example, the theory of evolul ion of the species of Darwin was considered as
dangerous and immoral as were the economi c sludies o f Marx an d th e psych oanalysis

of Freud.
The bou rgeoisie fo und themselves in a great dilemma. On the one ha nd they needed
organized science because research was the great reservo ir fr om which profit-mak in g
inventions could be developed j on the other hand, science was a p otential explosive
capable of destroying beliefs essential for the sta tus quo.
Since Galileo's mecha nistic statement: "The goa l of science is the mathematical and
quantitative formulation of all experiences a nd relationships," science has been co nstantly fighting for its own defini tion. Ga li leo's definit ion was in tun e with the 19th
century idea of speciali zat ion which segregated the fi elds and listed them with out relation to each other.
Francis Bacon's words crystallized the iss ue be tter. ':There is another great and
staled by J. H . Peslalozzi ( 174 6-1827) 011e of t he great educators of history.

18

powerful cause why the sciences have made but little progress. lL is not possible to
run a course aright when th e goa l itself has not been rightly placed." This was nearer
to th e grea ter concept that science is th e body of ordered kn owledge which ca n be
used Illost productively by being related to a social goal. The more thi s idea gai ned
in popularity, the stronger grew the efTo rt s of certain business gro ups to neutralize
the social function of science and emphasize its application for business only_ It was
stated ti me and again that scientists have to be neutral, objective, and not take sides
in any case. '-Objective science" had the same conno tation as l'art
"/Ie who has science and art has religion_ He who has neither, needs religion," said Goethe_
"The supernatural is in part the region
0/ the natural that has not been undersloocl, in part an invention 0/ human
/antasy, in part the unknowable. Man
must not attempt to put off any 0/ his
burden 0/ responsibility onto the shoulders 0/ outside pou:er!l_ To become truly
adult, we must learn to bear the burden
0/ incertitude. The most difficult lesson
to learn is that irrational and intolerant
certitude is undesirable. When men assert that the scientific approach is incomplete it is because they are mistaking an early stage in its grawth /or full
development." ( Julian Huxley)

pOlLr

Cart, that is,

minding one's ow n business. Science was considered as a lucra tive meth od of research
and as such was commandeered for tech nological and industrial development. It was
further declared that scientific teachin g is not con tradictory to theology or metaphysics_
Consequently, in spi te of such scient ific facts as are known , the axiom of submission
to sup ern at ural authorit y, belief in manifestations of divinity in human life and in
the offerings of nature, were retained as th e fundamentals of education . The obvio us
con tradictio n between the two types of teaching came to cloud the thinking of the
individual, burdeni ng him wi th a double loyalty that was torn between what is vaguely
referred to as " intellect" and "fai th."
Indi vidual as well as social problems, from child educa tion to the conduct o f world
wars, have been and are being decided in this state of co nfusion, the emotional-sentimental or the realistic-scientific argument being used, depending upon the advantage
to th e powers involved _
the propaganda machine
Besides the basic ideological confusion concerning "objecti ve" and "subjective" truth,
a widely organized advertising, publications, books, fairs, exhibitions, press and radio,
bombard the public with informa tion des irable for the protection of vested interests.
This service is rapid and versat ile and covers a multitude of subj ects without being
concerned wit h human or social essential s. It silllply stuffs the public with spot news,
spectacular but unrelated facts. ] f there are no " thrill ers," they are deliberately manufactured. The emoti onal li fe of the individual becomes filled with worthless schemes.
Being in the midst of a th ousand details, but missing all fundamental relationships,
his world becomes shallow. The public is eager to learn ; but without having been
taught to Lhink ana lyti call y_ it succumbs to the innuence of flash-qui ck com mentators
hired by, or unconsciously selTile to_ pressure groups. They fill the minds with straw
and prejudice; they machine-gun their victims wi th half knowledge, conglomerations
of significant and insignificant facts_ Not given the to ols of integration, the individual
is not able to relate all this casual and scattered information into a meaningful synthesis. He sees e\Ceryth ing in cliches_ His sensibi lit y dulled, he loses the organic desire
for self-expression even on a modest level. His natural longing for direct con tact with
the vital, creative forces of existence becomes transformed into the status of bemg
well informed and well en tertained. Typical examples are th e radio quiz programs
which offer cash to the best memorizer; the comic strips whi ch deal in episodes with-

19

out any psychological foundati on; the round tabl e discussions which always present
both sides, with the wittiest and not the wisest drawing the applause; and- above allthe digest mania which tailors fi ction and fa c.t till they fit a prescribed number of
pages and a predetermined attitud e of the g roup finan cing the publication. In all
th ese. the public is fed predi gested pap by commentat ors as a substitute for independent thinking.
careerist8

Peo ple are taught that the best wa y of living is to use other people's energy, other
people's results. They buy not only material goods on the free market but also emo
ti o na l co mmoditi es. Specialists in entertainm ent provide for a passive recreation.
The industrial era marks the extincti on of th e amateur and the arrival of the careerist,
whose on ly aim is to co mmerciali ze the means of expression; that is, not to produce
ou t of co nvicti on, but merely to deli ver tec hni cal skill fo r whatever subject is asked.
Art is tak en not as elevation of individual effo rt throu gh the sin ce re expression
of feelin gs o r as evok in g an intense range of emotional expf'riences, but as an escape
or ersaf.;; in a kind of spectator's art.
In th e past, group acti vities gave th e people a feeling of solidarity. coherence, and
art iculati on. At present they ca nn ot even celebrate. Jubilant festivals of form er times
are tran sfo rm ed into dull fairs; eruptive and ex purgating ca rnival into organized
parade, an event for the benefit of parking lot owners. Canned music, phonog raphs,
films a nd radio hav e kill ed folksong, hom e quartets, singin g choirs, market plays,

com media dell' arte producti ons, \\ ith out ca nali zi ng th e creati ve abilities in other
positive directions.
To measure up to th e giga nt ic scale of machine production the most intensive and
gen uine of huma n sta ndards should have been marshal ed. To be specific : The biological evolutionary progress of man was possible onl y through the development and
co nstructi ve use of all hi s senses, hand s, and brai ns, through his creative ability and
intuition to master hi s surroundin gs; through his perceptive power, conceptual
thought, and articulated emotional life. But co ncomitan t with the stabilizati on of the
industrial revolution th ese biological fun cti ons we re suffoca ted under th e tinsel of an
easy-going life full of appliances and amenities, much too overestimated

jn

their

va lue. Man who is by nature able to ex press himself in different media allowed these
most valuable biological potentialities to be amputat ed or paralyzed.

It is an ind ividu al as well as a social waste to have eyes a nd not see; ea rs and not
hear; to destro y the endowment of insti ncts to create. The result is an atrophy of
capabilities. a step-by-step deterioration. Man's strong nature may endure for genera
tions but th e end is disintegration. The biblical sta teme nt that the sinn er will be
punished even unt o the third generation appears here iri a new light. Man, as a whole,
is affected. He is gradua ll y reduced to a blunt tool and ignorant of his needs. He is
forced to fall back into passivit y so that he no lo nger fun cti ons through a n integration
of all hi s abilities.

20

The unofficial educa tion forced men

worker and empl oye r a like

into a fallacious

co ncept io n of their role in society. They were taught to master a ceaseless competitive ru sh fo r the utiliza ti on o f Ihe ea rlh's Ireasures a nd consider money the sole
meas uri ng rod of success. They ,\ ere turn ed into hum an machin es \\ ith reco rd output
in specialized fi elds.
But spec iali zin g the indh idua l too earl y lead s to a trag ic impasse: 10 the neglect of
ph ys iological and psychological impul ses of acquirin g and releasin g a broad ran ge
of emotio nal a nd intellectual ex peri ences.
Admiuedl y this co mplex world cann ot exist with out the a rdu ous J etail work of the
specialist. But the educati on of th e specialist should not sta rt with the training of a
sin gle a bilit y before a ha rm oni ously related, all -round educati on has been co mpleted.
This specificall y must be th e difference between th e new and th e old specialist. Other
wise fl exibilit y and ada ptability \\ ill be thwa rted. The new specialist will have to
integrate his special subj ect with the social whole. This integrati on must be based
upon a ca refull y fostered intuitive and reasoning power, the result of emotional a nd
int ellectu al development in bala nce.
At presen', there is a trend to eliminate
or reduce the "cultural education" in
the grade U1ld high schools and replace
it Kith r:ocational training. The argument is that because only ten or fifteen
percent of th e high school graduates
go on to college, " the others should be
prepared to take their places in the
business world so that the fi rst day a
graduate is Korking he can make money
lor his emplo}ers'.
Thus, !thy teach humanities, cultural
subjects, 1then the greater part 0/ the
pupils will become workers, technicians,
clerks? The others, in the professions,
It'ill har:e a liberal arts education in college.

It

is 01 utmost importan ce to show the

fallacy of this reasoning. Exactly becalise Ihe majorit), 01 the American boys
and girls never go to college, everyone
should have his cultural education in the
high school. Otherwise the majority 01
Ihe people Itill not have it at all. The
consequence ltoilid be an educational
and cultural monopoly 01 a minority
making an empty shell out of demo cracy.

liberal education

" Liberal" edu cati on, which is considered a positive step to co unteract a one-sided '
vocati onalism, is at present nol mu ch different from it. Vocati onal educa ti on provid es
external skills while liberal edu cati on furni shes the skill of ve rbali zati on, bOlh usuall y
a mecha ni ca l accumulati on.
Vocati onal edu ca ti on, with out Ihe brake of the newest techn ological inform ati on, often
conditions th e stud en t to obsolete patterns of approach and exec uti onj similarl y, the
classics of th e libera l arts- without th e brake of social th ought- may co nditi on the
stude nt to petrifi ed forms of class-determi ned thinkin g. Though thi s is, for th e uninitiated, ha rd to detect, libe ral educa tio n easil y ca n lead to the wo rship of th e past
and ca n make zealots out of employe rs and employees alike. Saturated \\ ith th e "ab_
soluteness" of past ph ilosophi cal schemes and thought catego ri es, the)' rigidl y ca rry
ou t formul ated or int imated orde rs_ There are cases where inslead of inhaling th e
often paral yz in g atmosphere of li beral edu cation, its evolutionary, historic substance
has an im pact up on the stu dent, so that he learn s to grasp the mechan ics and the
qualit y of an intellectual perfo rm ance pe r se_ But without a biological and social goal
even such an im pact may act as a two-edged sword. It can cut a path towa rd a social
or a n antisocial di rectio n.
stabilizin g th e tran s itory
Superimposed upon official schooling is the more powerfu l unofficial ed ucation.
Research institutes, opinion polls, donations. scholarshi p grants, create a perfect
framework for any required type of influence. The conseq uence is tha t ephemeral
aims transform gradua ll y into solid facts, stab il izing the transi tory.
The emphasis on quick vocational education, for example, was not an order issued

21

by the industri alists to the educa lo rs. Th e tec hnical a nd comme rcial forms o( vocationa l educati o n beca me Ih e desi red goa l through the constant ridiculin g o( the
"im practical" p rofes~or an d th e " idea lislic': intellectual, a nd glo rif) in g the " ha rd
realist" \\ ho kn o \\ s th e "practica l" needs of th e countr ) a nd "sen es progress:' Attempts to co unt erac t any such process usua ll y come too lale.
To redi rect the indu slri al \\o rld to\\ard a balance between a biological! ) so und
hu man exis tence a nd the presen t ind ustrial soci et ~ , a nd to crea te a plann ed coo perati ve. eco nomy, req uires almost a revo lul io n. Because of th e hidd en or ope n a nimos ity
aga inst refo rm , the we ll -knit infl ue nce-team of a purely econom ic leade r::.hip usuall y
condemlls or suppresses co nslr ucti ve proposals fo r necessa r y changes.
second-hand fact s
The sel ere uitit'ism 0/ the pre:.wt educational system has become the commOIl
propert y 0/ el:ery inlClligent observer.
In the book '~peul.-ing 0/ ,11an," by
.1I. F. Guyer ( Ha rper & Broth ers) is lhe
/ all 0 1/,;; /I g stat ement: "L 11/orfllnalely
much a/the )"Ollllg stl/(Ient's efforts . ..
demaml memor} anll skill in the mastery 0/ sJlnbol.(, alld are there/ore 1I0t
on,," not cOllducil e 10 re{fecliol! but may
fL"en be alltagollistic. COllsequelltly, u;e
need 1II1 equal amollnl a/training ill obsen-ation and judgmen t 10 CfJlwteract
this (/tmger. ) et sllch correction s are
sill largely lacking i" ollr schoolwork.
__ . Hence the phonographic menlalities
-insofar a .~ melita/it) is lJiscprnibleI(:hieh ronfronls liS ill our high schools
allli collef!e.~:'
Olle has to add to this a socioeconomic
point: the hi!!h lall/alion of the _~ch ool
as a place of ClIII(:otion mokes most
people be/iele that in lisiting one they
hOle already arCOml)li:.hed the process
of edUClllion. This puIs a false emphasis 011 the purely receptit"e purt of the
leurning act. The pa"~she attitude is
esperiolh ,~trO llg wi,h people Il.ho beliete only ;/1 the e('Qllomic benefits of
educarion, its mlue 10 be measured ill
dollars oll(Il'e1lI,~ 010111'. I II realit),. 01111'
a gh'c-and-llIJ.e lIrrioll - in the lallg/Jage
of Clll/rotiOIl: erearite collabOTationcall lelld 10 reS/lII~.

Every epoch has its

0 \\

n Iheor ies abou t educati on. Toda) . (or most peop le fo r mal

educalion mere!) means an abb rc\'ialed. inlellectua ll y condensed form of other

peop le's experience::.. the res ulL of \\ hich ca n eas il y be uti lized to earn one's liv ing .
To be well educated today one m ust ha \'e memor ized Ih e semingl) usefu l experiences
of the past in order to be ab le to repeat them mechani call ) on the proper occasion.
This type of education had at one time a ke rnel o f tr uth in it. It was a nd is essen tia l
that mankind assimi lale expe ri ences of Ihe past but not li tera ll y, not wil ho ut cri tical
anal)sis. Tradi tion must be d) !lamic. It ca nnot be a crea tiYe agent if it i::. mechani call y a-:lopted a nd changed inlo empt) cOllve nli o n ; if its conten t is limited to "e rbali zati ons only. ig noring one's

0\\11

expc ric nces. observa tio ns and deducti olls: if it becomes

the repelitio n of repe tions of repe tit ions. To memorize fa cts olle has ne\e r expe ri enced \\ ill resu lt on I) in sho\\) dem onstratio ns of un related learni ng. This is the
" Information P lease' culture \\h ere Ihe parlicipants shi ne in admirab le ,en:a lil ity.
In reai it y those partici pants rep resent on ly encyclopaedic s) mbo ls. The~ person if}' an
auxilial") inslrumenl fun ctionin g wilh the semblafl ce of a meaningfu l sc heme. T he}'
are the protot)pes of an educa lion \\hi ch advert ises lea rning through quan lilati ve
verbal infollllation. turnin g a\\a) from the organic praclice of self-experience and
self-express ion. Wh en s uch "derogator)" malleI'S as arts, crafts. and machine lechnolog) are rega rd ed as balla~1 and thro\\n out from libe ral arts educalio n. Ihe c:tuden t
is left in a thin atmosphere of mere \'erba lism.
a tt e mpt s at imlHo vc m c nl S

It is obvio us Iha t a fundamenta l orien tation is more re\\ardin g than Ih e know ledge of
incoherent detai ls. Na turall y. th ro ugh the ages. every trpe of edu ca tion from kindergarten to uni\ ersi t) tr ied to approximate this idea and set up a framework of crossfe rlili za li on of Ih o ughls. But it makes a difference whether in pract ice Ihis le3ds to a
synlh esis of kn o \dedge-eleme nts or only to an accumu lalioll and jlntaposition of
second-hand facts.
The ~Ionlessori kinderga rten mad e a good beg inning. IL bro ughl Ih e child into the
atm osphere of co rrel a led activilies and o( complex dealin gs throu gh re-enacting the

22

metropolitan adult life in miniature. This had its poi nts. It orga ni zed in a short time

psychophysical ex periences which otherwise would have been onl y casuall y and
insufficientl y accumulated. It brought the child into cont act with the group and made
him sociall y conscious. However, Montessori had a short coming. IL neglected the
child 's ability to transform th e accumulated expe ri ences into creati've action. The

imagination of the children in th e Montesso ri kindergarten easily became flattened by

being turn ed to immediate practical appli cations. To be sure, a part of their potentialities were used, but fantasy and originali ty of solutions were ignored.
Grade and hi gh schools are ex perimenting today with " progressive" schemes. The
program includes independent investi ga tion accomplished by the stud ent s and a free
stud y plan offeri ng opportuniti es for experiencin g th e realit ies of life. The difficulty
here lies, in many instan ces, in the fact that t.he exercises and problems lead the
studen t only to a collection of data with the aim of a verbalized perfo rman ce. The
possi bility of a si multan eo us crea tive co ncept which would guara ntee a cha nce to
synthesize Ule resulLs is disrespected. ]n th e fu tu re, if progressive education is to be
successful , it has to correlate the verbal performance of acquired knowledge with other
means of express ion such as paintin g) sculpture. poetry, pla y and music. Then it may
better fulfill its revolutionar y aims.
Th e importance of coordination has been recognized by colleges a nd universities
which introduced new professo rships fo r the interrelation of facuhies to bridge the
existin g gaps between the different departments. Yale Univers ity found a goo d name
for this task of integra tion , " The Institute of Hum an Relations:" but as yet not the
prope r fun ction. At the Universi ty of Chi cago, the College fo r Undergraduates made
a good beginning in studies with a threefold schedule in survey co urses of na tural
and social sciences as well as humaniti es. The co urses still neg lect the fact that social
thought has to be taught by eve!,)' teacher just as English has to be part of all thE'
courses. At th e same tim e ca pacities of th e student mu st be considered also on the
techn ological and arti stic plane, beyon d verba li za ti on j th at is, hi s poten ti al ex pression by means other th an th e wo rd.
In order to brin g educa tion into a state of equilibrium of ha nd and brain, intellec t
a nd emotion, the task is to give th e student enough oppo rtunity to use hi s brain
toget her wi th hi s emotional p oten tial ; to provide for se nso r y expe riences of eye, nose,
tongue, and fingers, and their transformation into co ntrolled express ion. The stu dent
must be allowed to find the facts himself by experimen t with his materia l. He should
not be " led" in any certai n direction; his brain should not be fill ed with plaster casts,
nor at to o early an age with books descr ipti\'e of seco ndhand ex peri ence ineffective
fo r activating hi s th inking, or wi th books beyond the limit of hi s understanding. Educati on must be the opportunity to make o ne's own discoveries and to fonn one's own
expression, providing the purposeful fu sion of social tradition wi th the in div id ual's
experi ence, practice, and conclusions. The kno\\ ledge of historical co ntinuity is one
of man's most valu ab le steppingsto nes in his evo lutio nary progress. The purposeful
acc umulation of experiences can protec t him fro m the repetition of mistak es. so that

23

his crea ti\'e po\\ er ca n g radu all y be saved for sociall y produ ctive ta sks. This product ivity should be the a lpha a nd omega of educati on, the translating of all the elemen ts of lea rnin g into a creat ive sociobiological living.
Education should bring to the indiddual
dignit} anti refinement of his human
sta/us, furthering the better onll more
conscious use of his intellectual and
emotional ("(IfJ(lCilies. /Jill nalurally, he
has to hal'e the sewril\', too, that in
addition 10 these benefits he also ,!'ill
participate in material accomplishments.
Earnest consit/erolioll IIIIISt be gil'en to
Ihe freedom from II ant, to a decent living standard. This should begin with
the teachers themselt'es. In China , for
example, teaching is the highest esteemed profession among social groups.
In this cOllntrf Ihe businessman is supreme. Thi,~ is shown in the social and
economic ewluatjon of Ihe intellectllal
professions. Th e teachers are paid not
on Ihe ba,~js of their edllcational proficiency and human excellence but by
arbitrary fixation of lhe age groups
they teach. The best teachers, hOI(:ever,
belong in the kindergarten and elementary schools as there lies the decisive
beginning of educational influence.

T he soluti on is that ma n must have the insight and the intellectual po wer to utilize
the entire bod y of culture and civili za tion.

He can no t turn awa y either from

past kno wl edge o r from prese nt reality. He mu st face both with all their ra mification s
an d possibl e interferences a nd be prepared fo r th e fact th at their wa ves can strengthen
o r ex tin g ui sh each other. This involves selective ability in co ntinuing specific trends
o r aband onin g ot hers if they prove to be damag in g. Teachin g focussed on learning
fo r learni ng's sake \\ill a lways bypass the ultimate obj ective which al o ne can give
sense to the attempts of integrati o n. Choices a re easy if the goal is clea r. Kn owledge
sho uld no t be s uspe nded in a vacuum ; it must be in relati onship with socio biological
aim s. T his integra tion gives to human life co nten t, directi on, and a sense of security.
The large scope of s uch an objective should not be frighteni ng. The hundred year's
stru ggle of the workers fo r solida rity shows th at there is nothing more satisfacto ry
to a n individual tha n to belong to a grou p whi ch has a social goa l a nd through it a
firm coherence.
With a social goal, educati on will develop eve r yo ne-s ca pacities for hi s best perfo rm

ance; at th e sa me time it will prov ide the basis for group coope rat io n slllce a common
a im is th e best acti vati ng agent for th e effo rts o[ the ind ividual.

In democrlltic cOlin tries of Eflrope such

as Switzerland and Sweden, the greatest
care is paid to the education of the
YOllth before entering the universities.
This is possible only by an adequate
teacher training in Rhieh the II-hole
community is interested. For example,
in S,,;it:erland every teacher for the
/frade schools is appointed for life by
lhe tote of th e citizens of the respec
tiu! districts. fheir parment guaran
teeing a decent life is according to the
belief that no democracy can exist
1/ ;thollt the mast careful education 0/
its citizens.

A social goa l ca n incite most va luable qu alit ies in yo un g peo ple, un selfishn ess and

When this coun try also comes to reali:e

lhe importance of competent teachers in
kindergartens, elementary grades, and
high schools as well a.s ;', the universi
ties, and pays them adequately to secure the calibre of teacher uho will
really teach, and not merely relay informalion, all Importan t step touard bet
ter education /1 ill hal e been made.

It is a genera ll y accep ted prem ise that ca pitalism wi th its ind ustrial techn ology has

devoti on to a task eve n if the work does no t promise a specific rewa rd. But onl y when
all interests are foc ussed on social j ustice a nd social harmony will the essential role
of the individ ual be secured in the reali zati on. Such a concept will prod uce coalescence and wi ll give a mighty stimu lus to th e individ ual for his perso nal gro\\1h. The
better he learns and works, the more hi s useful ness increases with in society: a supreme identi ty of personal and social ga in! Once th is knowledge is att ained. individual ability can not be used for competiti ve suppression of seemingly lesser talents.
Since everyo ne's best is needed. coopera tion must become the stand ard.

111U S

a new

education can lead to a sim ulta neous affi rma ti on of individ ual and social needs and
can become the instru me nt of a happier and heal th ier life.

to serve in the most economi ca l way fo r the reali zati o n of profit. However the "econo mi cal" shou ld be subo rdina ted to hum an req uirements to make technology a benefi t instead of a curse_ -

We must con trol the application of ma teri a l, techniq ue, sci-

ence, and art no t only economicall y but also biologicall y and sociall y. To meet the
manifold requirements of this age wi th a defi nite prog ram of human va lues, there
must come a ne\\ mentalit)' and a new type of personalit y. T he common denom inator
is the fundamental acknowledgment of huma n needs; th e task is to recognize the mo ral

_ uThink in ejJicie11cy, flot ill dollars and cents." (Gropius)

24

obligation in sa tis fyin g Ulese needs, and the a im is to produce for hu man needs, not
for profit.

the talk of tbjs generation

Each generatio n differs fr om th e precedi ng o ne in the determi na tion of its t ask. The
task of thi s generation is to sea rch fo r ils roots. It must tr y to und erstand th e signifi can ce o f natural fun ctio ns so th at eve r yo ne may become a ware of the essent ia l purpose
of livi ng: th e prese rvati on a nd refin ement of th e biological nature of the individual
withi n a ha rm onious social ex istence. The va lue of such an existence will be measured
in term s of coope rat ion, social usefuln ess and perso nal happ iness. This new life
requires a new meth odology fo r approachi ng problems; a socia l mechan ism of producti on and a creati ve edu cati on.
But th e teachers of ma nki nd a re not onl y the perso nnel in schoo ls, colleges and um
versities. T o reach different temperaments, intellectu al, ve rbal ex planatio ns al one
are not effecti ve. There are a g rea t number of other approaches needed. The arts, fo r
exampl e, ca n take the indi vidual by sto rm through senso r y ex peri ences, directl y by
feelin gs, witho ut involvi ng too mu ch intellectua l pa rticip ation. The arts ca n play an
important role in th e reedu cati on of the people.
For th e tim e being everyth ing is in a state of Au x. The best we can do is to expose
ourselves to co ntem porary art a nd its formul ati ons wh ich a re based ma inl y upon the
direct senso r y im pact of its mea ns. The res ult is a grasp of new imager y and its new
rh ythmic str ucture; a purifi cati on and strengtheni ng of the perceptional and conceptual facult ies. This new imagery is the essence of th e ma nifold poten ti a lities of thi s
yet-chaotic world translated into a lang uage of directness and intensi ty.

It is olten said that the European high

school ( gymnasium ) had a higher standard than the A merican becau se through
Iree public education here an yone can
go to high school and the less talented
pupils are said to retard th e advance
ment 01 the more talented ones. Th e
implication is that in Europe onl y talented pupils regi stered in th e " gym naJillm :' That is not true. Th e Eu ropean
high school (gymnasium ) demanded
rath er high tuition lees. It 1IJas an
agency lor class educat io n an d had little
to do u;ith any prin ciple 01 ability se
lection oth er than th e parent's purse.
Th e high educatio nal standard cam e
from the teachers. Th ey were able to
carry th e less talen ted youth. through th e
scholastic curriculum . T his result could
be achieved in this country, too, il the
educational requ irem en ts 01 th e teachers
Itere raised_

capaCitIes

It has to be said aga in and aga in that every health y person has deep with in hi m the
biolog ical capacity for develop ing such a language. Ever yone has a creat ive nature.
Ever yone is na turall y eq ui pped to receive and assimil ate sensory experiences; to
thin k and to feel. T he schoo ls must kno w the technique of developin g this natural
eq ui pme nt in the most fo rm ative yea rs of youth.
That a general sta ndard of self-exp ression without specifi c talents can be rea ched
is proved by the age old European ed ucatio n of the wea lthy where a relati vely h igh
cultural average was produced through the tuto r sys tem or by private schooling. It
has to be said again and again that ever yone is sensitive to mu sica l to nes, to colors,
to touch and space relati onships: that is to say, everyone is abl e to participate in the
entirety of such experi ences and ever yo ne can produ ce non-verbal expression in any
medium. Ever y normall y healt hy man can arti culate th e materia l of the mu sician ,
painter. sculpto r just as he ca n articulate la nguage. the verbal material of the speaker.
The truth of thi s is apparent in ever yda y life. Individua ls in moments of emergency

25

break down conventions and inhibitions and perform "miracles" be)ond their oormar' capacities. Another proof is offered ill the works of children and primitive
veoples; their spontaneous expressions usually spring from an inner sense of ade.
quacy not yet shaken by the doubts of a perfectionist. Children sing, draw, paint,
dance in moments of emotional intensity. These types of expression are not always
sy nonymous with th e Ha rt" of the "professionals" but they are examples of a life
governed by inner necessities. Without this emotional articulation and expression
" .. the art oj primitilJe culture seen
now as the whole ritual, the symbolic ex
presson oj th e meaning oj liJe, appeals
to all th e senses, through the eyes and
ears, to the smell oj incense, th e kinaes
th etisia oj genuflection and kneeling or
swaying 10 th e passing procession, to the
cool touch oj holy u'oter on the Jore
head. For Art to be R eality, th e whole
sensuous being mllst be callght up in
the experience. Our present practices,
by which people sit on stiD chairs and
listen in constrained silence to a piece
of music, or wander in desul tory lwpat
lern ed groups in an art gallery looking
at Jramed pictures hllng in desperate
disregard of any relevance which might
exist among them, is the very opposite
process."

life becomes o ne great frustration.

fear

Fear and self-consciousness are the most serious psychological hindrances in life.
Awed by reports of great achievements of hi storic personalities, most people become
perfectionists. They "know" beforehand that their work ca nnot be worthwhile because
they can 'never" match historical standards. The result is paralysis of any creative
attempt, brought about by th e fear of being laughed at. U nfortunately, man y educa
tors promulgate the idea that certain celebrated accomplishments can never again be
Hchi eved. The stud ents walk in th e shadow of geniuses, often distressed that they can
never attain such creative greatness. However, the instin ct of selfpreservation in
roung people will often react against such a vicious dogma of inferiority and will
free them for th eir own individual attempts.
Every school should build up an elemen tar y curriculum with exercises that do not
allow a comparison of the student's self expressio n with th e work of a 'genius." The
student must gain a range of experience through hi s own expe riments, form hi s own
judgments, develop his own ab ilities befo re he studi es the histori call y great. Then the
stud ent will discover in himself something resem bling a sixth sense of which he had

" . . . in primitive societies, the artist

is not a separate person, having no im.
mediate close relationship to the eco.
nomic processes and everyday experi.
cnces of his society. The concept of the
artist II-hose giJt sets him apart, or who
only becomes an artist because his life
history has set him apart, is almost
1choUy lacking. The artist, instead, is a
person who does best something that
other people, many other people, do less
ll:ell. His products, whether he be chore.
ographer or dancer, fiutist or pot.maker,
or carver of the temple gate, are seen
as differing in degree but not in kind
from the achievemen ts of lhe less gifted
among his fellow citizens. The concept
of the artist as different in kind is fatal
to the development oj allY adequate
artistic form which 1cill satisfy alL of the

not been conscio us berore, a coordinating creative ability not to co py from, but to
use indigenousl y. ]\'0 matter how he employs this power later on, whether he uses
it as painter, designer. lawye r, docto r, housewife, or bookkeeper, he will have gained
a sense of joyo us con fidence in hj s own perfo rmance. If we co uld know point by
point whyin th e present ed ucational setup the adol escent loses th e directness. si ncerity
an d intensi ty which he possessed as a child. we should ha ve a powerful weapon against
th e prevailing tend ency to produ ce automatons. If the ban of self-consciousness and
obso lete standard s co uld be removed, eve ryone could retain the truthfuln ess of ob
servation , fantas ), and creativeness which are the preliminaries to exp ression. andon its hi ghest level- art. And art is the best means to fuse all the elements of

per~

so nality.
til e amateur

It is good to beli eve that some da y the mechanics o f art will be explained with greateJ
clar ity in scientific terms. Then it will be possible to understand more of its com
A lilfl" boy. v,h"1) asl.ed how he had made such a beautiful picture . said that ht'
uon111 thollght fl thouqht and iust drew arollnd the think."

26

sellsibilities u'hich are developed in individuals reared under the im pact 0/

these forms,
"Both 0/ th ese differences, th e difference
between a ritual which inlJoll'es all 0/
the senses and our present artistic prac
tices tuhich fractionate the sensuous
man, and th e difference between an art
ist u;ho is merely best 0/ a host 0/ fellow
practitioners and the artist I(:ho is dif/erent in kind from men who are hardly
his fellows at ail, are not inherent in
th e nature 0/ civilization as compared
tdth the nature of primitive society,
Our Olt'n middle ages, as well as many
Cllltilres of the past, developed complete,
harmonious riliials which invoiL'ed every
type 0/ sense experience, and the concept 0/ the artist and th e related concept
0/ th e fine arts are both special bad
accidents 0/ our own local European
tradition,
"By making art a specially precious
part 0/ life, 1fe have demoted it from
being all 0/ life, seen from one point
0/ dew, Wh en th is is done, everyone
su ffers- th e 'artists' and all th e people
to lI:hose lil'es significan ce might have
been gi cen,"
(From <CArt and Reality," by Margaret
Mead in College Art Journal, Mar 1943,
Vol. 4)

munity fun ction as well as its vital importance to the individual. P sychoanalysis alread y shows through the mechanics of drea ms the rol e of the subco nscious existence.
This justifies the hop e thal th e so urces and mechanics of creative work will one day
al so be unveiled . Then we shall be able to in co rporate art not only into education
but into everyone's dail y routin e.

J n this sense art is the realm of emo ti onal communication, inspired by the subco nscious as well as th e co nscious existence. hs imagery is inherent in and co nnected
with the senso ry experiences which ex press a co ncept beyond the intellectual grasp,
often the imponderabl e relationships of man as a biological and social species. This
language of art ha s to be lea rned by frequent exposure to it. But even if psych ological
research should one day uncover the creative mechanics and the rich motivations
of art, the aim would not be that everyone can or should become an "artist." Art
cannot be tau ght, onl y th e techniques to express a concept. This ca n lead to "art,"
namel y, to an organization of the elements of ex press ion directed toward co mmunication and social co herence.

Formerl y, in the academic art school; analyzing and imitating past works of art was
enough to stabili ze art as a proress ion, The assumption was that if you learn th e
rules and repeat the recipes, yo u will become an a rti st. But the better advi ce is: " Be
yo urself! Al ert , honest and human!"
The si ncere exp ression of the la yman in any medium can be the starl for "art." This
is why the amateur is one or the hope ful promises of a future society. He is an
auth en ti c testim onial of the manifold abilities of the human being to act and react
purposefull y if emotionall y stimul ated.- "Art" may be the result of an inner drive,
a reliev in g catha rsis, an elimination of inhibitions and conflicts. It can be also a
purgatio n of emotional overflow. Such an express ion is the "art" by the people and
of the people; art as part of th e normal living, as natural as breathin g. In such cases
the expressions may have varied degrees of quality; "good," " better," " best," as the
goods in a mail-ord er ca tal og. But only the person who is abl e to rise beyo nd private
sensations and tran slate his intuitive grasp of the unadulterated problems of hi s time
into imagery. into a coheren t exp ression; that is, into visible, audible or tactil e forms,
can be " best." Such a peak- emoti onall y, technicall y and spiri tuall y the hi ghest

ca n

usuall y be reached only by a " fullLime" worker on a broad basis of unceasin g experiment. saturated in th e knowledge and th e spirit of past and present civili zat ion . This
does not mean that everyone who tri es to express himself has to fall back up on the
techni cal and spiritual heri ta ge, the hi sto ri cal accumul ation of th e past. People may
start with th e eternal Tecurrent psychophysical reacti on to th eir surround in gs as well
A n analogy from other fields may clar ify this point . One does not have to be a judge
to have a sense of justice , though theTe are professional jud,Qes, It would be a bad sign
fo r our adaptability if only docto rs had the knowledge of healing, L ittle children, fo r
example , when ill. will not touch food. This is the in tuitive impulse to protect the
organs f rom furthe r strain and leave the healin,Q 'JY1"ocess to the body itself. " Th e
best doctors in the world are D octor Diet, Doctor Quie t, and Doctor ] I ernlman.u said
Swift .

27

as to the mat eri als of express ion, such as colo r, so und, volume, space. Theoretically,
everyone ma y start out alm ost as prehi storic man , because even such a start would
help him to gai n an emoti onal " literacy," that is, th e ability to arti cul ate material stimulated b y emoti onal impulses. Th is ca n lead to' recreati on and enj oy ment through the
astheti c appreciation generated by ex peri ence and acuit y of di scrimin ati on. But this
is yet rare. Our culture is full of those illiterates who cann ot read or write and the
others-th e illiterates of th e emotio nal life, wh o li ve with out ever attem pting to translate their emoti ons in to meanin gful ex press ion. To li ve without thi s mean s emoti onal
starv atio n just as mi ss in g food means sta rvation of th e bod y.

th e function of art
Art is the most co m plex, vi tali zin g, and civi li zi ng of human acti ons. Thus it is of
biological necessit y. Art se nsit izes man to th e best th at is immanent in him through
an intensified exp ression invo lvi ng ma ny layers of experi ence. Out of them ar t forms
a unified mani fes tation. like dreams whi ch are co mposed of the most diverse so urce
mater ia l subco nsciously cr ys tall ized. It tries to produce a bala nce of the social, intel
lectu al and emoti onal ex istence; a sy nth esis of att itudes and opinions. fea rs and hopes.
Art has two faces. the bi ological and the social , the one toward the individual and the
oth er toward th e g roup. By exp ressing fu nda mental va li di ties and common problems,
art can prod uce a feeli ng of coherence. This is its social func ti on which lead s to a
cultur al sy nthes is as well as to a co ntinua tion of hum an civi li zation.
Today, lack ing th e patt ernin g a nd refi nement o f emoti onal impulses through the arts,
uncont rolled, inarticulate a nd b rutally destr ucti ve ways of release ha ve become co m
monplace. Unused energies, subconscious frustrat io ns, c rea te the psychopathic bo rder.
li ne cases of neuros is. Art as expression of the ind ivid ual can be a remed y by subli ma tion of aggressive impu lses. A rt ed ucates the recepti ve facult ies and it rev italizes the
creat ive abilities. In th is way art is rehabi litati o n therapy th ro ugh which co nfidence
in one's creative power can be restored .

th e " professional" arti s t

The best representatives of the arts whether in m usic, poetr y, sculpture, or pai ntin g,
even in their si ngle works, always express the spirit ual state of the age. Toda y a
painting or a sonata is a ti ghtly woven fabric of which the histo ric wa rp may often
disappear under the rich ly textured modern ya rn s of the we ft.

Neverth eless, the

soundness of the weave is dependent on both. T he contemporary artist orga nizes hi s

work within this given historica l and cultural fr a mewo rk, but he de rives his sub ject
matter from his social and spiritual interests. These are expressed in different peri ods
with different means and themes, such as a stilllife, a po rt rai t, a la ndscape. o r an

"Culture" and a civilization" are used in this boo k as synonyms. though in German,
for 1?lstan ce, a differentia tion is made betw een tll e two." " civilization" is the te rm for
the technolo.Qical and uculture" fO T the humanistic sphere.

28

abstractio n, all possessin g a senso r} directness as well as freedom, order, and harmony whi ch are among the orga nic qu a lities of a rt. On the oth er hand the intensity
of the artist's work is depend ent upon th e uniqueness of his purpose and his ability
of transference. Thus th e profess ional artist's solutions a re dependent upon th e existin g bod y of kn o \dedge in addit io n to th e sociobiological com ponents. But if he wishes
to stir hi s au d ience a nd appeal to th eir se nses, he has to create powe rful ne w relati onships. H e ca n do so either by developing tendencies o r by o pposin g th em. The
g radua l eli mi nati on of the still ex isting feudal residues, that is, o bsolete eco nomic
theo ries, obsolete patt ern s of indi vidual behav io r, obsolete sex ual and famil y relationships is not an a ut oma ti c ma lter.
It is unim agi nable that. alo ng with the eco nomi sts, ph iloso phers and politicians who
ad va nce suggesti ons fo r socia l changes, the most intuiti ve and respo nsive peo ple in
a society, namely, the a rti sts, h ave no sa y. T yrann y and dictato rship. ma nifestos and
decrees will not recast the mentalit y of the peo ple. The unco nscious but direct influence of art represents a better mea ns of pers ua sion for co nd itio ning people to a new
society either by its projecti ve or satiric-destru ctive means.
The tru e arti st is th e g ri ndstone of th e se nses; he sharpens eyes. mind, and feeling;
he interprets ideas an d co ncepts through h is ow n media. ]n the midst of vast social
controve rsies he ca nnot esca pe th at task. H e has to take sides a nd procla im his stand ;
indeed the a rti st has a format ive ideo logical functi on, otherwise hi s work wo uld be
onl y an exercise of skill in composi ti on. Hitler was aware of this. H e propagandi zed
trash, he tried to destroy modern art, science, a nd philoso ph y as th e grea test so urces
of oppos it ion to hi s vicious system of oppress ion. He banned the contemporary, the
" degenerate" art , as he called it, from the galleri es and museum s, burn ed books, and
forbade th e teachin g of Einstei n's theo ries.
H e sensed that the con ten t of art is basicall y not different fr om th e co nt ent of our
other utterances. The only difference is that art is produced ma inl y by subco nscious
o rga ni zati on of the mea ns implici t in the cultural and social settin g of the pe riod.
To be s ure, there a re num erous oppo rtuniti es for expression and research in all fields
bu t among th em only a few which are positi vely related an d favo red by the dyna mic
fo rces of the age. ]n intui tively choosing ce rtai n estheti c or technical problems, the
most sensiti ve an d adva nced arti st is a tool for the recordin g of th e tim eex press ive
contents. T hat is, fo rm and structu re denote defi nite spiritual trends. The wo rk of
the arti st corresponds to the crea tive problems in other fields, complement ing them
in the structure of civil iza tion of that particul ar period.
Art may press for the sociob iological solut io n of problems j ust as ene rgetically as
the social revo lutionaries do through politica l acti o n. The so-called " un polit ical" ap
proach of art is a fallacy. Politics, freed from graft, party co nnotations, or more
transitory tacti cs, is mankind's method of rea li zing ideas fo r the welfare of the community. Such a "weltanschauung" is transformed by the arts in to emotional form, and
becomes retroactive in the rea lm of the co nscious existence. This suggests that not
only the conscious hut also the subconscious mind absorbs social ideas which are '

29

then expressed in the spec ifi c media of the arts.- Otherwise any problem could be
successfully solved only through intellectual or verbal . discourse. The diffi culty lies in
mass participation. The masses are filled with a petit bourgeois ideology, the masculine
superman ideal promoted b y papers and radios, books and films -by the unofficial
edu cation whi ch the peo pl e have been taught to enjoy in spite of lip service to casual
revolutionary political ideas. Once th eir sens itivity is killed , they are unable to rece ive the message of art whether contemporar y or old.
The success theo r y of the profit eco nom y pa ys a hi gh prem ium to the antiartist.
Artists are consid ered effeminates who do not have the stamina to participate in com
petiti on. This is not only untrue, as are m ost cliches, but trag ic since at present art is
perhaps th e onl y fi eld where co nventio n does not co mpl etely suppress sentiment and
\\here the omnipotence of thought and the indepen dence of emotion are kept rela
tively intact. To foll ow th e divinin g rod o f intuiti on and expressive desire may often
act as a psych ologica l lifes aver especiall y in periods o f hidde n and open suppression
of independent thought. The phrase that " the artist r epresents the consciousness and
memory of his time" is a goo d character izat ion of hi s fun ctio n. No society can exist
without ex pressin g its ideas, and no culture and n o ethics can survi ve without partici.
patio n o f th e artist who cannot be bribed.
Art represents th e uncensored stateme nt of its author; this is one o f its most positive
cha racter istics. No one but the painter, the author, the composer is the so le master
of his performance. The simpler hi s medium and the less investme nt it involves, the
easier it is to avoid poss ible censorship a nd to preserve the ways o f genuin ely free

ex preSSIO n.
Throu gh his sens itivity th e artist becomes th e seismograph o f events a nd movements
p ertaini ng to the future. He inte rprets the yet hazy path of comin g developments by
graspin g the d Yll am ics of the present and b y fr eeing him self from momentar y motivati ons an d tran sitor y influ ences but without evalu ating their trend s. He is interested
onl y in the reco rdin g and commu ni ca ting o f hi s vision. This is wha t materia li zes in
his art. He ca nn ot misuse such a situati on. To be a " fullti me" wo rke r, a "profes
sioRal," in vol ves a mora l responsibility. This is wh y the secured ex iste nce of the unco mpromi si ng a nd in co rruptible arti st is so important to society. If he does not have
ad equate too ls and material s. he cannot produ ce hi s best. H is reco rd s ca nn ot be Auid

A lfred K orzybski, the leader of the qeneral semanticists, states that if a "t ranslation
is made into the language of lower centers-namely into 'intuition: 'feeling/ 'visualizations'-the hi.qher abstractions qain the character of experience. By re-translating
our higher order, verbal abstractions of relations and order into simplified but direct
manifestations which can be visualized and felt, modern art affords immediate sub cortical experience of essential structure." ( Quoted by Oliver Bloodslein in "General
Semantics and Modern Art," in "etc. u Vol. 1, l\~o. 1. 19.43)
This suggests the intertwined nature of human experiences and their expression. 1
question only lhe biological justification of discriminating between "higher" and "lower" orders of experiences. Biologically seen, they are of C<1l.1al order and wilholl,t their
balanced, interpenetrated performance no satisfactory life exists.

30

and direct if he ca nn ot consec rat e hi s life to co nsta nt work in his cra ft , if he has to
fi ght for minimum subsistence.
The sill y myth that the geniu s ha s to "suffer" is the sly excuse of a society which does
not care for its productive membe rs unless their wo rk promises immedi ate techn ological o r eco no mi c applica tio ns with calculable profit.
" We must have now sciences at the
places where form erly intuition directed
us." ( Frank Lloyd Wright)

art and science

The ta sk of th e profess ional arti st is not onl y to vita li ze peopl e but a lso to co ntinue
and sYll lheti ze spiritual tra its. Fo r thi s, bes ides the un co nscious elements, he mu st

Among the artists in the 19th cerltury

there are Philip Otto Runge in Germany,
Delacroix in France, who had the reputation of being competent color research
u:orkers. They applied science to their
art. But there is a reciprocity, too.
Seurat, fo r example, with his poin tillist
art, in tuitively anticipated the science of
color photography.
Sometimes a whole chain of successive
influences can be traced from SClence10 technologr-to art-and back again
to science. Examples can be found in
the research of photographic speed exposures such as that of Muybridge,
Thomas Eakins. and the industrial mo
tion studies of Taylor and Gilbreth
uhich were transferred into art by the
futuris ts around 1912. This in turn in
fluenced scien tific studies resulting in
the stroboscopic photodiagrams of Har.
old Edgerton, ilIIT.
Rodin, the sculptor, was fascina ted by
light problems in the time of HeLmholz' investigation of optics. As a result,
Rodin introduced a new type of chisel
cut to aehie"'e transparent shadows, in
contrast to the heavy shadou;s of the
renaissance sculptures.
At present it would be a great help for
the painter to know more about seien
tific optics so that he would be able to
make controlled light pmntings without
the use of pigment, with only poLari:ed
stresses of material; or by gratings ( almost in visible lines engraved into a
transparent surface) and lit from behind so that prismatic light effects could
be produced at u;iLl for coLored light
com positions.
The new artist working with plastics in
edtably has to take up scien tific studies
or else wait de cades until the knowledge
about plastics becomes a commonplace.

have co nscious source materi al, so und scien tifi c outlook th ough not necessaril y a
method. But most people edu ca ted in the liberal art s, and fri ghtened by bad ly-ta ught
ma themati cs and ph ysics, have a n awed respect fo r science in a ny o f its possible interpretati ons. Becau se of thi s fear, th ey are suspicious of an a rt which uses elements
reminiscent of geo metrical shapes, sy nth etic materi a ls, a nd optical instrum ents.
In popula r shortcut th eo ri es th ere is th e pro blem of "chao tic nature" versus " organ ized machin ej" so ber science versus mystical reli gio n ; socia l pla nning aga inst free
en terprise. This is oversimplificati on. The eyes of the arti st reco rd cows and d ynamos, trees and skysc rapers equ all y well. They represent visual ra w materi al for him .
And thi s is the real iss ue. The actual a im is socio biological syn th esis. This ca nn ot be
achi eved without " laborator y experim ent ati on," though thi s is a noth er obj ecti on to
co nt em porary ar t: voiced often by the layman. But withou t ex perimentation there
ca n be no di scove ri es and without d isco veries no rege neratio n. Although the " research wo rk " of th e artist is rarely as "systemati c" as th at of the scientist they both
may deal with the whole of life, in terms of relati onship s, not of detai ls. I n fac t, the
artist today does so more co nsistentl y than the scientist, becau se with each of his
wor ks he faces the problem of the interrelated whole while only a few theoreti cal scienti sts are allowed this " lu xury" of a tota l vision. The ma in difference between the
probl ems of arti st and those of scienti st is th e difference in the form of th eir ma teria lizat ion and grasp. Plastic a rt is exp ressed with means la rge ly com prehensi bl e by
sensory experiences on a non-verbal level. Even if, as in old pai nti ngs, the creati ve
im petus is screened by the logical presenta ti on of a descri bable th eme, it is not the
la ndsca pe or still-li fe that results in art, but the crea ti ve act by which the subject matter is tr ansmuted into visual fo rm. On the other hand, a scientific discourse is stated
in ra lio nal intellec tual terms even if the impu lse to it comes from subco nscious regions of the in tuit ion. On the basis of sentimen tal education, many still believe that
the emo ti onal depth of the art ist will be enda ngered by the attempt to organize his
eleme nts consciously. But the artist ought not to be afra id of conscious tra its in his
work, as the conscious approach will be translated by him into terms affecti ng the
senses. The co nscious problems of research are on a rather modest scale a nyhow,
overshadowed by the intuitive forces and the subco nscious mechanism of expression.
In every art work there remains a great number o[ components wh ich cannot be
verbalized, only approached intuitively. Even product designs executed with a largely

31

conscious approach generall y ans\\ er more qu estions than their producers originally
expected th e) co uld. The reaso n is that so fa r product designs have sho\\n the moat
obvious integrati on of intuiti on and science, form and functi on. Their anal ysis can
someti mes be helpful in gi\'ing more effective inform ati on j it may stimulate new techniqu es in the subco nscio us tra nsubsta ntiation of such information. Anal ys is can eliminate also the repetiti on of o\'erused elements an d create an inner security for new
solutions.

32

II

new met bod o( approae b- d esig ll (or Iile

Industrial design is a

nell.!

profession. So

lar

it has been more

0/

all

adventure

than an exact knoll.:ledge concefflillg the demands oj industriaL produ ction, its

technology. sales and distribution techniques. 1/ the profession should be stabili:ed,

there is a need to onaly=e ils requirements. In the past, the successful irulustrial
designers 0/ this counlry have come from stage design, painting and architecturepeople with imagination and fantasy within the realm. of the new esthetics, based
upon mass.production potentialities, not hampered by the tradition of Ihe handicrafts.
The older the cra/f, the more restraining is its influence upon the imagination 0/ the
designer. It is easier /0 design a new product which is based upon the new sciences
and technologies than, for example, to redesign the productionways und shapes
oj pottery, one of the oldest har/dicrafts.

It is an old sayil/g that "form follou}s flU/ ction". This means that the shape of an
object is defined by the work il has

10

do. After a million years oft,.,:al and error.

nature has produced well fun c/iolling shapes. but human history is much too short
to compete with nature's ric/wess in creating functional forms.

Nevertheless, the

ingenuity of man has brought forth excellent results in every period of his history
u;hen he understood the sciellti/ic. technological, eSlhetic alld otlier requirements.
This means that the statement, "form follows function", has to be supplemented;
that is . form. also follows- or at least it should follow- existing scientific technical
and artistic developments. including sociology and economy.
Ecol/omic considerations deeply influence and direct design.
in this cOltntry

i~

For exam.ple, design

basically different from that of Europe. A cO/Wiry like the U.S.,

rich in resources , raw materials and human ingenuity can afford

10

be wasteful.

Thus the economy in the United Stales has incorporated into its structure the frequent
change of models and a quick tumo ver, by declaring older models obsolete long
before their technical usefulness has ceased. In contrast to this, the European design,
based upon an old civili:.alion und now specifically upon an export economy, tries
to produce long lasting goods and to conserve raw materials. In other words, the
European export economy requires that the consumers' wishes, to pay less and to
buy less frequently, be taken into consideration because the money paid out for
imports represents a loss in the importing country's economy.

33

At present, new export tem/ellcies marlijest themselves in this country, too. Not
long ago we lIJere mainly exporting mOlley, now also it/dustry must look jor loreign
comnwdity markets in order to utilize its production potential and avoid unemploy.
menlo Competition on the world market will sooner or later require a revision of
the American idea oj jorced obsolescence, i.e., the jrequent replacement of merchan
dise by a new "design" bejore the previous one becomes technically obsolete. What
kind oj cultural. social and economic changes such a revis':oll. will cause, is as yet
difficult to jorecast. However, one comment can be made: the theory and practice
of artificial obsolesceflce leads- in the 10Tlf!, run-to cultural and moral disintegration
because it destroys the jeeling lor quality and security oj judgment . Continuity
of culture results from. a primary concern for quality rather than for novelty.
In stead 01 striving lor "standards" leading to an organic civilization which should
be the aim. the responsibility and the duty of the designer, the quick succession
of "novelties"- the paradise of the salesrnan and advertising agencies-forces the
designer to satisfy only the desire for the sensationally new in the exterior. Thus,
"design" today is generally a bid lor quick sale, usually nothing but an exterior
cloak aroulld a. product. Its main characterist':c is to be "different" although the
func tion remains the same. The indu.strial designer is called in to "style" or "fashion"
a product already engineered, and the more a/ten he changes a "design", the more
he is supposed to have contributed to the salesman's success .

High-pressured by the salesman, the industrial designer succumbed to a superficial

"styling". In the last ten years this has meant "stream.lining", just a.s a generatton

ago lt meant ornamentatLOn.

The speed and motion of our period justify "streamlining". But streamlining was
originally invented for m.oving objects and there is hardly any reason for an
ashtray to be streamlined. Thus , when every product is blown up like a baUoon-we
have to fight against it, as formerly we did against the mechanical utilization of
symmetry with which everything, in previous periods, could be made "harmonious
and balanced". Ho wever, certain elements of streamlining are exceedingly economical in production, especially since mass production methods 0/ stamping,
pressing, casting and molding are employed. They assist in easier production,
assemblage and finishing.
There/ore a designer can best work if he is familiar with the art, science, social
and economic requirelnents of his period plus the industrial processes and the basic
mechanical principles involved in a certain problem. But it is not his task to
compete with the engineer, nor should the engineer indulge in the idea that he can
do a perfect design. It is their intimate collaboration which ts needed, especially
at the start, a Inutual willingness to exchange ideas and yield to suggestions improving
the production, the function and the "looks" of the product, that is, its psycho
physical perfection.

34

Fig. 1. 0 Institute of Design

Audrey Eiger. Roger Corsaw. Eileen
Gotechair. Jesse Reichek. Warren Turek,
1940
Experiments for hand-fitting tool handles
for plastic molding
By a peculiar inertia. the commeI'{;'ial tool
handles In plastics still imilate the old
wood handles turned on the lathe

aXJon18

The acquisition of technique and skills increases the expressive power of the indi
vidual; and with the accumulation of experiences his intellectual status is refined.
This refinement in turn affects his emotional existence.
The process is one of interaction and mutuality.
Anyone who has experienced the mechanics of work in one medium, peculiar unto
itself, will be capable of working successfully in other media too. The implication is
that working with a new material demands

methodologically- the same insight into

its properties and genuine use as was expended on the material handled previously.
The prerequisite is the understanding that certain shapes arrived at and valid in one
material cannot be satisfactorily imitated in anoth er despite the identity of function.
Industrial designers and producers of goods often make the mistake of ignoring
this axiom. For example, although the steel dies for mass- produced plastic moldings
are different in characteristics from th e lathe, which produced the_ "typical" old
wooden handle for tools, the new molded plastic tool handles still look like th e old
woo den ones. Their designer did not und erstand the cha nged facilities for mass pro
duction. He unconsciously retarded progress in foisting obsolete lathe-shapes upon
the new materia1. There are any number of similar examples. Metal desks often
imitate furniture made of wood; electric li ghting fi xtures simulate candelabras or colonial oil lamps; the reinforced concrete and steel skeletons of architecture are

35

Fiq. 2. Path of moUon of motor cors in

the snow
Another "Inevitable" 110e quahty caused
by Ihe 1001 (auto) C"I a plane (snow covered terrain)

fig. 5. Print of KandinskY's nght hand

(enlarged), 1926
Demonstration of the organic quality found
in the manifold linea of the palm and
lingers

Fig. 3, 0 Horvey J. Croze, 1944

Peeling point

camouflaged to appear as if they had been constructed of stone or brick. The reverse

1113)

happe n too. Under the pressure of new inventions old designs may expe-

rien ce a seco nd ),outh. a kind of Indian summer. For example, since the invention
of gas lightin g, th e old kero se ne lamp has been efficiently redesigned. Instead of
burning the oil-soa ked \\ ick. th e new models now generate kerosene gas by pressure.
Every tool. e,'ery medi um. e\ e ry process, \\h eth er it is technologi cal or organic, has
its intrinsic qualit) \\hich. to understand and e mplo~. must be listed among the
main duties of a desi gner .

,
",,-

,-

"

'\

>

.,

'"

The sea rolls against a sa nd ) beach: the waves subtl y co rrugate the sa nd .
A painted wall cra cks; the surfa ce becomes a \\ eb of fine lines.
A ca r mOles in the sno\\': the tires leave deep tracks.
Rope falls; it lies in smooth curves on the ground.
A board is cut j it shows th e marks of the saw.
All these phenomena, caused by various processes. can be und erstood as diagrams in
space rep resentin g forces ac tin g upon the varied materials plus the resistance of the
materials to the impact of th ese forces. If th e elements. the forces. and the processes
im'oh'ed enj oy an optimum co incidence. olle Jll ay speak of objective quality. It should
be understood ho\\ e\'e r th at "opt imum" and "objective" never mean a rigid formula.
Depending upon new di scove ries , th ey
meaning that a pre\ ious " optimum" may
partl) \\rillen to pro\ e thi s point in th e
the premise is \alid for society itself

have a poten tiality of future improvement,

be superseded by another one. This book was
fi elds of design. edu ca ti on and th e arts. But
as the allembracing framework of human

activi ti es.
This assum pti on is va lid for every form of expression, too. One may select, as an
isolated case. a line draw in g. The child 's or grown-up 's doodlin g, the master's perfect
drawing- all have their specifi c chara cter which \\'e ma y call subjective quality. They
all originate as a diagram of forces, through resistance of the material and tools
( paper, pigment. brush. penci l, pen. etc.), to the pressure and motion of the hand
of th e draftsma n. The smooth er. the more co ntrolled and natural the use of the ele-

fig. 4. 0 L. MoholyNagy, 1938

Lineor mobility
Every dtOWln9 con be understood os a
motion study alnce it Is a path of molion
recorded by Qtaphic means

I {illd an almost identical statement in the book uFon1t in Growth,P by Sir D'Arcy
W entworth Thompson (Ca mbridge [hlil' ersity Press. 1!)~2). page 16.
"In sha ri. the form of an object is a 'diagram, of forces: in this sense at least. that
from it we can judge or deduce the forces that are acting or have acted upon it.- in
this strict and particular sense, it is a diagram, in the case of a solid, of the fo rces
u'hich "al'e been impressed upon it when its con/ormation 'U.'as produced.~'

36

,I

it

.,

.,

<

>

C'
'I.,h ..

1\

I .

\I

"

"

Fig. 6. 0 Howard Glozer, 1945

Fig. 7. 0 Elk Nekimkin, 1943

Texture study
An expenmenl with rubber cement. The
cement is brushed over the surf::lce. painted
over iI. then removed

Texture experiment
A power carvmg tool produces a surpns;ng "line quality" In the transparent
plastic

Fig. 9. Lyonel Feininger. 1923

Wood cut

Fig. 8. 0 Robert Santmyers, 1942

Analysis of a Picasso painting
The task was to trelnsiate the colors of
the picture mto black and while and gray
a) with many gray values,
bl only two grays to be used,
and then try to express the picture in its
essential hne structure.
Connecting the extremities and other ob
vlous points of Interest, a prismatic hoe

Here the quality of the line is derived from

the cutting tool as it is applied against
the !-,ard surface of the wood

structure resul1ed showing the tightness

and clarity 01 the composition. Thus, the

"clarity of line" in its Virtual super

imposition over a pOlnl1ng can be Included
as a species among the many qualities
of line
I

I
I

FIg . 10. Femand Lege r, 1930

Gloves
The quality of Une Is ag-ain different in
pen drawing-so There are many varieties
de pendent upon the point of the pen and
the paper used.

39

Here are tilles 01 a seqllenre 01 exercises

by Roberl i. IT'oID:
1. testing materials
2. search lor the qualit) 01 line (sig'
natllre.~)

3. search lor Ihe quality

.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

n.
12.

01

linear

Imogery
linear control
perception 01 proportion
search lor spatiol relatio/lship-llnes
alld dais
hall tones
factors con /roiling spatial eJ.pression
Q. clusters 01 lines
b. combil/o/ion tdth photograph
the objecl obsened alld penetrated
reintegration 01 elements deriLed
Irom. the object
positite and lIegatiLe lorm
s)lIthesis

Fig. J 1. Ralph Samuel, 1944

Aerial view
(see also Figs. 42 and 185)

Fig. 12. 0 Florence Forst. 1945

Rendering a collage (pencil drawing)

ments and lheir relati onships is. the bett er the res ulLs will be. \Vith lhe mastery of
th e materials, the mo\c to\,ard obj ecli ve qualilY begins. \,here th e results wi ll be
nearer to an optimum than to a blind play of cha nce. ]11 order to reach an "objective"
qua lity through an orga ni c rightn ess of the forces applied, th e c raftsma n has to
master th e elements of his \\ork. These eleme nts ha ve a grea t diversit y of application.
Varied co mbinati ons modulate the res ults. The tools. pen or brush, india ink, water
color. or tempera, paper or ca ll\as : the forces empl oyed, such as pressure of hand,
jerky or sl1100th motions- all produce definite changes in \'o lvin g ce rtain connota
ti ons. The arti st ma y use th e sa me ma teri als for different result s but instead of hand
tools he ma) employ the machine. air brush. or spray gun .
The exploitation of such possibilities leads to th e co mprehensi on of the refined and
sophisticated use of means. of traditi onal or revo luti onary techniqu es and their in

trinsic quality in any media . or in fact. in any human actn
ltV

40

I
I

},
I

.l

J
/

/1
,
, ,I

,/

,
/

quality of rela tionships

As long as we spoke about "quality of processes," such as the calligraphy in line
drawings, we anI) analyzed the components of skill. I f the)' are to produce coherence:
a purposeful

5)

nlhesis, they must become Ule constru ction elements of complex rela-

Fig. 13. S. W_ Hayler, 1945

Amazon (engraving)
Hayter tries 10 Qet the utmost from the en
<;ravinq process, tnlroducinq almost photogr~phic

(pholoqram) qualitlel

tionships. Such relationships produce a new qualil} "hich is Hdesign."

designin g is n o t a professio n b ut a n a ltitude

Design has many connotations. IL is the orga nization of materials and processes in
the most productive, economic way, in a harmonious balance of all elements necessary
for a certain fun ction. It is not a maller of fas ade, of mere external appearance;
rather it is the essence of products and institutions, penetrating and comprehensive.

Designing is a complex and intricate task. It is the integration of technological, social

and economi c requirements, biological necessities. and the psychophysical effects of
materials. shape. color, volume, and space: thinking in relationships. The designer
must see the periphery as well as the core. the immediate and the ultimate, at least in
the biological sense. He must an chor his special job in the complex whole. The
designer must be trained not only in the use of materials and various skills, but also
in appreciation of organic functions and planning. He must know that design is indivisible, that the internal and external characteristics of a dish, a chair, a table, a
machine, painting, sculpture are not to be separated_ The idea of design and the
profession of the designer has to be transformed fro III the notion of a specialist
function into a generally valid attitude of resource fu lness and inventi,reness which
allows projects to be seen not in isolation but in relationship with the need of the
individual and the comm unity_ One ca nnot simply lift out any subject matter from
the complexity of life and tr y to handle it as an independent unit.
There is design in organization of emoti onal experiences, in family life, in labor reo
lations, in city planning, in working together as civili zed human beings. Ultimately
all problems of design merge into one great problem: "design for life."

In a healthy

society this design for life will encourage every profession and vocation to play its
part since the degree of relatedness in all their work gi,es to any civi lization its quality_
This implies that it is desirable that everyone should solve his special task with the
wide scope of a true '-designer;' with th e new urge to integrated relationships. It
further implies that th ere is no hierarchy of the arts, painting, photography, music,
poetry, sculpture, architecture, nor of any other fi elds such as industrial design. They
are equally valid departures toward the fusion of function and co nt en t in "design."
design I)otentialities

Contemporary design began in this co untry fifty or sixty years ago with the statement
of Adler and Louis Sullivan: " Form follows fun ction_" Function means the task an
object is designed to fulfill , the task instrumental in shaping the form. Unfortunately,
this principle "as not appreciated at the time but through thl! endeavors of Frank
Lloyd Wright and of the Bauhaus group and its many colleagues in Europe, the

42

A bstract su r/ace divisions a/ten are

called "design" in this country. But
such a decorative trealment is onLy the
t'ariation of ornament. A bout fifteen
years ago the problem of ornament was
an important issue. Today it is not even
the subject of argument_ The creative
power tthich went into the production
0/ ornament is trans/erred now into
materials, tool-formed textures, and sur
lace treatmen ts. The genealogy of the
ornament shows that originally, in preliterary times, it stood for symbols, as
we hat'e them today in the red cross, five
pointed star, stop signs, skull and cross
bones lor poison, uings for flyers. The
difference is that the old signs had witic
connotations. Wh en the original symbolic vallle 0/ the ornament was lost, it
became embellishment, making the ornamented object merely appear more pre
cious. There u.- as a time when such
ornamentation became extremely rich
and int.-entil.e, using mathematical and
geometricalu;it. Every historical period
has had its olt.n visual interpretation 0/
these classical patterns though all their
symbol-r;alues have been forgotten, Leal.ing only a hollow shell. The ornament
was dead. But becallse 0/ the hypnotic
pou;er of tradition. many could not break
away from it. They started out Idth
new ornament im;entions, using indigenOllS floral motives; in the United
States. LOllis Sullioon; in Ellrope, the
lugend -Stil (style Muveau), and especially architects in small agricultural
CaUl/tries Like Hungary. Frank Lloyd
Wright found that the only appropriate
thing to do in the "age 0/ the machi~e"
was to produce machine-made ornaments_ Later under the influence of
modern paintings, geometric ornament
"int:entions" It ere made. Ihey were
second-hand imitations, Iteak, without
symbolic raUdity or visual !.:it. Then
Idth the new ideas of an asymmetric
balance and order, there came a nelu
type of sll rface dit"isian IInder the guise

,
,
I.

,I
I

"design:' This 1/.:as all abortite 01lempt 10 ,Wire ornamenl, ,qmbo!i:ing

pst'lIdoe/eg(Ulce and , ';clorian nostalgia.
This t,rpe oj "design," "abstrad' or
"naturalislic" became a disease in "mod
ernistic" art edu cation as lall as in in(/Ilstrial prol/uctioll. It;s sad that ajter
reaching a certain SlOndard jar plain
mass-produ ced objects, designers and
manujaclflrers pOllr " desigll" ot;er the
goods 10 make Ihem appear more costly.
Such " desig11" is the basic cause oj the
bad laste seen in household objects,
dresses. teJ.tiles, despite the lesson that
our jUll ctional lIeeds in combination
Itith materials and tools can produ ce
superb (Iua!ity oj shope and beautiful
textures reaching from chromillm-plated
polished fini shes to rough seersucker sur
fa ces. Textllre is, at least for our time,
the legitimate su ccessor of ornament.
0/

idea of "functionalism" beca me the ke\note

of the twenties.- "Functionalism" soon

became a cheap slogan, ho\\'\er, and its original meaning blurred. It is necessary
to reexamine it in the light of present circumstances.
The stat eme nL "form follo\\'s function" is profound if "-e apply it to phenomena occurrin g in nature "here "e\c r~ process has its necessary form "hich a lways results in
functional forms. The) foll ow the la\\ of the sho rtest distance between points; cool-

tensio n on lines of tension: motion creat es for itself forms of mO"em en t-

ing occu rs only on surfaces exposed to coolin!!; pressure only on points of pressure;
for each

energ y there is a form of energy:' ( Raoul Frandd

Man has used the functional suggest ions of nature innumerable times. Utensils, appliances. containe rs, tools are based upon his observation of nature. Nevertheless.
'lform follo\\s function" translated into the human technology falls far short of the
optimum \\hich nature achie\'ed in infinite applica tions, long tested by an evolutionary
trial and error method . Man tries his "best," but his results depend upon his limited
knowledge and practice_ his ability to reason and feel. Though he had for ages designed utilitarian objects for "fu nction" some of them were bulky, burdened with an
excess of material and Hasted labor if co mpa red with later developments. It is enough
to look at the difference between a log cabin and a colonial house; between a primiti\e lumber stool and a finely carved rococo chair. In all of them form did follow
function, but the later models incorporated the techn ological processes meanwhile
developed. In designing for human cons umpti on. function is not only a demand for
a limited mechanical task; "'function" also includes the fulfillment of biological,
psychophysical, and sociological requirements.
Xew discO\'eries, new th eories. and the new methods in scienLific research, brought

Figs. 14-15. Fingers gripping. showing

the function of pliers
An exomple of biotechnique

new technological app lications in all fields of production. Electricity, the gasoline
and Diesel engines, the airplane. motion pictures. color photography, radio, metallurgy. chemurgr, new alloys. plastics, laminated materials, inevitably pressed toward
change in design.

Fig. 16. Bombboy o f a bomber

It resembles a giant, terrifyi ng insect

The history of the chair is a very re\'ealing example. The functional justifica tion of
a chair is seating. 11s form, however. depends upon material s, tools and skills. The
old craftsman had only one material suita ble for a chair- wood. 'With that and a
few hand tools he did fine \\ork. A \Vindsor chair made from thin dowels. a rococo
sLool \\ ith its carved. slender: curved legs, \\ ith out elaborate bracing devices. were
masterpieces of wood construction. Ther not only looked light but actually were light
in weight. In addition to wood, the industrial revolution developed new materials,
such as pI) \\ood. plastics. seamless steel tubing. These require new methods of production. machines instead of hand tools. The problem now is to use these materials
and ma chines as

capabl~

as our precursors used the limited means a nd tools at their

i.~ a coi11erl v'ord. It

1}~ilosophic sense. Th e

B auh(ltIs

housf'.~'

not on ly in a mat erial but

'1180 in a
B al/hays was fOl/ nded in 1919 by Walt er Gropiu8 in
lV eimar. C I'OpiHS. nn rzrchifect of u'or1n f(m H'. is ,., f present Chairman of Archit ec ture
nf the {IrodHnfr S('hool of D esign rtt Tl' IT rnrd [-nil'ersity. (See also pa ge 63 .)

44

means " lmildinfJ

Fig. 17. Castle Bruehl (Germany). 1743

Wrought iron gate
Mon took noture's exomple not only for
his tools and constructions but for his
ornaments and decorations as well. For
~stance, this gate imitates dry leoves

Fig. 18. Berenice Abbott

Skyscraper
Roul France states in his biotechnlcal
studies that a skyscraper, if the same
structural principles would be employed
in its construction os they appear In the
stalk 01 a plant. could be 700 storles high
with the same material as used at presen'

Fig. 19. Rudge. 1884

Directly driven high bicycle

One of the most amazing vehicles man
ever constructed Is the bicycle. Without
any predecessor, ItS design, pure a!ld
simple, shows an imoginahve use of the
elements not hampered by obsolete standards. The above machine is exceptionally
light. It was used In racing

45

Flc;,. 20. 0 Charles Niedringhaus, 1939

Plywood armchair
This chair is one of the most inqenious
choirs which Niedringhaus designed in
Ihe Inshlute oi Design. It weighs only
10\12 lb. ond the springmess of Ihe seal
is the result of the use of manifold plywood bending (ccvered by U.S. polent)

Fig. 23. 0 L. MoholyNagy, 1940

Compressed air holds up Q chisel.
dancing in the air

fig. 21. Marcel Breuer, 1926

Springy armchair (constructed
seamless steel tubing)

from

The new material, steel, allowed this twolegged solution of a chair, making it particularly advantageous at places where, especially in a motor cor, on extensIon is
required for leg space for Ihe sitter behind
the front seol. This choir-in conlrast to
lis imilalions---ovoids contact of the body
with the metal by pulling back the bars 01
the shoulder and knee, as well as msulating the arms of the chair with wood. By
makmg the chair's bock from cloth or
leather, Ihe spme has a good support
without pressure caused by the usual bock
mode of hard material

fig. 22. 0 Jock Waldheim, 1944

Springy armchair in laminated wood
An application of the tubular steel chair
in wood. The inshtule of Design mode
many eXp8nmenls for furniture, especially
chairs. It was found Ihat no chair is satisfactory in which Ihe position of the sitter
Is frozen. It is a human habit to change
the posItion of the body after sitting for
a while. Chairs In which such movements
are made easy should be conSIdered more
advantageous. Such a chair is illustrated
below, using the pnnclple of the wood
spnng (invented at the school, see Figs.

67-69)

The shape of things is gene roily not the

result of individual effort but a process
01 development in the f,elds 01 art, SCience
and technology in a certaIn penod for
which the designer has on understanding.
Thus functions can be solved in dIfferent
periods WIth different means. Excellent
wooden chairs have been mode in p revious periods with three and four legs. Today we can make chairs WIth twa legs
from tubular steel or plywood, and in Ihe
future we may be able to eliminate legs
enhrely and support the seat with com
pressed air

disposal. Today new chair forms can be produced, seats "ilh h,o legs instead of the
usual four, and with four joints or none at all in place of the customary forty or fifty.
Tomorrow there may be just a sea t on a co mpressed air jet.

eSlablished paths of thought

It appears then that the best designer is the person who knows all contempo rary
resources and ca n und erstand th eir trend most com pletely. This goa l does not seem
to be very difficult to attain. One would think that the present scien tifi c and techno
logical information would speed the application of the potentialities at hand. This,
however , turns out to be an illusion, 1t took a hundred years after plu mbing was
introduced in the kitchen to create th e design of a water kettle that dared to excha nge
the small spout for a large one, which could be held directl y under th e faucet. fil1in g
the kettl e with out taki ng off th e lid.
Difficulties may arise as far as public acceptance of such ret:olul ionary dpsigns is
concerned. The plywood chairs made in the I nstitule of D esign . Chicarlo, lool.ed so
incredibly lighl that people at first hesitated to use them. A sim.ilar reaction relarded
the general recognition of the first steel tube chair by Marcel Breu er .. and when it
was accepted. it was oflen misused. Steel is a heat conductor. Breuer considered this,
and desi.Qned his chairs so that the human body did not louch the metal structure.
The imitators, copying only the appearance, did not cOllsider this im,poriant feature.
I recall another incident. Tn 1916. the police in Roliprdam , n ollalld, ordered all architect to place two columns under his caniilecered balcony of reinforced concrete, et:e n
if he would only make them. from cardboard, because utlte projection may friahten the
public,"

46

The development of iron handles

The first is turned on the lathe in wood
and the two others made from molded
plastics

Figs. 24 a, b, c. Wood and plastic iron

handles, 1941
Since the handle can be molded in plastics,
the designer can apply the functional
principle of hand fitting handles, instead
of imitating the old lathe-turned wooden
handle

The heat-insulated handle of a flatiron shows a similar lag in development. First the
handle was covered with rags, then it was hand-carved from wood, then turned on
the lathe. This handle was then literally translated into plastics. Only lately has it
been redesigned in accordance with the properties and mass-p roduction possibilities
of th e new material independent of lathe turning_

Figs. 25 a, b. Waler kettles

It took 130 years after the introduchon of
plumbmg before a waterkettle-spout was
devised, large enough to be filled dlIectiy
-from faucet to spout-instead of having
to take olf the lid

There are man) old products \\ hich sho\\ th e pure

expre~sion

of handicraft processes.

They are often imitated by the industrial designer- lhough they ha\"e no legitimate
existence toda) _ The older the craft the ll1~re difficult il is to change its shapes.
Poller), is a good example. Square plates \\ould be more practical than the round
But
ones as the\ "ould have a \\ider front and co uld be stored more econom ical"'.

originall y plates \\ ere made on th e potter's \, heel. so ther kept th eir shapes as di.;;cs in
spite of th e ne\\ massproducti on methods of cas ting and molding \\hi ch allow free
shaping. Related thinkin g " ill set off a chain of chan ge in all other tableware, too.
It is estim ated that in the future eve ry household ma r have a dishwashing machine
( perhaps combined" ith th e \, ashing machine for laundr y) ; thus welldesigned table

"are must reckon \\ ith these requirements and vice , ersa.

Ho\\e\'er. experiences show that it is rather difficult to leave the established path of
thought. in spite of the fact that if functional, scie ntifi c and other necessary require.
ments were co nsidered. mass production could bring to the fore better and cheaper
products, more " beautiful" beca use of their "object ive quality:' But when the excep
tional fe\\' ,dth ingenuity and insight try to make a clean break. they are checked
by a stubborn opposition .

With increased knowledge and new findings the industrial revolution today enters
a new phase. The period of the old power machines in th e form of glorified hand
tool s is over. To th e tech nology of the machine as multiplicati on of muscle power will

I n a description of the M ellon I nstitute, P ittsburgh, Pa., the nationally famous research laboratory built in 198/. J find a classic example of this co nsenatism. The
uGonception of lhe Jt; ew Building." a brochure published by the I nstitute, is full of
astonishing conclwions.

Though "democracy" today is a highly

misinterpreted and oflen misused term,
I u'ouid like to reconsider it in its essen
tial, original meaning, culm inaling in
th e philosophy o/the best of the Ameri
can revolutionaries, slLch as Jefferson,
Paine and Whitman .
Then th e emphasis 0/ th e designer
on. /u.nction and simplicity instead
0/ on CU/l ic symbols ond decoration
can be /mderSlood as one u:ay of
expressing the democratic spirit. The
American Colonial furniture and other
commodities, lor example, can be undentood as an opposition to feudal ,
ornate forms o/lidng, symbolhing the
oppression. and exploitation le/t behind
in Europe. It could be argued that th e

UAllhough other types of architectures were considered, the preference from the out
set was weighted heavily in fat'or of the Grecian school. Th e architecture of ancient
Greece combines gref.l.t beauty with the simplicity that is fiiling to the home of science.
And in the philosophy and the general intellectual curiosity of the Greeks of the
golden age, moderll science had its beginning. The architecture of the building, therefore, was to be a tangible recognition of the link between the science of early days and
the science of the present and the future, exemplified in the Institute's purpose and
work.
"The requirement of the Tnslilule made necessary a building 0/ about six and one
half million cubic feet. The architectural treatment d ictated that the building be very
wide in proportion Lo iis height-ihe very opposite from the proportions of a sky
scmper. I n order to secure this low. horizontal appearance. and yet p/,ol'ide lhe reo
quired space, it was necessary to build three stories 7)(,zow ground level, the lowest floor
restiug on bedroch. 'l'hese lower three stories contnin Il early half lh e lotal cubage
of ihe building.
"The first floor 'is almost three stories below ground lerel on the street side of the
building, and about two stories on the other side. A pit. ercaL'aled in solid rock under
the first floor level, prot'ides a localion for elel:ator machinery and olher equ.ipment,
thus eliminating the necessity for machinery houses on the roof. which l1..'f're prohibited
because of th e architecture of the building.
uThe attic is 'lJsed for t'entilating equipment.
"The roof is of unusual design fo preserve the architectural beauty of the building by
concealing Ul l' outlefs of jlues and pipes essential in apty laboratory structure."

48

rf1ul cal/se U'as an economic one, that

is a la ck of craftsmen andlrealth rather
'han a protest, BI/t the hea";/y orno,
'lien ted, pompous chl/rches, castles anll
palaces in ,1/exico and the SOl/th Americas of the same period prOt'e the con{ra'l'_ Also the Junctional lurniture
Idthout ornamentati01t designed by the
enlightened English gentleman. himselJ
at the end 01 the XIlllth century, as
well as the simple, Junctional style, the
"biedermeier", oj the "honest" burgher
oj the early XIXt h century shollJ that
the rel'olulionary spirit oj democracy
had much to do with Junctional design. This spirit broke dOl/on in this
country arolLnd 1893, with the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, about which
Louis Sullil:an remarked that it ftlould
ruin the architeclllre oj the U.S,A. lor
fiJty years, There th e parvenu, the new
money aristocracy oj the world, had
been triumphant. In order to be recogni;ed in its new statlLS oj pou:er and
wealth, it imitated and even transported
stone by slone, nail by nail, the ornate
buildings, interiors, utensils and appliances oj Jeudal Europe, decorated lavishly, symbolic oj luxury and might_
And the less rich began to ape the
wealthy, and unscrupulous advertising
completed this deterioration 01 taste
and values.
At the same time, in Europe the opposite happened. Th e attempts oj th e
lugendsti1" (art nOlLlleau ), the rise oj
socialist doctrines and anti-authoritarian,
republican tendencies supported a movement toward true, functional design.
Th is had ils climax in the years Jrom
1920 to 1930, Then "JU1Ictional" design
began to be taken up in this country
100, but as an advertising stunt, a kind
oj novelty rather than a sincere effort
to create lasting social values. The
moral Jorce behind the original efforts
quickly dissipated (pe rhaps it was never
understood), and the designers feel
themselves free today to mix the "new"
!Cith the old. The present policy oj
decoration and embellishment and other
compromises oj design signilY most
probably a re-emerging reactionary outlook since designing is not a proJession
but an attitude.

be added th e techn ological suoslltute of the human senses through electroni cs. New
forms for old needs and old functi ons will emerge through the new principles of
production a nd su pen ision . Saw in g may become electro nic cuttin g by th e heat of
ultra short \,'ayes: \\ea\ing of textiles may beco me the castin g o f fab rics, In ve nti on
directed on principle rather tha n on "proven practice" ca n pave th e wa y to better,
lllore eco nomical and more huma n soluti ons, not onl y of cOllllllodit y problems, but of
ever) thin g \, hi ch makes life worth living. There are a few lesse r instances to bring
home th e argument. The lawn mower, th e electric razor, hot air towels (blower ), air
brush and spra y gun , for instance, were not the results of refashioning of previous
procedures but of rethinking of principles on the bas is of new scien tifi c and technological standard s_ The same fundamental ap proac h lllust be applied to man y more
products. The engineer's hamm er co uld be loaded wi th mercur y to make its blow
harder and th e withdrawal lighter. or it co uld be redes igned to be driven by electric
power as already is done with scissors.
In spite of all these potentialities, we neve r sho uld lose sight of th e human elemen t,
its proportion s and biological rh ythm as th e most important measuring rod of evaluating technological advances and th eir inclusion into our Jives_

forms and shapes

New principles applied in executing old functions produce new forms and shapes_
They will not necessaril y be "perfect." It someti mes takes centuries to produce a
really sa tis ra ctor y

standard -satisfactory~

that is. from all points of reference. Since

a t present revolutionar y tran sitions are taking place, the formerly intuitive wo rk of
the designer is shifting toward a more co nscious mastery of the elements of art, science,
enginee rin g, eco nomi cs and market research. In spi te of thi s, the work of the designer
in some traditional field, such as home furnishings, for instan ce, has remained practically unt ouched by co ntempora ry requirements. This fact demonstrates our involved
system of economic supply and demand, as well as the advertising machi nery which
often victimizes th e bu ying public. Let us again conside r home furniture.
Since the Nineti es the "cultural" traditi on, the respectability, of wealthy fam ilies was
expressed in "conspicuous waste" such as period furniture and li ght fixt ures, the importations from European cas tl es and monasteries completely torn from their context. Imitation of these originals promised profit. Mass production simulated the
origina l pattern and hi gh-pressure advert ising and chea p prices produced a " trend,"
forcin g the worthl ess imitations on the market. The result was not onl y a perpetuation
of obsolete functional standards but also a relative price stagnation because the princi.
pIes of mass production and subsequent price reduction could not be as successfully
applied to period imitations as they could have been to designs employing the possibilities of new materials and new machines.

49

Fig. 26. 0 James Prestini, 1939

Wooden dishes (turned on the lathe)
These designs hove eternol shopes; they
are functional; simple without emphasil.lng
IndIvIdual whim; nevertheless through
theIr rich use of wood grain and beautiful
finish, they are most satisfactory

" Form" and "shape" were illterchange

able term s in the past. " Form"-in today's term inology- is reserved lor " the
mode in wh ich a th ing exists or mani
fes ts itsel f" ( Oxford Dictionary) . Form
is th e unity of all elements which produce a synth esis in th e different realm s
0/ expression, in painting, sculpture,
architecture, drama , poetry. motion pic.
ture as lcell as in the technological
sph ere. "It has form" signifies coheren ce
and structure 0/ a genuine intrin sic arrangement which is defin ed by the spe-

50

cific u;ay itl which the elements were

employed.
" Shape" generally defines either an elemental figure or a configuration as tJisuaLly perceived without analyzing its
compon ent parts in a set order. Shapes
can be classified as either geometrical or
free. Th e fewer conn otations and sym
bolic values th ey hat'e, the more elemental th ey are and the more elementary
th ey can be in their direct sensory
impact.

Ihe age of assemblage

The finest solutions of functional design usually are found in new il1\ention~. Here
no traditions or precedents hamper the freshness of approach. as sho\\ n in the steam
engine, electric motor, telephone, radio, and photocell. These forms were de\eloped
through consideration of function plus the most advanced technological production
process a\ ai lable.
The technology of th e industrial revolution started out \\ ith the dh ision of labor
belt awl other masspro
which led from simple assemblage set- ups to the cOlweror

duct ion practices.

For a rather long time the new idea of assemblage pre\ailed. This was the "stone"
age of the bolt, the rivet and the screw \\ hieh made pos5-ible a production of the most
di,'ersified goods from standard stock such as the various profiles, angle iron, steel
band, brass plate, gauged sheet. rod, tube, screw, bolt, hinge, caster, etc. Materials
fig. 27
The s crew is the symbol of the fi rst period
of the indus trial age. The a ssemblaqe 01
goods was accomplished then with the
SO"ew. the rtvet and the bolt

and semi-finished products could be stored in great quantities. The production risk
of read)-made goods was small since usually only as much was produced as the
anticipated sale.

ng 28.

Timothy Hackworth, 1828

"Sans pareil" locomotive
This locomotive w as designed for a com
pehtion in 1829 at Rainhill. Englo:;')d , for a
prize of .500 offered by the liverpool a nd
Manchester Railway Compan y. The typical assemblage method of this early pe riod
of industrial production w as riveling of
semi-finished and stock material

51

FigS. 29 a, b, c. Boeing A ircraft Co.,

1927- 19 40
Development of the airplane from assembled and riveled to welded s ta ge.
Probably the Qreatest single foetor in the
progress of a Viation has been the study
and application of w elding. In the hands
of aeronautical engineers and designers,
weldi ng has made planes possible which
were u ndreamed of in safety, comlort,
speed and range of operation.
Shown in the illustrations are three planes:
1927 Single-engi ned biplane accommodat
ing two passengers and 500 pounds of
moil. Gross weigh t 6,000 pounds, wi ng
span 44 feel, maximum speed 129 miles
per hour
1933 This model carried 10 passengers
and baggage, hod 2 pilots and a stewardess. Gross weight 13, 100 pounds, wing
span 74 feet, top speed lSI miles per hour
1940 The "Stratoliner" 33-possenger plane
having a gross weight of 45,000 pounds,
wing span 107 feel and top speed of 246
miles per hour. Flies at altitudes up 10
20.000 feet
Greater strides hove been made since. especially in military aviation during the
second world w ar

fig. 30. Plastic arch for footwear, 1939

Warpmg the flat sheet m all dimensions
creotes a structural unit of great strength

streamlining

Later. \\ ith th e openin g up of new markets, more goods we re needed so more effective
mass- produ cti on meth ods nere introduced. Bolling, riveting and screning \\ere fol
lowed by \\ elding, moldin g, shapin g and stamping. Instead of the ribands and the
profil es there came the seamless tube and the corrugated and curved slabs. Curving of
a fiat sheet is a customary strengthening procedure ; and curving it, like the eggshell,
in a ll directi ons, is the most substantial structural manipulation we kn o\\'. h achieves
the adva ntage of a skeleton structure utilizing the skin al one.
Such designs we re ma inl y developed by the motor car industr y, especiall y due to the
impe tus of the kinetic studies a nd wind tunn el experiments \\hi ch airplan e research
in trod uced. In aut omobile produ cti on the res ult of these and similar testing tech
niques was utilized on a la rge scale alth ough toolin g and retooling ilwolved greater
ime:-tmenls in dies a nd machi ne ry. Yel becau se of the volume of sal es. the expensive

52

preparations co uld eas il) be amortized. The s111oothl ) "~lreallllilled" bod) of a ca r

IS

stamped today by one acti on from flaL sheets o f stee l. Jt is a k ind of "stee l egg."
btru cturall) so und.
The resuhs o f these studi es \\ ere also taken over b) the des igner o f a ll other goods
fr om lather and cream mixers to ships, locomo tin>s and hi gh\\a )s. Around 1930 a
"strea mlining fever" s\\ ept indisc riminately o\'e r e\ ery l)pe of indi\idual design. At
first thi s appeared to be rather exaggerated because in nature, strea mlinin g

IS

em-

ployed on ly by moving forms, and strea mlinin g imp lies round ed and tapered shapes

"hich cut do\\n external fri ction prod uced b y moti o n.-

I ndu strial strea mlinin g was

de\'elo pf d for an economi cal shapin g o f objects movi ng "ith g rea t speed. There was,

UNo crealure shows more perfect streamlining thnn a fur,sNd swimming. Et'ery
cune is a conlinuous curve . the very ears and eyeslits nnd u'his/,-prs falling into the
scheme, and the flippers folding close a,qainst lhe body.n (rOn Growth and Form.,"
by Sir D'Arcy Wentworth Thomp son, Oambridge Unil''rsily PI'''ss. 1942.)

Figs. 32 o. b. 0 lack Waldheim, 1942

Fig. 33. Thomas Yee, 1945

Horten Spheroid (oil refinery, Richfield)

Man slands on four eggs

An e:z.:penmenl 10 determine crushing limit
of eggshell. The eggs were covered with
thin latel:, theif heIghts equalized with
plaster shoe!;; lop and bollom cushioned
by thin rubber layers. This structure easily supported 0 man's weight. For a
further eJ:perimenl. one egg was removed
and a weight of tWo+hundred and eighty
pounds placed over the remaining three
eggs without breaking them

Fig. 3l.

The new oil tanks are welded m compound

curvatures ilke an egg shell, achievmg a
great savmg by employing thmner steel
plates than the prevIous nveted containers

Jakob-Pilger-Shell. and 1Is

section
Corrugated sheets in melol, asbestos, plastics, etc., are the biotechnic:ol adaptation
of a natural shell. achieving through the
corrugalion a very substantial slrenqlh

~R

flq. 36. 0 Ralph Rapson and David B.

Runnells, 1942
Prefabricat! d kitchen and bathroom

a TuB

In this CQunlry Buckmlnsler-Fuller has been

the pioneer for prefabricated Dymaxion
units, house, bathrom, streamlmed automobile. Meanwhile, the young generahon of
designers and architects added valuable
suqgestions to his basic Ideas. The above
mecharUcal unit Is, lor example, a pari of
a fabric house of which walls and roof can
b. made from impregnated fabrlcs-as an
Insulated tent

]
COMBINATION
'"ItAi[R W(l

WASIlING MAClJtNro. . SINK

STORAG( WAT~R
~fAnR INCIN(RATOR

'UN

IUMltOOM

Fig. 34. Lather mixture machine, 1939

Except for the two d ecoratIVe parallel

hnes which symbolize "streamlining",
this little machine typihes a good application of the CQmpression molding process in
plastics

KITCHU

seemin gly, no need for "strea mlinin g" ashtrays, refrigerator door hinges, and other
stati c objects. But this universa l streamlining had a justifi ca ti on. In streamlining,
sharp edges have to be smoo th ed down, conseq uentl y cas ts, molds, stampin gs as well
as finishes such as nickel and chromeplating, polishing, enamelli ng and lacquering
could be more easi ly produced. The fantastic grow th of th e American war ind ustry
was facilitated by th e applica ti on of th ese principles. One of the grea test achie\'ements
Fig. 35. Football helmet, 1939
Structural application ot the eggshell
prmclple. Though relatively thin, the hel
met achieves great strength. For easier
discrimination of the different playmg
groups, the Inside of the helmet can be
sprayed wlth CQlor, with the double advan tage of keeping the outSide surface
glossy and protecting the point against
abrasion

was the application of massproduction methods to precision goods such as delicate

instruments for fl) ing. formerl), prod uced by hand . This, ho\\ e\ er. does not justify
thoughtl ess streamlin ing. poured- as the brown gravy in cheap restaurants-over
every product.
new working co nditiolls

The possible effects of th e one shape production a re far.reaching. This new principle
of design, creating objects in one piece, massproduced b)' the automatic actio n of the
machine by means of pressing or molding. will one day grea tl y redu ce the number of
joints and perhaps eli mina te the assemb ly line. e This would change the present
working co nditions in \\ hich fatigue of the worker, caused main ly by the restricted
use of his manifold abilities. has to be considered as a serious psychoph)sical hazard .
One could suggest the application of this principle for many fi elds such as furniture,
molded without ;oints for clothing, cast. pressed or molded in one piece instead of by
cutting fabrics into many pieces in orrlPT to sew them into a single piece again.
e

J'

54

1!I3lI mDdel - llI'"

IU2 tIIatIt-I- IU"

OJ
1 t

:w.
_ _

,~~ I

Fig. 37. LlbbeyOwensFord, 1943

"Kitchen of Tomorrow"
PlaC9ment of all working units at correct
height eliminates stooping and bending,
and allows the woman of the house to do
three-fourths of her work while seated.
This photograph shows the panels raised
over the working Units. At left is an oven
with glass hood raised; ne:z;t is a cooking
unit with built-in waffle iron, cooking
vessels and food mi:z;er. Splash panel on
sink has vltrolite glass backing and is
seUilluminated when raised. At right is
combination glass.enclosed refrigerator,
serving bar and transparent glass china
cabinet separating kitchen from dining
alcove. Picture window "brings" nature
into the room
This kitchen can be converted into a playroom, a bullet bar or a study room for
c:hildren after the housewife has finished
the preparation of the meal

Fig. 38. The metamorphosis af th 1 washing machine, from 1919 to 1940

mD.,iet - I1!1"

The 1919 model was made from semilinished parts nveted and screwed together. Subsequent models from 1920 to
1940 have been utilizing arc welding,
casts, and stampings. sin ce the e nlarged
volume of sales easily amortized the tools.
(The 1940 model is by Henry Dreyf.uss)

The serious social and biological conseq uences of an unhealthy di\'ision of labor in
industry could act as an incentive to the designer. He should see that it is essential
to incorporate into his work more than skill and knowledge; th at to be a designer
means not onl y to sensibl y manipulate techniques and analyze production processes,
but also to accept the concomitant social obligations. He should make his design
with the aim of eliminating fatigue from the worker's life. He must see his design
throu gh, 110t only in the technical but in its human effects as well. Thus quality of
design is depend ent not alone on function , science, and technological processes, but
also upon social consciousness.

other social implications

The relationship of employer and employee, unemployment, the requirements of minimum subsistence, longevity, and dozens of other matters, have changed the outlook
on the social structure and, with that change, the approach to design. Higher living
standard s and the emancipation of women necessitated labor-saving devices, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, and washi ng machines. Research on matters of health, prompt
ed by th e changi ng social pattern of large urban populations, preceded the popularization of h ygieni c technics, and , as a ma tter of course, created the bathroom as a
standard unit. The intensity and the exhaustin g effect of industrial work, the crowded,
Figs. 39 a , b. 0 L. Maholy-Nagy, 1943
Sketch for a double-deck day and night
car for the BO.O Railroad Co.
Sy giVing ample space to the day traveller,
the seats and footrest allow room for
stretching for a nap during night trips as
well. Allhough a smaller part 01 the car
is used for seating--{a great part is given
to the lounge, see picture below}-with the
double-deck arrangement more people can
be accommodated than in the present type
of car
The lounge itself can be changed into two
spacious washrooms-for men and women
-by sliding walls of fleXible woven metal

dusty, smoke-polluted ci ti es inc reased th e importance of slum clea rance, the prefabricated house, recreation and leisure-all con nected with a socially oriented design.
Sports, ci nema, radio, television, tra vel, th e co mmunity cen ter, and the idea of week
end trips belong to this category.

economy of production
Of cou rse, many elements have to be added to this analys is in order to see all the components of a "functional" desi gn. One of the most important among them is distribution. On an unprecedented scale, mass distribution ca used chan ges in sales organi zati on and a vast increase in service industries. It swelled the means of transportation
by steam and mo lor, ships, railway, bus, truck and airplane. It created the packaging
industry, knockdown furniture, tank cars and refri gerators for perishable goods, frozen
foods, cann ing, advert ising, mail order houses, catal ogs, sales agents.
This new mass-prod uction economy brought in its wake great problems. Although
capitalism is working with such slogans as "free ent erprise," "supply and demand,"
the vast in vestm en ts ti ed up in its mass production machinery and the unrestrained

55

com petition of the world market, ha\'e resulted in sharper, more aggressi\ e planning
th an is usuall y admitted. Market research with co mpl ex statisti cal data on calculation,
production and sales, as well as competitive buying and selling ha\'e become the
indispensable tool of every enterprise.
\Vhcn production goes into millions of units. th e savin g of eve n a fraction of a penny
in material or manipulation makes a subs tantial difference in the final finan cial bal
ance. In one instance, cutting down fourteen drops of soldering to thirt een is said to

have resulted in a yea rl y saving of $30.000 and of large quantities of material. There
are other savin gs from "recoveries" s uch as silver from photographi c developer for
merl y poured down th e drain. grease from kitchen fats for glycer ine, sawdust for
plastics, garbage for ra yon, and ot hers. AU this stimulated economy of orga nization,
simplification of processes: eli minatio n of waste; it has brought improved methods of
packaging, more efficient safety meas ures; and it even has produced new fo rms of
rehabilitation for handi capped workers. Notab le achievements in this field of planned
industria l eco nomy were the scientifi c motion stud ies by Taylor and Gilbreth. The}'
\\ ere clearly manifest in production resulLs.
The co min g of an "electronic age" brings th e stri nge ncies of th e profit system into
even greater conflict with the potentialities such an age has for a richer sociobiological
economy. In creased producti on with greater rn echan izati on of processes will have
as an inevitable consequ ence the redu ction of man power and labor hours.
Apart fr om th e dilemma of technological unemployment (w hich involves political
problems not releva nt here ), th is development wi ll require a new coordination of
leisure time wi th th e recreational needs of th e individual. The need for this coordination makes more pertinent than eve r th e social obligati ons of the designer as a de
sIgne
r.

Ihe role of intuition

P ossibl y there is a recipe for a forecast of new trends in design. By being informed about scien tifi c discoveri es, including the psychological and sociological, a
thorough kn owledge of techniques can be applied to the rea li zation of every design.
This would seem to imply th at products made on the basis of these requirements
could not fall short of perfecti on. The truth is that in spite of the best use of these
elements there remain imponderables "hich cann ot be easil y defin ed.

After the executi on of a

design~

we may rati onalize man}' of th ese imponderables,

sin ce some of them may be traced back to facts wh ich are the su bj ect of co nscious
argument. The real difficulty a ri ses be/ore the design is mad e, before the executi on
takes place. Practice proves that there is always a possibility of alternati ve design
solutions "ith greater or lesser "objecti,'e" q uality. Certain structural ta sks co uld be
solved in one or in a noth er material o r in several ways with one material. If a reinfo rced concrete col umll for a building wo uld be structurall y as sa ti sfa cto r y with ei th er
a circular or a hexa go nal. pentagonal or sq uare secti on. which should be chosen?
Sho uld there be fluorescent or inca ndescen t li ght: china dishes o r glasswa re; fenestra

56

tion with horizontal or vertical division; spiral stairways

Of

straight oneSj tubular

steel chairs "ith two or four legs; low \\ing or high wing airplanes?
Among the multitude of scientific and technological alternatives, th e answer, co ncerning th ese trends as \\ ell as the matter of basic visual and plastic shapes, and
their essential psychophysical role, mainly co mes from intuition. The choi ce is not
based upon considerations of the sin gle element per se but upon the relationships
with th e "hole life. It is better th e more it is expressive of the time and the more it
preconceives the tendencies of future developments. The artist as well as the product
designer accomplish thi s by knowl edge and imagi nation, insight and intuition, reasoning and sensitivity. Among th ese qualities the most important is the ability to \ isualize the \\ hole ness of the task in its corporeal sol ution before it is executed so that it
can be evaluated with lightning speed . Such a visualization will direct th e designer
to use or di scard ingredi ents according to the required fun cti on in its sociological
and biological usefuln ess. The v-ividness of this inner visua li zat ion is a measure of the
designer's ingenuity. Intuitive assurances often are infinitel y better expressed by him
directly in the work than in verbalization. The intuiti ve process has a speed and certainty which the co nscious cann ot match. The conscious is more closely bound to the
verba l and thu s linked to th e wordstructure of traditi onal reasonin g. Conscious insight tend s to be hampered by th e verbal limitation, tends to be too co nformist to the
syllogistic world of ca use and effect. The intuiti ve is th e fluid world of all the senses
"hose movements throw up eve r new forms and meanings.
Good design con tain s an unconscious prognosis of future tendencies because it is
based upon th e atmospheric co nditions created by the manifold cultural and social
requirements of a certain period "hich already carries the germ of the future. Whil e
such co mpon en ts ca n be easi ly recognized in the performance of the past, it is exceedingly diffi cult to find all the clues to th e contemporary scene, the elements of
which are in a Auid state and hence ca nn ot be seen in retrospect. But many discoveri es and new forms of the industrial revolution we re preconceived by the artist and
fig. 40. Parker Pen Conlpa ny . 1941
Fountain pen "51"
its enclosed mechanism is
o ne of the most successful and h armonious
desig ns of small utili tarian objects
ThIS

pen

Wlth

co nseq uentl y accepted by th e public because of his esthetic interpretation. One of th e

reasons for his more direct and lastin g influence is that his language filters directl y
through the chann els of emoti on without the need for preliminary conscious and
rational analysis. This ability of th e artist is not mystical. His creative genealogy
can be traced in every period.
At its start the new techn ology was the domain of the specialists, mainl y of the

I n 1870 E do1lard ]/anet, the head of the impressionists, offered to paint frescoes in
the City H all of P aris depicting the UbeautyU of railway stations and market halls of
the French metropolis. The official opinion of that time saw in such technological
matter only an esthetic nuisance. l;I anet's offer was not accepted. E ven fifteen years
laler the same public opinion ("the official taste/~ as S . Giedion calls it) f ought against
. the EifJel T ower as a shameful blotch on P aris. F ifty m.ore years, and the constructivists d-iscol'ered the beauty not only of the Eiffel Tower but also of the machine and
translated its exactness. precision, and planned performance into their own imagery,
their own visual language.

57

engineers. The academic requirements of higher education , the humanities and liberal arts had not been adapted to the industrial development. The new generation
bad to be conditioned to the machine, to the signifi can t new c:hapes, the uses and
potentialities of the new age; for purely practical reasons, the machine had to be
accepted as part of a new life. h s general economic and social potentialities, its
uni\ ersa] ramifi cations, had to be und erstood together with its rapidly changing
ideological basis from "free enterprise" to planned economy. Few realized that there
was a dire need for findin g ad equate means of trainin g the people to master this new
si tu ati on. Fortunately, it is an un expected quality of the modern art movement that
some of its facets possess hidden relationships pertinent to "practical" life. (In
fact, one could say that all creative work today is part of a gigan tic, indirect training
program to remodel through vision in motion the modes of percept ion and feeling
and to prepare for new qualities of li ving.)
Around 1920 the new artists discovered the esthetics inherent in the work of the
engi neer. They looked with naive enthusiasm at bridges, oil and radio towers, tun
nels. spiral stairways and all types of machinery. It was the first time that they
were able to see the formcrea tive, emotional qualities of techni cal structures, co nsidered previously as onl y th e ca rriers of engineering and producti on requirements.
These new explorati ons of the artists introduced a period of simplification first into the
works of art, th en int o all lypes of designed goods. This was the time of purification;
stripping of deco ration, deornamentati on of appliances, furniture and architecture.
Then follo"cd the stripping of ornament from traditional thought categories.
The impressionists and cubi sts di scovered the genuine sensuous and emoti onal quality
of tex tures, brought about by an ingenious combination of to ols, ma chines and materials \\ hich took the place of th e ornament. The painters bega n their studies with
a kind of premonition of badly needed industrial textures. Today, mass.produced

Fig. 41. 0 L. MoholyNaqy, 1940

Cellulose acetate pockaging
Through the transparent cone within the
larger container, on easy dispensation of
the pills i. possible

goods from plastics, as well as other materials, are in need of genuin e, functional textures. mainly as a protection against co rrosion and abrasion. But before such functi onall y empIo) ed tex tures ca n acquire deep estheti c mean ings, an habituation, a
familiarity. in th eir applicati on must be established. There are many elements to be
in vestiga ted, such as the difference bel"'een organi c and mechanical tex tures, chemical
reactions and their relationships and possible combi nations. There are olher elements,
too, such as transpa rency, employed for goods as well as architecture. Transparency
first appeared in x-ray photos, photographi c superimposition and paintings. These
exam ples sti mulated practical applicati on like th e use of transparent furniture, glass
table tops, plexiglas legs and steel tube constructi ons, eliminatin g co ngesti on in small
rooms.
In the last thirty or forL y years the problem of posilille and negative has received a
great deal of attention. Positi ve and negative are con trasts such as compl ementary
The dadaists, especiallu ihe painters. Francis Picabia a'ld ~l[a rcel Duchamp . emphasized the beauty of "ready made n objects suc h as a clot hi7l.'1 rack and toilet bowl in the
days of 1916. when it was considered debasing to an artis t to conce rn himself wiih
Slick trivialities.

58

Fig . 42. Re lph Samuel. 1944

Aerial view
An amaz:ng beauty of line and tex ture
quality is formed through the low sun ,
bnngmg inlo sharp rehef the "stuff lying
on the qround" and the tarpaulin covered
"q:smo"

colo rs, black-wh ite, ho rizo nt al-ve rti cal , hot-co ld, fluid -solid. o paqu e-tra nspa rent. Since
the earliest times the) have been fund amen tal e lements of c rea tive ex pression, one or
the oth er polarit y pre rerred in the different periods. I n old painti ngs the applica tio n of
positive- nega tive values was not the focus of interest. The rena issa nce pai nt ers we re

Fig. 43. 0 Kenneth Evertsen, 1941

Tea table with p lastic legs
The freeform table allows a better placing
of people around the table a nd the transparent legs will create a feeling of less
congestion , even in a small room. The
legs are sturdy and through their oblique
position they are str ucturally satisfactory
so that no apron around the legs Is
necessary

fa scinated with the illusionisti c rendering of objects \\hich they placed into the il.
lusio nistic "space" of the painted surface. The canvas, every square inch filled,
showed a definite rh ythm through the relationship of th ese objects and their disposition. This meant, mainl y, the co nsideration of the posithe aspect. Rembrandt's lightdark con tra sts touched so me\\ hat upon a closer visual relationship of the positive
a nd nega ti\ e, but Cezanne \\as the first who reall y reeval uated the full and the empty
parts of th e call\'as. In th e paintings he left " unfini shed" he introduced a ne\, pictorial
structure through th e equal, alue of the areas painted and those left empt)'.Fig. 44. Paul Cezanne. 1900

Somelhin g similar can be found in th e consciously sketch y paintings by l\latisse and

Still IUe (watercolor)

the seemingl y uncompleted ca nvases o[ Picasso. In these works a new structural spirit

This picture shows the powerful inlerrelallon 01 the positive and negative aspects, the lull and the empty. This method
of balance became moSI Inlluenllal in the
work 01 the cubists and the constructivists

ca n be recognized. In the pre\ ious pai ntin gs where every square inch was filled, the
"obj et d'art" \\ as a closed. independent. static unit. The new approach constituted
more marked relationships bcl\\een parts of the \\hole; it disco\'e red a Ile\\ dynamic
in th e interrelation of th e full ( positive) and the empty ( negative ). It crea ted a new
t) pc of arti cul a ti on of th e picture plane, acti va tin g the spatial tension by receding

Fig. 45.

General Electric, Plastic Division, 1944

Steel die for plastic molding
The posihve and negallve dIes show not
only pracltcal but also esthetic interrelatIons. The study of the negallve volume
in sculpture (Fig. 299) can be understood
as an Intuitive preparation to the mastery
of this Important element 01 industrial mass
production

and ad\ancing \alues of th ese con trasts. This princ iple \\as cO Il SC i O ll SI ~ emplo yed
in th e cubi st collages, Picasso's and Braque's pluralistic heads, and later by ~I a l evic h,
Mondrian. and the co nstructi\ ist painters. The problem received an e\ell sharper
profi ling "hen the posi ti\ e a nd th e negati\'e became elements of interchangeabi lity
as in photograp hs (especia ll ~ at solari za ti on) and in sc ulptures. A popular way to
explain positive and nega Li\ c is to show a sc ulpture and its mold- th e mold being
the ncgati\e and th e sc ulpture th e positi \e. And yet in a ce rtain light th e negative
mold may look like a positive. Archipenko ex tensi\.e1 y ex perim en Lt'd \\ ith inter
chan geable elements o f the pos iti\ e and negathe in his sc ulptures. H is imestigation
must be ca rri ed further because besides its sigll ifica nce in art it holds great po tential
ities for industrial design and producti on, es peciall y in castin g, pressin g. and molding
of goods in glass. plasti cs, light metals, and steel. In these processes th e kn owledge
of pos iti ve and negati\ c is exceedingly imp ortant. Design for strea mlined products
and th eir econo mical execution can nol be acco mplished wit hout understanding the
nature of this problem.
The unfinished portrait of George Washington seen nerywhere il1 til" cOlwiry is
impressi't:e for another reason. There the blank part of the canms. which Stuart had
110 time Uto /ill/' accidentally concentrates one's attention upon W as7,ingtoll's features .
The lellertype uE{Jyptwll." l.-JlOwn as the army lellering of Napoleon T. shows a
good application of this principle. Tn comparison to excellent but older types such as
the Didot, Wal bawn. B odoni. the Egyptian is completely balanced in fll" positil'e as
well 0.8 in its negatil:e aspects, 1L'7tich helps to ma'~e it more easily read front great
distances.

CoslOJI

Rodolli

GoOlic

Put/Ira

Goudy

The c onfempOra~lI t:er8ion8 81U'~ .a8 S!lIm le~ " f tmphi8. lI'eltantlqua, cu., Ulldrr the injluence 01 the FuturfJ~
"mplijied the "Elluptian" equailw111 until WIdth 01 the bar8.

60

Long before such problems had bee n co nscio usly posed by industry, th e artist had
already bee n working on th em "ith a prophetic vision. His wo rk subco nsciously preco nditioned the public into a qui cker acceptance of the necessary transit ion.

the avant-garde
Under th e pressure of new needs, ope n-mind ed, resolute individuals emerged with
fervent hopes for a better social ord er and for which they were ready to fight and
sacrifice. Under the impact of violent changes, artis ts, wrilers, scienti sts and philosophers became th e re\'oluli onaries of a reali stic Utopia a wakened from the mere
enjo) ment of th eir crafts to essential duti es and responsibilities toward the community. They went on to reformulate their aims and clarify th eir positions, so that
new tools of in tell ectual and emoti onal inquiry could be created- a new mechanics
of scient ific and artistic research fo r social ends. From the encyclopedists and Voltaire
and Rousseau, the way led to Fourier, Proudhon, Marx , Bakunin, Kropotkin, Lenin;
from Pascal to Faraday, Maxwell, Pasteur, Ruth erford and Einstein; from Lamarck
to Darwin, Mendel, Pavlow; from Lavater to Freud; from Beeth oven to Debussy,
Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Bartok, Varese; from Poe to P etoefi. , Heine, Thoreau, Whitman, Rimbaud, Dostoievsky, Tolstoy, Joyce; from Sulli van to

~/right,

Loos, Le Cor-

busier, Gropius; from Courbet to Manet, Cezanne, Seurat. Kandin sky, Picasso, Leger,
Malevich, Mondrian. These are the names that signify th e effort and the results of
an indefatigable spirit of investigation.

dissemination of knowledge
The work of these men brought new knowl edge and shaped a co nstructive attitude
for a new life str ucture. The next step was to disseminate thi s kn owledge and put it
to use. Education seemed to be one of the best vehicles. But strictl y vocationa l education turned to the qui ck breeding of specialists with a rather narrow ho ri zo n. The
need was for an education with a broader sco pe, fortifi ed with the syn th eti zing ability
of the artist who expresses ideologies visually or by other means of sensory tran sfer.
Naturall y, in order to express ideologies as emotional content, th e artist must be imbued wi th the spirit of his epoch. But usuall y the artist is not conscious of th e neces
sity or expediency of thi s intuitive perfo rmance. H is sy ntheti zing power has a lways
been an automat ic sequ el to hi s work, the con notati ons ranging from recording to
imagination of events. For ce nturies the painter had th e realm of documentation ;
it was his task to record passing phenomena, persons, incidents, objects, landscapes.
But when th e devices of a mechanical memory such as photography seized upon the
formerl y primar y task of recording, when documentation was taken over by the
photographi c appa rat us with an unprecedented precision. a radically new o ri entati on
became necessa r y. This brought a revision of the artist's tasks. He had to find ways
of adjusting the mechanics of creative impulses as well as th e for ms of expression to

the present technology.

If one looks at the work of th e best representatives of th ese new artists, one finds in

61

them the embodiment of a splendid knowled ge of their material and a profound wiD
to spread a new sense of discrimination and balance. At the moment, there are only
a few and they are often misunderstood. Being attacked, they are often compelled to
take refuge in "catacombs" in order to prese rve their pioneer efforts, share faith with
and serve as audience for each other.
I,I the transition. Irom the handicrafts
to illdustrial production it was not pos
sible to have "experts" lor mass produc
tion as sllch experts did not exist. Thus
adapting men to the machine and its
l)focesses did not come without 1(Jaste
and great detours. America, the richest
country on earth , could aDord such a
procedure. Mass production today has
developed so /ar, however, that the hit
or miss policy can no longer be aDorded.
A thorough and appropriate education
of the worker is needed lor every part 01
the mass produ ction process and in all
fields 01 industry. lIfen and women must
have a broad basic training which does
not destro y their aliveness and creative
capacity by a lOO quick canaJi=ation
0/ their abilities in one special direction.
Alter this, a special education may
then be de sirable.

ntental adjustment
There has to come a mental adjustment of the people toward this changed world and
its avantgarde. An understanding of the economic and spiritual advantages of that
new world will be the best incentive for a changed attitude. The universal acceptance
of the new trends in life as well as in design may take time, as people without clear
orientation often become con fu sed by either sentiment-appeal or "novelty" propaganda. The sentimental appeal operates with obsolete emotional cliches as nostalgia
for the "good old da ys." A promotion of novelty for the sake of novelty on the
other hand tends to create the illusion of new organic demands where no need exists.
Usuall y it is nothing but an artificial stimulation of business. Such stunts can bring
only commercial success as they depend upon the elusiveness of fashion which merely
simulates organic development. One remedy for such a distortion is the re-education
of a new generation of producers, consumers. and designers, by going back to the
fundamentals and building up from there a new knowledge of the sociobiological
implications of design. The new gene ration which has gone through such an education
will be in vulnerable against the temptations of fads, the easy way out of economic
and social responsibilities. The principles of such an edu cation ca n be established
only by the deliberate concentrati on of th e most effective disciplines and techniques

Fig. 46. Bernard Rudofsky, 1943

Sa ndal

tested by conscientious research.

In Ihe field of clolhing many healthy

ideas can be adapted If the designer has
an inclination 10 physiological solutions
ra ther than 10 possessiveness and sex
emphasis. Rudofsky installed a fashion
exhibition in the Museum of Modern A rt,
New York, 1945, staling this problem and
revealing the obsolete mechanics of the
past and present clothing

On the other hand, in women's clothing, where ufashionability" reigns, a certain

more fundamental function persists. That is the very obvious blending of the functional n eed with the shifting erotic ideal that arises out of group life. Fashion here,
though tinted as always with sup erficial and transitory affectations, helps form and
express the sexual norm at any given period. The work of a good fashion designer
shows elements of inventiveness in this respect by communicating subtle sexual reference through the sensuous value of visual material, lexture, and shape. This again
influences other actions and activities in society.

62

III
new educatlou orgaulc approach
oJ gene,.,,' outline

In the book "Bauhaus 19191928" By

1st! and Walter Gropius and Herbert
Bayer (published by the 111 useum 01
Modern Art) , Al/red H. Barr, Jr. com
ments as follows:
"Why is the Bauhaus so important?

1. Because it courageously acce pted the

machine as an instrument worthy 0/
the artist.
2. Because it laced the problem 0/ good
design for mass production.
3. Because it brought together on its
faculty more artists 0/ distinguished
talent than has any other art school
of our time.
4. Because it bridged the gap between
the arlist and the industrial system.
5. Because it broke down the hierarchy
which had divided the "fine" from
the "applied urt!!,"
6. Because it differentiated between
what can be taught (technique) and
what cannot {creative invention}.
7. Because its building at Dessau was
architecturally the most important
structure of the 1920's.
8. Because after much trial and error

the background

the bauhaus

The Institute of Design, Chicago, is a laboratory for a new education. Founded for
the training of artists, industrial designers, architects, photographers and teachers, it
embodies the principles and ed ucati onal methods of the Bauhaus modified in accord
ance with the ci rcumstances and demands of this country.
The old Bauhaus, an art university, established the principle that mass production of
goods and modern architecture needed not on ly engineers but also artists with fresh
menta lity and exact information about old and new materials. The Bauhaus held
that this information has to be coupled with a thorough knowledge of the means of
expression as weB as with the principles and practices of industry j that machines can
be legitimate "tools" of the artist and designer. These were basic premises which had
to be understood in order to give an industrial product a maximum of function and
efficiency.
At the time the Bauhaus was founded the term "industrial designer" did not exist
and the profession had not yet crystalli zed. The profession gained its status through
the work of the Bauhaus. But beyond the newly won designation, function and scope
of the designer-specialist, other goals were developed. It became evident that not the
specialist, but the man in toto, in aU his vitality and potentiality, must become the
measure of all educational approaches.

63

II dereloped a new modern kind of

beauty.
9. A nd, /inalLy. because its influence has
spread throughout the world and is
especially strong in England and t he
United S tates."

Alany books. periodicals and articles

have been published on t he Bauhaus.
T he most importan t are:
StaalUches Bauhaus W eim ar, 1919 1923
( Bauh aus verlag 1923).
The four teen Bauhaus Biicher edited by
Walter Gropius and L. Moholr Nagy
(l92J.28) .
1. Internationale A rchitektur, by W.
Gropius
2. Paedagogisch es Ski::.en buch, by
Paul Kiee (t ranslated into En glish,
" Pedagogical Sketchbook," published by Nierendorf. N. Y. C')
3. Ein Ve rSlichshaus des Bauhauses
4. Die Buhne in Bauhaus
5. Die CrundbegriDe der bildenden
K unst, by T hea van Doesburg
6. Neue Gestaltung, by Piet M ondrian
(translated in to English " Plastic A rt
an.d Pure Plastic Art," published by
Willer/born & Co . N. Y. C.)
7. Neue Arbeiten de r BauhOlIS WerkstaUen
8. MaJe fie, Fotogra/ie, Film, by L.
Moho/r-Nagy
9. Punkt und, Linie zu Flache, by W.
K andillsky
10. Holliindische Architektur, by 1. 1.

P. Oud
11 . Die Gegenstandlose Welt, by K.
Alalevich
12. Die Bauhausbauten in Dessau, by W.
Gropius
13. Kubismus, by Albert Cleizes
14. Von Material :.u A rchitektu r, by L .
MoholrNagy (translated in to Eng.
lish, "the new vision," published by
Wittenborn & Co., N . Y. C.)

The 1nstitute of Design, Chicago. building on these foundations, tries to stimulate the
student's energies in their totality. The curriculum relies strongly on creative potentiality. The main intention is to produce an adequate rh)thl11 between the biological
capacities of the student and the contemporary scene. The goal is no longer to recreate the classical craftsman. artist and artisan. with the aim of fitting him into the
industrial age. By now technology has become as much a part of life as metabolism.
The task therefore is to educate the contemporary man as an integrator, the new
desig ner able to reevaluate human needs warp ed by machine civilization. The healthy

functi on of a man 's body. his social performance and welfare, his nutrition: clothing
and hou sing needs, his intellectual pursuits and emotional requirements, his recreation and leisure, should be the center of endeavors. An education which is responsible
for such a totality must be indivisible, integrating elements of art, science, and
techn ology. Such an indivisible educati on ma y then produce the genius for the social
and biological mastery of our age.
Although the vocational goal is kept in mind in its technological trainin g, the Institute
of Design emphasizes the growth of the individual within the group. Hence art,
natural and social sciences. "Intellectual Integration," are fixtures in its curriculum.Such an integrated training aims at more tha n the education of " free" artists in the
old sense. The stud ents must learn- besides the esthetic means of expression-the
technology of material s, and th ey must exp eri ence the organic, evolutionary use of the
material. They are train ed to articulate all media after they have been given the
knowl edge of relationships out of whi ch the substance of expression takes shape. They
have to face practi cal design problems too, to satisfy given needs with given means
in order to earn a living. 1, through stimulation by all of the practical and spiritual
material offered durin g their training, so me of th em choose the career of a "free
arti st," the choice is their own prerogative and responsibility though certainly the
Institute's delight.
the foundation (basic) course
The first year Bas ic Course is th e backbone of the educational program. It radiates
its princi ples fa r into the curri culum of the later specialized vocati onal fi elds, design
and architecture. The Basic Co urse co nsists of three great chapters of information
and experimental work in co nstant correlation:
1. Technology

Basic elements of workshop tralllln g

Walter Gropius: "The New Architectu re
and the Bauhaus" (published by the
Museum of Modern Art, N. Y. C.
1938)
Siegfried Giedion: "Space, Time and
Architecture" ( HafL'ard University
Press 194/, with a chapter on the
Bauhaus )
Grorer Kepes: "Language of Vision"
(published by Paul Theobald, Chicago

1944)

The use of ha nd tools a nd machines

b. Materi als. An understanding of the ph ysical properti es of stru ctural material s,
such as wood, clay, plastics, metal , pa per, and glass
c. St udy of sha pes, surfaces, a nd textures
d. Study of \'olume, spa ce, and motion. A traini ng in the fund amental element s
of design
a.

Tntegration, in this book, means the correlation of subject matters on the basis of a
common methodology governing our life, and not a new philosophical system compiled
or Uin iegraied" from ihe nnmerous other philosophical systems.

When the Institute of Design ILas

founded, music Ulas one 0/ the required
classes--as essential as the other arts
for a basic training. lIere is the report
of the teacher, Darid Du shkj", ( 1938) :
"The course is designed to promote the
understanding and enjoyment of music
by a threefold participation: fir st,
through musical crafts; second, through
pluying. nnd third, through analytic
listelling.
In order to make the first type 0/ par
ticipation possible, a study is made in
Ihe u-orkshop, of the tOllul characteristics 0/ common materials such as !;O,j.
ous t) pes of wood and metal, etc . with
the attempt to adapt them to mIL-sical
IIses by giving them definite pitch alld
proliding resonance. In addition to
these more common. materiaLs, others
such as reeds, strings, tubes and skins
art! studied from the same point of dew.
A specific I(ay in It'hich these studies
are realiz.ed, fo r exam ple, is the formalion of a diatonic scale of one octale.
usillg anyone of the tonal media menlioned abote or others.
Problems involving a 1IIore developed
study 0/ instrumen tal design and the
acoustical and musical properties 0/ the
more developed instruments have not
let been entered into, since a proper
understanding of these jru;ollJes cor~
siderably more background and time
jar investigation and analysis. It is pas
sible that some students more inter
ested in this phase of mltSic ca,~ make
further studies.
Second. the students have been loaned
instruments, either which utilized
knol(:iedge previously acquired-jor ex
ample, piano, violins, cellos-or instru,
ments that could be mastered under the
time limitations imposed by their other
aelid/ies- for example, recorders and
straight /lute s.
I n the analytic phase, the basic rna
lerials oj music ( rhythm, melody, scale
and lanaI characteristics, harmon y and
jormJ are discu ssed and illustrated. The
emphasis here is analysis through hearing rath er than through purely mental
concepts. Hen ce, the ability to recog
nize rh ythmic patterns, melodic and
tonal characteristics and the elements of
form and harmon y should be th e abili.
ty to recogniz.e them lLh en sOlm ded
rather than lj;hen seen on paper.
Almost everyone in the school is at pres
ent playing some kind of musical in

2. A"

Basic elemen ts of plastic representa ti on

Life drawing
Color work
Photography
d. ~ I ec h anical drawing
e. Lew'r ing
f. 1I1odeli ng
g. L iterature ( Group Poetry)
a.
h.
c.

3. Science

To provide the necessary basis for the I nsti tu te's co urses, eno ugh
mathematics, ph ys ics, and social sciences. as well as l iberal arts, a re
taught.
Through these integrated studi es the student is

assistance in developi ng laLent

aptitudes, so that his even tual decision and cho ice of special izatio n is based upon his
own edu cati onal ex perience. "Specializati on" means here th e choice of a workshop, not
a vocational goa l. Si nce th e industrial designer must be versatile, he must be train ed
in tht most diverse fi elds. This, howeve r, without the mastery of- at least- one fi eld,
easi ly co uld encourage dilettantism.

policy
The policy is, first, not to dominate the student j seco nd , to provide him with the
opportunity to become conscious of the wo rld and him self through exercises which
simultaneo usly train the intellectual and emoti onal spheres. The exercises are generally of such nature that he ca nnot look for solutions in books or in museums. Be
cau se these exerci ses have no direct co unterpart in traditi on but are built a round
his potentialities and tools and materials, th ey direct his vision to new and un explored
channels. The stud ent must use hi s imagi nat ion and wit, he mu st debate and con template, he must make independent findin gs. Since he is not allowed to imitate past
solutions, he soon finds the powe r to face new si tuati ons fea rless ly, to develop new
habits of imaginatio n. This relieves hi m of the necessit y of identifying or even com
paring hi s work with past perfo rmances. This policy is a powerful incentive for the
teacher too, as it lessens the danger of clinging to traditiona l fixations or to academic
certitudes.
Occasionally the contemporary artist's intu iti ve research can be applied, in a simplifi ed versio n, to educational exercises in order to build up in the student a new concept
of living and working through analogous experimentation. The tactile ( touch) exercises in the Instit ute are, for example, derived from cubism and futurism , teaching
th at rich emoti onal values can be released on a sensory level otherwise neglected,
namely, touch. Cubist and Schwitters' coll ages have been th e godfathers of the
texture exercises in drawin g, color wo rk and photograph ) ; the constructivists opened
up a large experimental area for mobile sculpture, for virtual vo lume, and for fundamental tasks in light and space articulation. The principles of Mondrian, Malevich,
. and others could be adapted for camouAage ; the stone carv ings and plaster casts of
Arp, Moore and Hepworth for the freeshaped hand sculptures; Bruguiere's paper

65

slrlllllt'III, Ihe more adLal/ced meetillg

10lcther for onhCMra pla)illg ILhile Ihe
lesl adwnced play 0111} ill leetions of
their particular inslmlllent and join
the orrhestra fL'hen read)"
In the study 0/ lhe nalure 0/ music
It.~el/, also, it should be possible lor
Mudenls uilll a richer background and
Kith t':ccel)/lonal musicaL ellt'rgy to lake
more adwrlced It'ork. A number 0/ reo
quests hUl e already been made lor
0f/porl/wi/ies 0/ this kind."
A/ter Du .~hkin le/t, John Cage look up
the leaching 0/ mllsie which then became an eleclive 5Ilbjeet. The group
lormell b\ him excel/ell ill improl"isalions
Itith sel/ made percussion inslruments.
\{eanuhile, mlls;e had to be dropped
from the curriculum (mainly lor eeo
"omic reasons) except lor casual lee
tllres and concerH.

photos for light modulators. Naturall) , the student cannot be transformed into an
"artist" "ith such cxe rci..es," but th ey can open for him the doors of exprusion
and co nditi on him to a ne \\ vision. Such exercises' are especially useful in the first
yea r cou rses \\ here the stud ent step by step comes to understand the methodology of
crea tiYe approach. At th e same time, skills are acquired automatically, for in these
exe rcises the idea of ';skill s" is taken as a matter of co urse. The atlilude of the school
encourages

e~ p('rim entati o n.

The student \\orks with different techniques and "Iearnsu

skill s. He ne\ er has th e feeling of forced learning since skills are needed as matter of
co urse for the solution of the tasks for whi ch his interest has been awakened. Stimulated by th e unu sual or unknown , he is anxious to perform adequately. He looks for
the best possible solution. He collects th e necessa ry data and material j he reasons
about the co mponen ts of his " design" j he investigates different tec hniques past and
present- for its realization. Since it can be executed onl y with "skills," he turns his
energies to\\ ard th eir master),. ~r ithout being mad e conscio us of the fact that his efforts
at execution are an integral part of the learning process. he " lea rns" to handle tools
and machines. materials and their technology.
the educational technique
There are a number of points" hich deserve co nsideration.
Among th e exerc ises, one o f th e most important is th e reexamination of tools and
materials so that a given \\ ork ca n be executed in terms of their basic qualities and
cha racteri sti cs. One could ca ll thi s approach an artl ess, unprejudiced search which,
first on a modest but later on a g rowin g scale, co nditions one to creative thinking and
actin g, to imentiveness and intuitive assurance of judgment. This idea has an affinity
with the kindergarten pia) techniqu e as well as with th e ap prentice education of the
old craftsman. There is, ho\\ever. a great difference in orientation. The "play" of the
grownup, "hile it offers opportu nit y for relaxed explora ti ons and collection of data,
has implici tl y a constructiv e direction. Through the collaboration of teachers who
hav'e the po\\er of discrimination, the signi fi cant points are quickly recognized in the
experiments and through subtl e leadership the " play" is brought to purposeful results.
An education in the crafts develops responsibility toward the product as a whole and
through th is it teaches th e stud ent discipline. But th e craft s are not emphasized in
opposition to machi ne work. The machine is understood as a very efficient "tool"
which- if properly used- \\ ill serve th e crea tive intention as well as th e traditional

handtool.
A second principle is to break down complex tasks into fundamental co mponents so
that th ey ca n be digested one after th e other and then brought into functional relationship. The requiremen t is. howe\'er, that eve n such elementary exercises, though
th ey ma) combine only a few elements, must achie\'e en tity. "form," must produce a
coherent whole.
In all exercio;:es a certain rh) thm is introduced through an allernating pattern of
freedom and restriction. First. expression is enco ur3ged "ith th e grea test range of

66

Fig. 48. 0 Institute of Design

Hand sculptures
Like pebbles on the beach, showing infinite varieties, hand sculptures are similarly agreeable to the eyes and hands in
their flowing contours and pleasing shapes

rig. 47.

0 Dorothy Riley, 1940

Tactile chart in the shape of a drum

emoti ona l interpretati on \\ itho ul

an~

ce nso rship. For examp le, a tactil e chart, an

illumina tin g, enrichi ng exe rc ise for the fin ge rs, can be co mposed solely with the
power of int uition. But afte r that, a photog raphicall y prec ise renderin g of the chart,
its facs imile, has to he made_ Th is req uires minut e obse rva ti on. a coo rdinatio n of
.the eye and hand. \,,\' ith this combinatio n of approaches swift en"otiona l decisions a re

brought Into an orgalllc relationshi p wit h the relati \e l) slo\\ er

min d.

67

proce:-~

of the cri tical

practising correlations

A numher of cxerci.:)es \, hich confront the student .are aimed to\\ ard selfdisco\ery;
that is. the awakening of his own creative abilities. The cxcrci"c!o are mostly built
upon sensory experiences through work with various materials. "ith their technology,
the skill of the fingers. the hands. the e)e and the ear, and their coordination . This
is

a(,colllpli~hed

through tactile charts composed of textures and hand.sculpturp.s

carved out of \\ood, \\hich are to be handled and felt; throu gh machinewoodcuts
Fig. 49. 0 T. Torre Bueno, 1940
Woodcut

\\ hi ch make lumber as elasti c as rubber; through folding. roiling, cullin g and other
manipulations of fiat paper sheets which lead to the und erstanding of basic three-di
me nsional stru ctures; through plane. volume and space didsi on and their further
articulation, In addition th ere is \\ork with sheet metal and wire, glass. mirrors.
plastics. dra\, ing and color. mechanical drawing. photography. gro up poetr). and
music-a full range of potentialities,
These subjects, organized in the first year curriculum, become correlated through a
method of ::;imultaneous handling of the same problem in the \'arious workshops.
classrooms. and studi os, emphasizing the mutual influence of technique and materials.

Fig. SO . 0 Institute of Design, 1939

Papercuts and metal light shields by 0
Crombie Taylor showing application of
such exercises to industrial products

For example, \\hen a sculpture is made in the modeling workshop. the sa me sculp.
ture is used in th e photo studio to serve as a stud y for light and shape definition.
Again the sam e sculpture is utilized as a departure for volume and space analysis in
mecha ni cal draftin g. as a theme in drawing and color excrcises, and the same object
will also be analyzed in the science and technolog y classes. Since in such an approach
many different angles must be co nsidered. the stud ent ga ins a co mprehensive under
standing of the single object. He learns that thi s method can be utili zed for various
subject mallers , giving him the co ura ge to attack other problems without inhibition
and fear and with a sharpened sense of logical and emoti onal interpretation.
Summin g it up: th e training is directed toward imagination, phantasy ana 1/1'
ventiveness. a basic co nditioning to the ever changing industrial scene. to tne
techn olog) innu x. This \\ orks :' forward" as well as " back\\ ard"; that is. concern ing
fu ture developments or old-fashioned tasks.
The last step in thi s technique is the emphasis on integra ti on throu~h a conscious

Fig. 51. 0 Stonier Kazdailis, 1943

Wire structure

~ea rch for relationships- artistic, scientific, techni cal as well as social. The intuitive

\\ orkin g mechanics of the ge nius gives a clue to this process. The uniqu e ability
of th e gen ius can be approximated by everyone if only its essential feature be apprehend ed: the nashlike act of connectin g elements not obviously belonging together.

Their co nstructive relationships. unnoticed before. produce the new result.

I the same meth odology were used generally in all fi elds we \\ ould ha\c tlte ke\' to
our age- seeing everything in relationship.

(See Figs. 301 a, b, c)

Fig. 53. 0 Richard Filipovski and Pot

ricio Parker, 1944
Tactile chari

68

A dictionary of the different qualities of

touch sensahons, such as pain, prickinq,
temperature, vibrahOn, etc

Fig. 52. 0 Nick Savage, 1943

Ink drawing

..

.. .. .. . e

"
..

.. ..

..
e" , ,

-- --:E:"~ - -: . .;:;;

:;..i.i

"

-- -

--

--.

scientific curiosity

An educational approach based upon workshop experience is the best stimulus for intellectual curiosity and individual findings. The. more surprising the findings, the more
intense will be the student's urge to analyze their nature. Then after a while when he
is on the way to form his own technique of research. he becomes aware of his need
for more skill and more information. Instead of ha\,ing to be urged to learn, he
himself demands more scientific instruction because through it he receives answers
to th e growing number of his questions. The task of a good teacher is to let this
interest then flow into organized cha nnels of scientifi c inquiry and laboratory experimentati on. This \\ill provide a sure ground for scientific education of the student
as well as for the theoreti cal structure of engineering \\hich may later receive more
prominence in his spec ialized work.
The scientific and humanistic studies are arranged so that \\ ithin eight semesters the
student participates in general courses gh'en by experts in biology, sociology. eco
nomics. anthropology. general semantics. history. literature. art history and intel
lectual integration. The last is a course which Charles Morris created for the Institute.
i\Jathematics and physics are gh'en for the beginning classes as cultural subjects;
later. \\ ilh increased mastery of the fundamentals. these subjects are taught morc
thoroughl y and und erstood as tools of the designer and the archi tect.
There again with out any outside pressure, the student realizes the purposeful inter
relation of all these suhjects with his "design" problems. I he then encounters cases
whi ch require special information. he finds the details without difficulty, because the
integrated educati on has provided him with the basic tools of research, a technique
of inquiry in the logical as \\ ell as in the subliminal Isubconsc ious ) fields.common denominator
1/ progreuir:e edu cation is to be
succeu/ul it Itn.s to coordinate tile
student's r:erbal performallce ,eitil
Ids means 0/ expreuion . such all
painting, sculpture. poetry. pla~'
and music. I" otller IC:Jrds. ti,e capacities 0/ t',l' stlldellt mu st be
utilized also ml Iltl' Icchllological
fwd artistic l,hUlI' bl'.' o,u/ Iprbal
izatiml, ,/wl is. Ilis 1101(,,,';01 ex,'rp.~
sian I).,' IIIPWI .~ oll,pr 11"111 Ilu> word.

Implicit in thi s approach is a cultural task. The stud ent is imbued \\ith the artisti
call y neglected substance of th e machine age. mass production, materials, techniques,
stru ctures and shapes \\ hi ch co nditi ons him to all forms of contemporary art, so that
he cann ot fail to incorporate thi s new world into his art and design. He is taught to
revoh'e his design problems around th e social co mplexes and the needs of man.
Such an edu cati on- th e int eg ration of art, science and technology- leads the studf>nt

I n addliion to the regular curriculum. a Ugalaxy" 0/ lecturers were presented to the

students. A mong thrm: lfalle-r Gropius. A lrar A alto, J ose L ouis Serlo llen ry R utisel
llitchcocl.. Beaumont X eu'hall, R ichard K eutra, Sig / Tied Giedion , .l ames John son
Sweene.v. /,'1emand L e.qer, Man R ay, Ernest K renek . D avid Dushkin, lV. W. Wurster,
Serge Chermayeff. Danif'l C. Rich, Margaret and R alph Gerard, L ouis W irth, j}[aY llard
Krueger, Franz Alexander, Carl E ckart, L ouis Goltshalk. L loyd Hl"arlle r. Rudolph
Camap. S. T. Hayal.-awa, Sibyl Shearer, JIar.Qit Va rro, IIi Simolls. F plix lVitzin ge r.
Egbert Jacobson. Thoml1s French, L. L. Thursione, A lexander Dorne r. J . O. Crowth er.
H . S . Ede. S. D. Perch. Conrad Sommer. H orace Cayton, R. IT. R o1}e rt so ll , Aaron
8aYI:etz. John r; . .l.Yp/' L. L. L ewis, O. Phelps. J oel.: Copeland. Christiall. R ucl.. m icl:_
R ussel W . Ballard, r incent O'B rien, O. J . B ulliet, Il ou'ord Fisher, l\onrnd Wa chs
mann, Herbert Read. Szymol1 alld H elena Syrl.lIs. elc.

70

10

a simultaneous acuity of experiences. ve r bal and nonverbal exp ress ions. It sta-

bilizes his virtues, s ublim ates his faults or asoc ial tendencies. It makes him inventive,
resourceful , and co nscious of hi s creat ive powe r. From th at time on, learn in g and

critical evalu ati on of th e forces arou nd hi m become part of his very existence .

The Basic Course gives research opportunities to students of different ages and backgro und s, to hi gh school as well as to uni versity graduates. The meth odology of
in venti veness provides th e common denomi nator for experimen tin g, tes tin g a nd hand lin g of materials and tools, for their action and reaction, for creating form. The
problems th emselves can be solved by everyo ne, wi th in hi s intellectual and emotional
grasp, by means of hi s actu al knowledge, talen t and his ex isting skills. This explains

1. B. S. Haldane says (in "The Causes

0/ Evolution") that the effects oj corn
petition between adults 0/ the same
species probably "render the species as
a whole Less successful in coping with
its environment. . . . The speciaL adaptations favoured by intraspecific competitions divert a certain amount 0/ energy
from other Junctions, just as armament,
subsidies and tariDs, the organs 0/ international competitions, absorb a proportion 0/ the national wealth which
many believe might be better employed."

why the Institute abolished th e an tiqu ated sys tem of credit s exp ressed in marks and
units.- The purpose of its tea ching is not competiti on per se; it is not to compare th e
stud ents on an "objective' basis o f sta nd ards and average J.Q.'s but to stimulate
th em to th eir own optimum achi evement by ask in g for everyone's best performance.
Everyone's " best" has a remarkable quality in one way o r ano ther, emotio nall y or
intellec tuall y, co nceptuall y or technicall y. ]n life, talents often do not develop because
no one asks for proof of th em. I n fact it is generally denied that the average person
has anything valuable to offer. But through the subtle pressure of expecta ti on everyone overco mes self-co nsciousness and freely exh ibits hi s best. And the "best" is
con tagious.

aptitude tests

vocational guidance

The Basic Course in its entirety forges a work ing uni on, a spirit of cooperati on for
social aims. This is

it~

main function since its vocatio nal aspects, the acq uiri ng of

skills, can be assumed as a matter of co urse for any com petent school.
The Basic Course is used also as a talent test. This has great bearing upon the student"s choice of later professional trainin g. Such a talent test-covering through two
semesters- seems to be mo re reliable th an any aptitude test known at present.
This fact has to be emphas ized because it may give some stimulus to voca ti onal g uidance wo rk and new techniques for aptit ude tests. Such tests today are usually to fulfill
ephemeral requirements of em ploy ment or personality-check. To be sure, they give
a more o r less clear pictu re about the existing abilities which ca n be readily applied
in industry or war, but not about the latent capacity of the person tested. This is the
very opposite of the desirable psychological attitude for educatio nal testing and guid.
ance whi ch should not operate with th e assumption that th e most important activities
fo r th e individual are th ose whi ch can be defined on the basis of hi s mo st obvious
gifts and inclinations. It is just these tal ents whi ch do not need to be empha sized in
trainin g as they represent the uniqu e orienta tion of th e individual and tend to develop
. A lfr ed A dler, i n his sys t en~ 0/ Indi'Vidual P sychology. has pointed ou t clearl y the
psyc ho traumatic and i11hib il illg effect of classroom com pet ition ex pressed in ugradinp"
stude nts, and. of course, Jo hn D ewey has m ade this pract ice a co rnerstone of hiA
educatio nal theories

71

\\ ithout outside press ure. The real problem lies in th e care for the "missing" or
less pronounced abilities " hich have to be di sencumbered and fostered so that the
ind ividual may achi e,e a balanced state. The warning, therefore, is that never should
a j udgment be mad e about th e stud ent's perso nality stru cture and manifold potentialities be/ore he has had ample chan ce to shed the often depressing cHches of his previous studi es and to recover his all-embracing biological potency. The school tries to
free th e student, by unexpected outlets. from possible regressions and hindrances,
g iving him opportunities for creative expression in man y fi elds.
TIlis process of self-testin g may take a full year. The onl y criterion is th e student's
wo rk itself, j ud ged by its completeness and expressiveness within his own system of
depa rture. Here, as already stated ~ no objective, onl y a subj ective standard is possible_
The evaluati on must rest with the potenti ality of the individual, with his " best."
In other words, a goo d teacher should not press his "style" upon th e student. He
must try to judge everyo ne's perform ance within th e logic of th e individual departure, th at is, correcting defi ciencies in th eir relation to th e intend ed solution .

Since such Uaptitude tests" seemed to be of value for the handicapped, during the
W(1r thp Institute started an investigation of problems of rehabilitation . See the article
"Better than Before," by L. Moholy-Nagy , in the "Technological R eview", MIT ( Nolember, 1043). I n cooperation with the W elfare Department of the State of Illinois.
the Tnstitute conduc ted different seminars. symposiums and classes not only for
TI(t11dicapped t'elerans-but for professional workers, doctors. nurses. therapists as well.
Th e result was gratifying, especially because of the applicability of the training techniques of the school. Oonrad Sommer, ?J[. D. , Deputy Direc tor, Jl enial H ygiene Sert'ice.
Slale of Illinois, commented on his experience as follows." The Instilute 0/ Desipn-s method 0/ group therapy can be likened to psychoanalysis in that it
reaches down into the unconscious. It often causes discomfort and anxiety for a time, since it
bids the student /0 loosen his moorings from his inhibiting past.

"This seemed to be especially tme in the class 0/ which I was a member. In this class were a
number 0/ specialists with considerable skill in their field s. To each 0/ us our special skill was an
anchor gidllg li S security. To raise the anchor and to sail out into the sea 0/ heartbraincreatir:e
experience presented a real danger to the un con sciollS. Hence, some anxiety and resentment ensued.
" Those, howeur, who Jar ed to make the experiment found in their ability to navigate in this
new fieLd the kind of enriched and strengthened character that is analogous to what happens in
psychoanalytic therapy, wherein a patient replaces the rigid. unconsciously motivated inhibitions
of the past !tith a co ns cious direction of his life, making social use of all his potentialities.
" Another analogy that comes to my mind of the result achiet'ed ot the Institute is that of spontaneity- th e freedom. the 1lIhoieheartedness expressed by children who ha ve not yet been spoiled
by Il"rong educatio nal procedures at home and at school.
Fig. 54. 0
1939

Texture exercise in wood,

This is the very first exercise 10 learn to

uhlll';e hand 10015

" W i/ hollt at all presuming to state that th e tech niq ue and appraach 0/ the fnstilute competes tvith
or duplicates the technique of psychoanalysis, it is nevertheless gratifying that the un conscious can
be reached and dealt w ith through a group technique Idthout consequences of therapeutic results
for a larger group than can he dealt with individually.
" Th e Institute's technique should es pecially he considered, as an adjullct to psychotherapy, fo r
persons who tend to become too passive since it demands of the patient a certain actidty in which
th e unconscious is invoilJe d.
" Th ese crearh'c experiences thus can be l/;)e(1 to supplement the indhiduul approach
thera pist."

72

0/

the psycho-

Fig. 57. 0

Ann Binkley. 1939

Hand sculpture
The hand sculpture i. a design on a rather
simple level. Its only function is to be held
and manipulated easily by the hand

Fig. 55. 0
Audrey Eiger, 1942
Semi-automoHc screwdriver (preventing
excess friction)
thiS desIgn luggests a substitute for the
tool handles which-though mass-produced
in molded plastics_till imitate wooden
handles turned on the lathe, not fllhnq the
hand too well

Fig. 56.

Figs. 58 a b. 0 Nolan Rhoades. 1941

Telephone (plastic i

0 Robert Zinns, 1941

A practical adaptallo n 01 th e hand sculpture

Drawing
The drClwlng is of a new type of plastic
handle for screw driver designed. by Eileen
Gotechoir
Thil new type 01 hand-titting handles c an
be molded in plastics. They Clre the outgrowth of the hand sculpture exercises
made in the basic w orkshop 01 the InstJ.:ute o f De:ugn (See also Fig. l)

hand-sc ulptures
Pebbles on the shore disclose a great variety o f shapes. They may

han~

broken off

from a rock in th e mountains, \\ ashed do\\n in a river into th e sea, hil. rubbed and
roll ed against each oth er and againsl th e bottom. Their shapes thu s acquire intrinsic
orga nic qualities-the ine"itable res ult of th e external forces acting up on the material.
Hand-scu lptures originate differently. but th ey can be und erstood si mila rl y.
A handsculpture, an exercise in the Basic ~lorkshop, is a caned shape usually made
of wood. Its sole function is to be agreeab le for the hands to hold, to play ,dth. The
_ handsculpture also can be understood as a space diagram; the res ult of the resistance
of the wood to the forces applied- the carving tools combined \\ ilh the intention of
Introduced by Il in Brede'ldieck.

73

the maker. \\ hen the~e elements are integrated in the processes as tightly as in
nature. we mar speak about organic quality. In such a case, all the elements are considered singly and in their coherence so that the end result appears as inevitable, as in
organic matters. This is exactly the requirement. Although an artist reasoDs from a
personal viewpoint, he l11ust organize his materials so that the result appears objec'ive.
The transference of the personality must be absorbed so smoothly in the technical
operations that in the end an indivisible entity is attained. This is a difficult, a ma.dmum requirement, presupposing vital and conscious knowledge as well as subconscious assurance of judgment about technique, content, and aim of the expression. If
such a coincidence between the expressive aim and the mastery of execution is missing,
as in the case of the works of a child or a dilettante, then only Hsubjective" quality
can be produced.
Hand-sculptures not only teach the student to recognize and produce objective quality,
but have additional fun ctions. They teach him to observe perfection of execution in
the flowing cUn'atures, the faultless contours which can be viewed from any side. They
are also exercises in surface treatment. If made of wood, they teach the student wood
technology j the grain growth of the lumber and its rich play, working with or against
the grain, the problem of the left and right sides of the wood in glueing operations,
the different lypes of finish es. They demonstrate the importance of tool handles
,vhich fit the hand. They help the student understand the necessity of controlled relationships between shape and grain and size; impressive simplicity as well as rich
arti culati on. Handsculpture also discloses laws of volume articulation, the basic
clements of carving and mod eling. Sometimes these hand-sculptures show, in spite
of the solidity of the material, a seemingly jellylike flexibility, full of twists and
turns. They demonstrate th e relati onships of the curved and the straight, the concave
and the convex, the solid and the perforated. This leads to the conquest of different
spatial planes and le,-els. as in th e spiral.
Hand-sculptures can be mad e in an y material, clay, metal. stone, plastics. In fact,
Fig. 59. 0 Gladys Rabung, 1943
Warping of a flat plane
(drawing)

fe w exercises ha\ e such a basic effect upon th e student's understanding of form as do

ha nd-scul ptu res.
Preexercises for hand-sculptures can start as line drawin gs representing irregularly
bent and warped pl anes. These can easil y be shown with molded thermoplastic sheets,
demonstratin g th e potential ri chn ess of a plain sheet if changed into three-dimensiona l structure.
T he "left and right side" are of practical consequence. The Us ide" designates the
relation of lhe plank lo the heart of lhe log. UR iflht side" is the plan k fac.in:o the Cf!T6
and if used on the outside of an assembly it wtt1lslands warpage and d1Sf..ntegTat1On
beiler. (It is call(>(Z sometimes ihe Uweather side.") L eft side should be glued to left
side.
Fig. 60. 0 Dorothy Pelzer
Hand sculpture
An exercIse devised for beauty o f s hape.
groin growth and skill 1n handlinq wood

74

-- -

- -

--

Fig. 61. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1940

Convex-concave
Circular disk of transparent material. twisted

and

warped

to

demons\ITlte

greatel

resistance aga:nst pressure

Surface treatment exercise and bending

and warping planes can be the ;1I1rol/Ilction to th e understanding of the

basic elements

0/ modeling, 0/ the re-

lationships 0/ the COIlCUI.e and COli Lex

and compo/HId cunotllres penetrating
dilJerellt spatial directions and extend
inc to rariOlls lelck
Preexercises are motle b\ line droll:ings
( Fig. S9) If hich can cosih be trons/oted
into Ihcrmo/)Io!>tic sheet<;.

weight sc ulptlll'cs
\'\'eight sc ulptures e nlarge the sphere of observa tion anti experi me ntation prepared

by hand-sc ulptures. Th ey teach th at we ha ve to deal not only \\ ith \' is ua l but also
\\i th tactil e illusion. ] n th is instan ce, the stud ent designs objects for bOlh h ands.
The~ mu st appea r as eq ui\ alents in we ight though lhpir actua l " eights may be d iffer-

ell t. The,, may, tak e on various fo rms and structures-stati c o r kinetic.

There are \ a rious t)pes of hand and \\eight sculptures:

1. the "fruit" ' shape (modeled) to catch in the palm

2. tricks for the fingers ( to fee l holes. and thickn ess I
3. spring effects (through pressure )
4. motion actions (by inclusion of th e joints of th e \\fi st)
5. twi sting I by turning parts)
6. cha nges by motion of parts

tac til e s tru c llll'es

Tactile charts and structures represent a refineme nt of th e exe rcises for th e hands.
Th e\'. are dedsed for finO'e
r manipulation of th e diffe ren t q ualiti es o f th e sense of
0
touch like pricking. pressure, temperature. vib ra ti on .
Tlliroducpd bll Anrli Schillz .
Jlany of t~ese exercise!; nrp 1I10rp thoroughly described in u r oll J[rderifll Ztl .1rchiiekltlr," (.Ilbed Lanqen. JIllnich, 1028) and in "Thp .:Yew rision." ( PU/llfHf1. BrPIl'pr
& Co,. X, Y. lnsO: TV. TV. ;:';orlol1 & Co .. X. Y 1988: George Will,,,unrn & Co .. :-,-. Y.
1046) both h.l/ . Jlohol!l-Saqy. These eJ:ercisps can flb:o be used for [lip rl'/inbiiilrlfinn
of 'he blin d .

76

Fig. 62. 0 Robert Brownjohn, 1944

Tactile chart in bent plastic
Tactile charts and hand sculptures lead
Ihe students towards prachcal applications
such as the d~lqn of beuer Sleenng
wheels. handles for refrigerators or tele-

phones

. .

.
/

.... '... ..........

~

-,,!

...

Fig. 63, 0 Dorothy Riley

Precision exercise , 1939
The same design has 10 be executed wilh
hand lools and machines to glve the sludent an opportunity to observe many aspects of his work . such ,a s suitability of
tools, time, and precision of execution

measurmg
eXerClSp.

]n the first part of this exercise a pattern co nsisting of a hole, horizontal and
yertical grooves, geometric and free shapes has to be accurately drawn and blue
printed. The pattern then has to be execu ted in wood by use of various hand tools.
Xext the same pattern must be completed with machines. This exercise is suggested
for th e coordination of hand and brain, of hand tools, machines. and the eyes. Craftsmanship is here correlated with planning, mechanical drawing, design, and realization.
The student learns to estimate time needs for each phase of his work, the difference
between handicraft tools and machines; whether it is worth while to use a machine
fig , 64. 0 A:br:so Corrora, 1942

Woodcut
The woodsprinq invenhons of the Institute
of Design led 10 a great numbe r of fmdings applicable for beller fu rn iture. the
vl rtues of which will be cheap production,
I1gh! weight, easy handling, and labor
saving

and to make a complete arrangement of jigs for one small operation; co nsequently,
the exercise brings home to him that for a limited or individual production it may be
more economical to use manual than machine processes.

machine exercise

Our relationship to the machine is still rather immature. \'l' e have not yet learned to
integrate it with the social whole, that is to make it serve the human best. Instead,
we destroy its social potentiality through an eco nomy directed almost excl usi\ely for
profit and unrestrained competition. Education must acquaint th e student with this
situation and provide him with a moral power to improve upon it. On the other
hand, educa tion must also pro\'ide him with sufficient skill to use the machine as a
tool in order to soh-e the design tasks of thi s tech nological age. For thi s purpose the
"machine exercise" has been introduced as a first step.
A designer has to learn the working rules under which machines operale in order
to make designs appropriate to the peculiar characteristic of each machine. In addi
tion, most of the present machines are only primitive tran slations of hand tools and
one day will have to be redesigned. The person best able to do thi s job will be the
one who has firsthand acquaintance with these machines. In order to be made aware

711

of all the possible functions of the machines, the student has to ilwen t and execute
machined obj ects utili zing th e possible actio ns of the powertools. " ' hen working in
wood (blocks, dowels, slabs) such exercises bring amazing results. In many cases
cuttin gs and sa win gs can be made by which the solidit y of wood is changed into
rubberlike elasticity. - Usuall), such woodcuts are potential structural units which
ca n be translated into practi cal uses. Since, however. in the Institute's first two
semesters not utilitarian considerations but the development of inventiveness and
resourcefulness is emphasized, th e tim e of the beginner is devoted to imaginati,'e
solutions without the limitati ons of practi cal app lication, required later in the speciali zed workshops.

- These exercises were the preliminaries to iu:o dozen or more u:ood spring inz:elltions,
used as metal-spri,lg substitutes during lhe war when priorities on I1U'tals prohibited
the production of steel sprin.Qs.
Fig. 65. 0 Nick: Savage. 1942

Woodcut

Fig. 66. 0 Angelo Tesla, 1941

W oodeul for woodsprings
Other developments In woocisprings, mode
by the students, were tested and taken
over by industry during the war (see
Figs. 67-69)


Fig. 67. 0 Four types of woodsprings

--

Fig. 68. 0 Testing the woodspring

The large reversed "z" is made from

lumber; the smaller "z" shape (accordion
type) Irom thin veneer plates wedged tagether; the hlqhest spring in the middle is
from electrically bent plywood; the small
coils from very thin resin bonded wood
strips

Fig. 69. 0 Institute of Design, 1942

Woodspring mattress

80

Fig. 70. 0 Institute of Design, 1944

Sheet metol. structurolly benl

sh eets, slabs, jo ints

Another t) pe of exercise, adaptable to different materia ls and revealing hidden relationsh ips and vital processes, are paper cuts, Here the task is th e manipulation of
fla t sheets into three-dim ensi onal structures. This pro\ ides the ba!-.ic methodology
for approaching any Aat sheet or slab, such as cardboard , plywood, meta l, \\ ire mesh,

and plas tics. Paper cutting, co rrugati ng, rolling, bending, weaving, sco rin g, are
in troductory manipulations not only to inventiveness but also to such basic engineer-

fig. 71. 0 Arthur Kersten, 1940

Expanded llIelol structure

In spile of the thin qauge metal
.!..JvctUTe carnes 600 lb.

Ihis

ing principles as strength of materials. stress and stra in, tension and compression.
Then the st uden t is instructed in the customary type of join ts, and is asked to invent
new ones wi th the same materia ls, first irrespective of their practicability, later with
. the aim to accomplish usefu l and needed solu tions. Exercises in the handling of
slabs and sheets and the making of new joints is essential to many prevailing and
po tential production processes.

81

Fig. 72. 0 Institute of Design, 1943

Structural popercuts
One of the most important beginning exercises is the manipulation of a flat sheet
of material into a three-dimensional structure. The same exercises serve also as
subjects for studies of light and shape in
the photographic studio. In the modeling
workshop the elements of volume articulation are taught-modeling in clay and
casting in plaster

Fig. 73. 0 Georgianna Green, 1941

Elastic structure (wiremesh)

82

Fig. 76. 0 Henry Kann, 1941

Experiments for plywood legs br furniture

Fig. 77. 0 Design class, Institute 01

Design. 1941
Experimental plywood joints

Fig. 78. 0 Ellc Nektmkin

Elastic wall

Fig. 74. 0 T. Torre Bueno, 1940

Papercut

This structure originated throU!iJh experiments with new plywood jomts. The con
struction of the single elements can be
seen In closeup in the Illustration at the
right

Fig. 75. 0 Georglanna Green, 1941

Shock-absorbing wiremesh pillow

Fig. 79. 0 Millie Goldsholl, 19431944

Welding with plastic

One of the most interesting discoveries

of the Institute during the war was frichon welding. Mrs. Goldsholl says about
her erpenments, "It started out with a
cUriosity about how two plastic dowels
would slick together when drilled Into
each other. The surprise came when the
visual outlines of the injected dowel diS'
integrated where the two were joined.
Apparently the Intense heat caused by
friction and then pressure had melted the
contacting surfaces Inlo a single trans
parent unit"


exerCises
glass, mirror and :,palial

1n order to introduce exceptional, isual experience:-. perceptioll e\erci"es in tram,

parency, rel1e<:tion and mirroring are dedsed. The) lead to.1 ,j"'ual anal),is of space,
10

il!" general articulation and detailed modulation.

motion sludies
Static space articulation, "hieh has mall) subdi\ j.. ions, continues \\ ith kinetic motion
"ludies. The) carr) the studenl to an anal)sis of difTerent

l~pe!;

of motion transitions

as "ell as to transmission systems and cog\\hf'el shapes and scheme~. These studies
also appear in photography and sculpture- as exercises" ilh ,irtual \'olume which
again is related \\ith one phase of the dra\\ing and color \\ork. -- All this conditions
the student to the new terms of speed and spare-time.

emphasis on "ohjeelh-c" qualily

Behind all these exercises stands the \ italizing po\\er of the arl!". It i.. hi!" firsthand
experience. the analysis and the constant contact" ith tht' arl,.. that build up a feeling
of security in the student and help him to evaluate

an~

lao;;k in terms of intuiti\'e

oqz;anization and functional, organic unit).

the specialized wo.-ksllOps

L' pon "uccessfull) completing the first tw o semesters lhe student enter:!> a speciali zed
workshop for professional training. The main pr inciple of such specialized \\ork is
the stud) of design in theory and practice; industrial processes and ma terials, and
the mechanics of a functional and ereati\e approach. Here the ';;ludent designs not
only

011

the dra\\ in g hoard but executes his work in the laboratory as wel l.

I1o\\c\er. th e student has to kno\\ infinitely more. than a single workshop can giveehe mu.;;t \\ ork in \'ario us materials and besides his special problems he mur;;t reach out
to other de!"i g n tasks. for "hich systematic im-e!'tigation!" consla-nth are carried out in

Fig . 80. 0 Mill ie Goldsnoll

Mobile
A rather complex mo tion can be ac
compl:shed by hftmg the lever a nd rolling
the LUle w! iqhts en the cone-shaped surfaces

the different \\ o rko;;hop<;:. Thus the Institute changed the old Bauhau" tradition of
segregated craft s I for metal, wood_ gla.;;:;. stone. fiber. etc. ) and o;; et up only three
departments:

archileclurf'
product design
light workshop (advertising arts)
Fig. 81 0 Richard Fil ipows ki , 1946 ~
Space modulator
,.....

\\ ith th e sub chapters of

To make the student aware of the pos-

Icellcutg

pltOtograp/ty

thr chapler "Sculpture" on pages ~16243.

_. A 1'Cry fine report on lhe drawing and colo r worl.- of Ull' I nstitute cart be found in
the book: " L anguage of Vision," by Gyorgy [( epes (published by Paul Theobald. Chiraga, 10.~4). who u:as for many years in charge of Drawing and Color Dnd the L ig ht
)1'orl...../to/1. It i8 lliO.~f (}mii/ying that, ill the I nstitute. ,",. ~}Otl1lg genl'ralio1l of teachers, {ilOilO" ill 11I{J.~1 rns"s 1101 r01ll11'cird uilh fllf' old I:JnHJWlIS, is aule 'lOt only to
ausorb its "rlucnfiOllnl policy but to carry it further .
- 1'-.'0'

84

sibility of orliculal:ng space, he has to construct, as a port of the mechanical drO'Winq

course, a spallol construction . Besides thiS,
he has to draw his "modulator" in the
usual ways d architectural rende ring, i.e.
plan. elevation. sertlcn and perspee:tive

IIIot;on p;cI'Ul'$

IJa;,It;ng

sru lpture

The technological and inlelJectual development of the student is supplemented with

related studies such as sciences, con lemporary arts, form and civilization, philosophy
of progressi\e education, economics. foreign languages, etc .. and, most important,
architectural design is taught from the third to the eighth semester to every student
in order to de\elop a broad und erstanding of the relationship between his particular
workshop and architecture.
In the Induslrial ( Product ) Design \Vorkshop an anal)sis first of all is made of design
potentialities in the coordinati on of functional , technological, economic and social
aspects. Then experiments are encouraged in plastics. bent veneer, plywood, glass,
ce rami cs and metal. New principles for all types of goods are examined, for furniture production_ hou sehold appliances_ tableware, lightin g fixtures, traffic li ght control,
tran sport at ion vehicles. playground equipment, kn ockdo\\ n furniture for prefabrica ted hou ses. etc.
In th e Light \Vorkshop. a thorough re-evaluation is mad e of the elemen ts of visual
express ion \\ith emphasis on advertising art. Experiments are made in photography,
the motion picture and display, with emphasis on th e investigation of light and the rich
possibilities of colored light displays.
The Painting Workshop ca rri es th e student through a study of the physical properties
Fig_ 82. a Elsa Kula. 1940
Testing pigments. vehicles and binders
on varied background

and chemical reactions o f color. the ways and means of combinin g pigments with
binders hehicles like oil. egg. gum arabic), and th eir proper application. This includes e'periments with all kinds of surface painting. preparing gro unds, fresco.
indoor. outdoor and three-dimensional color problems. The goa l is to master color
in an) em ironment connected with any object.
The Textile, Weaving '\Vorkshop produces a grea t variety of tex til es by means of
loo m and frame weavin g. treating both theory and practice. including the reading
and \\ ri ling of pattern drafts. It also ex periments with new materials, especially with
plastics. Designs for printed good,;o are a l ~o studied and execut ed mainly with
silkscreen.

Fig. 83. 0 Margaret De Palla, 1940

Material for curtain (cellophane, cotton
and rayon)

The Inst itute is a "transparent" organization. The "workshops" are in constant touch
with each other; most closely at times when commercial orders have to be
execu ted, \\ here various design tasks must be coordinated. Beyond thi s, all "specialiZf'd" st uden ts sit togeth er in th e archi tectural department whe re th e basic elements
of archit ecture, as the C0 l111110n denom inator of all planning. are taught.

end!'I" ill,. lrudersltip of J[arli Ehrman assisted by Elsa R egenslci ller .

From time to ti11Le commercial orders on a small scale (shop interior or exposit ion
.' !tand) are accepted. In the course of such worT.: th e studen t .qains cerlain practical
understanding. Em7)hasis on sllch tasks, however. would be 1mdesirable to the overall
leaching plan. A design r('search postgraduate department, on the oiher halld, should
1)e (1n in f (lqral part of such a school.

86

Fiq. 85. 0 L. Moholy-Naqy and Robert

Bruce Toque. with the slUdenls of thE
Institute of Design, 1942
Woman's apparel store

The textiles, ShOIl,fl here are handwoven

in the l4:ear;ing shop of the Institute oj
Design, Chicago. as models for mass
production. They are worked out with
comparatively simple patterns, and are
mostly combinations of plain weave,
basket weave, and I"ills.
Variety is acquired by thorough experimentation and intensive study as to
density of u;arp and weft, loose or tight
u-eal;e, free play of materials and colors
resulting in a multitude of diBerent
fabrics for hand production or machine

produclion according 10 their suitability.

A record is kept of each sample.
Marli Ehrman, the head of the Textile
Department says:
"Exercises in designing of a warp as the
basis for any fabric are at the beginnillg
of "real" u;eaving.
A n interesting warp is as Important as
a well selected weft. It lends itself to
a great variety of textile designs.
A satisfactory warp which )ields at
least three good textile designs is trans
ferred to a large loom. This It'ork is

combined tdth renderlllgs of WOLen

fabrics and the design of tapestry which
complement the training in color and
material.
Tapestries give the possibility of freer
play in materials, color and texture,
eliminating certain considerations such
as sturdiness, speed of production, etc.,
necessary i" other types of textile de
sign. Tapestries related to paintings and
uall cOt'erings could have a definite
place in mot/em architecture."

,
Fig. 84. 0 Barbara Beardsley. 1942
Experimental textiles
All samples conla:n a variety of materials
including plastic threads (Saran)

87

One of th~ most important exercises

for tht, 'Dung stutlent at the Institute
of DesiR" i.s the changing of a flat sheet
of material- papu. screening, meIDl,
plrltoo(/ -into a three dimensional
structure. B,' such manipulations as
bending. rolling. weal-ing. twisting, scor
ing, embossing. eIC., the structural properties of an.r material can be changed.
Within this type of experimentation
plywood rec-eir'es allen lion as well. In
fact, special care is gilJen to it because
plJll'ood iJ a nell' material and wilh the
inlentiO/l of electric bending machines
and high frequency gilleing it becomes
adaptable to new structural forms.
Formerly plYltood chairs were bent by
steam or It'ere laminated from long
grain teneer. The new reJin bonded
plyuood can be dryhandled by electrical bending.
The Instilllte of Design has made in
numerable experiments concerning the
bending of plyltood in order to define
the best bending radius for the different
thicknesses. as 11;e/l as new constructions
of phuood utih wire mesh core to prevent cross grain breakage.
Through the giueing of simple bends
even compollnd curvatures can be pro
duced as the knockdown plywood choir
by Charles Niedringhaus shows on the
right.

Fig. 87. 0 Charles Niedringhous. 1942

Stool in electrically bent plywood
The illustration at right (fig. 88) show s
the shope of the bent seat. The bending
process creotes a strong structure out of
a thin slob of plywood

Fig. 86. 0 Charles Niedringhaus. 1942

A knockdown choir with webbing
Electrically bent from resin bonded ply wood. WeiQ'ht, 6Y4 lb.

Fig. 88.

IP'ith the new resin alld otller cements

Iwod veneer can be bonded to any other
material thereby greolly extending ex perimentOlion. In using bent plywood
for fllmlture, the traditional joints do
/lot suffice so that nelt joints are needed.
Thll s experiments hale also proceeded
in this direCliort (s ee page 83) . The
aim ItaS (0 Cllt dOll II tile nllmber of
joints making assemblage simpler as
lall as easier packaging and more ad
l'Ontageolis tran .~ porlation.

Fig. 89. 0 Charles Nledringhaus. 1941

Cantilevered. choir
This cha:r uses flO construcuon for the
body, and thm bent plywood drums for
back and seat. The back and seat can
be upbolalered with airfoam covered
with fabric fastened with a zipper lor easy
change and cleanm9 Ilke the lonqchair,
"9. 91

Fig. 91. 0 CherrIes Nledringhaus. 1940

Longchoir
Its construction ia ingenlous: there are
three flat oval plywood "pillows" of 1Jainch thickness. upholltered with textile
covered cnrloam (lee Fi9. 92l. The pillows
are set in Qrooves between two plywood
Sides. the legs are of tubular ateel. Instead of plywood.. the oval pillows can be
made also from resin Impregnated paper

Fig. 90. 0 Charles Niedringhaus. 1941

Plywood chair weighing 41h lbs
The same chair on a metal frame is shown
le ft

Fig, 92.
The c:>verinq of the back w ith a ir foam.
wrapped around the l/I-inch plywood drum
fastened between the two Bides o f Ift.inch
plywood

------~

'eu: materiah oDer "ell departures /11

construction. PI)ltood is (1 nClt material
and uith the meon.~ 0/ the new technologies it .~/lPf!eM.f the IUt' 0/ completely new shapes. The In stitu te of Design
pioneered in furnitllre construction prot"
ing that on infinite number of net"
shapes ran grOIl Ollt 01 a concen trated

Fig. 93. 0 Nathan Lerner, 1942

Pushback chair in plywood. (one slab)

Fiq.94. 0 Nathan Lerner, 1940

One piece chair

ThiS chou IS made oj a single sheet of h"
plywood bent into shape without waste,
using only two lap Joints. This construction produces a springy chair without upholstery; it may however be upholstered
by affixing an airfoam pad, covered with

t'x perimentation.

labrlc, to the seat and back

Fig. 95. 0 Kenneth Evensen, 1940

Armchair
This choir has legs and seat constructed
of laminated hardwood. assembled from
Jour standard units which are interchangeable with other designs (chair and
table). Choir may be used also with upholstery, combined with zipper for quick
change and cleanmg

Fig. 96. 0 Kenneth Evertsen, 1940

Freeform lable
This low table "wraps around" the body
eliminating the usual bending over to
handle the objects, coffee cup, etc. It was
deSigned to meet specifiC demands as to
construction and economy of produchon for
use in living room, lounge, bar, or restau
rant. The legs are of bent plywood, mak
ing them strong though light weight

90

fig. 97. 0 DavIs Pratt. 1940

Suspended chair
This chaIt is construct&d of two matEt! :als:
steel tubinq and resm bond&d plywood.
The frame and the plywood qive slightly
under the weight of the body. resultmg
in an agreeable spring movement compcm:tble to an upholstEtrttd chair. The
sl.mplicity of the construction and the
economy of the materials and labor make
this choir efflcient and InexpenSIVe

Fig. 98. 0 Davis Pralt, 1941

Arm chair of plywood
There are no wood jO'-f1ts in the construction. Hung on a sleel tube frame. it
has a Ntsilient back and plastic arms

Fig. 100. 0 Robert Zinns, 1942

Knockdown chair in plywood, held in

place by only two pegs

With the combinallon of straight and bent
plywood, a greater simplification has become possible in the construction of
knockdown furniture

Fig. 101. 0 Henry Kann, 1940

Posture chair
This chair consists of three umts: a tubular
steel frame, a seat unit and a back unit
of bent plywood fastened to the frame to
fit and conform to the movements of Ihe
body. The choir is easy to clean and may
be dismantled and assembled qUickly for
packing or shipping.

Figs. 99 a, b_ 0 Jack Waldheim, 1943

"Beautyres!" rocker
This chaIr is designed for most varied
use, such as porch furmture. rocker for
convolescenl$, cardiac pallents, etc. It
utilizes for restmg the old principle of
rec:lm;ng. but has Ihe virtue of changing
he pos:llon of Ihe body WithOUT m~han
iced devices. By shiftmg the weight of
the body the chair can be moved so that
the legs rest higher than the head. The
chair is well balanced: even forced mot.on
cannot lip It

fig. 102. 0 Edward Golden, 1945

Bed lable for shut-ins

I
I

91

rig. 103. 0 Florence rorsl, 19431945

Ceramic and glazing experiments

rig. 104. 0 Leah Nolan, 1941

Tumbler

New type of hngerfiU,ng handles and

new shape of saucers. Observe al the
left two saucers lor coffee and teo. The
two cups are placed on a hule hill so
that the spilled liqUid can flow down to
the rim while the bottom 01 the cups remains dry, ehminating dripping

The tumbler is i nden te d on one side to

make it handlitting and to aVOid slipping.
At Ihe same time this warpage adds
structural strength to it, prevenhng easy
breakage

rig. 106. 0 Sarah Taylor Le avitt, 1941

Gloss fo r Iced drinks, with built-in
"strow"

rig. 105. 0 John F'ieece, J941

A "warmover" (fireproof)
The larger vene} contains steaming hot
water which is poured through the lid
(this model was executed in the Pottery
Department d the Texas State College br
Women)

92

.'

plrrshc surfcK:'<eS
~ .. /~

IIf:rJ,,-Q/

fXllJ(1fI

ft,I..Idt: J p'".ullC
~,,~

fflIo

grt;Jo~f!J arol'tlf'r po_I

.-

/r<,l llspflNtIlI

r oJ:.Y 10 d f:u"
Sllrfau~'

Fia. 107.

Fig. 109.

,\//
, ,

CI II<1 n <lllOiI

I'tIh#rr p on<tl

It nof rllf: <t:S~...J

.,

Fig . i 08.
Figs. 107-109. 0 Robert Galechoir, 1942
Closet door and d rawer handle (plastic)
The peculiar shape of these handles Is the
result of the lesser structural strength of
plastic than that of metal

Fig. Il l. 0
A s tuden t of the Insti tute of Design, Chicago, demonstrates the process of bending
plastic by heating. In the background is
a plastic helmet lo r shleldmg agamst ultra
violet rays of the sun, designed by George
Marcek. In the same oven---equipped w ith
m ira red lamps- the design class baked
chicken, beef. bread, cuttmg down the
baking time 75%

Fig. 110. 0 l ewel Simonson. 1941

Costume jewelry in thellnopiostics
(meth y l-meta crylate)

93

Fig. 112. 0 Margaret De Potta, 1939

Ring
The small pearl is placed under a magnifying roek. crystal

Fig. 113. 0 Richa rd Filipovski, 1942

Plas tic chess set
This chess set, based upon an old Bauhaus
ideo, is not only attractive by its tra nsparency, but the shapes of the chessmen
indicate their moves

Figs. 115 a, b. 0 Nolan Rhoades. 1941

Plastic motor cor Oow pressure mold)
An aHemp! to utilize the eggshell construction in the new material

Fig. 114. 0 Sarah Taylor Leavitt, 1940

Traffic light control in plastic
This design allows even a color-blind person to observe the changing signs without
difficulty. The red light is on the top in
the form of horizontal lines (barrmg the
traffic); in the middle is the amber light
and below the green appearing as vertical
lines (indicating the direction and flow of
the traffic)

Fig. 116. 0 Nolan Rhoades, 1941

Cheap air-conditioning unit

95

the architectural department

Architectural education is in a state of flux. Thoug~ there is a "notion" that the devel~
opments of Ule industrial age require some attention. the fixations of the "beaux arb"
education have so far held fast against a thorough change in terms of the new requirements. But the pressure of contemporary art and techn ology mounts. People
have begun to appreciate the new industrial materials- steel, aluminum, plateglaes,
cement-the basis for a new structural thinking and the idea of "prefabrication for
mass production." They have also become increasingly aware of the inevitable social
requirements which will mold future architecture. Under these influences there exists
a certain readiness to apply new methods of approach to architectural education.
In order to work efficiently and intelligently. artists, industrial designers. architects,
ha"e to master the fundamentals of plane. volume. space and motion (space.time 'l.
The fundamentals of drawing. color. modeling. mechanical drafting. photography,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the humanities are the same in both architecture
and industrial design. Thus the coordination of the education of th e artist, designer.
and architect is one of the most important aspects of training in the 1nstitute of
Design.
Kno\dng the essentials of architecture. the product designer will be able to cope with
its demands. This is important because most of his work will in one way or another
be incorporated into architecture. On th e oth er hand, th e architect will more capably
judge th e objects and products needed in his work; and his knowledge of industrial
processes \\ ill be his guide for a longawaited experimentati on with massscale housing.
]n the ]nstitute of Design , the education of the archit ect and designer is united. Every
design student, from the third semester on, is not only a member of a special work
shop but automatically also of the Architectural Department. After the eighth semester
the degree of Bachelor of Design can be received, after the twelfth, the Master of Arts.
mechanical drafting

The co urse in mechanical drafting- as well as leLtering- starts ,dth free experimenta.
tion in lines, to gain control of instruments and materia ls and to learn directly the
range of potentialities and limitations of drafting tecill1i{IUes. This is valuable not
only for future architects, but also for those active in other fields of visual expressio n.
Before th e student is asked to do geometric projection and other types of mechanical
drafting he is allowed to use his ruling pen and compass freely to make thick or thin
lines jn any combi nati on. The result is a " picture" produced by the mechanical
drawing se t. More signifi can tl y, the student's interest and pleasure are awakened in
th ese tools- the first step to good draftsmanship.
space modulator

The projective techniques are tau ght through an acth-e rather than throu gh the usual
This approach was introduced by R obert Bruce T ague.

96

Fig. 117. 0 Marion Johnson, 1940

Exercise for the use of mechanical drafting instruments
The first plates in mechanical drawing
stimulate the student's knowledge and Interes! in the use 01 his drafting set by free
composition of the different line qualil1es

- . ""'

-....... +-~

I", ,, ,... .... ,..

Fig. 186. 0

Mary McCray, 1944

\heeler, 1943
Space modulator with elevation. plan,
perspec1ive and section

passive (,'erba l ) approach. The stu den t is asked to make a "space modulat or", a
stru cture "hich looks like a simplified model for a shelter o r some t)pe of building.

It is mad e to dew' lop the sense of space and exp lore the efTective relationships which
must be within the quality range of any architecture. Architecture must answer not
onl y practical requirements but a lso has to fulfill th e demands of a space hesth etic."
Thus a spa ce modulat or is used as an ABC of architectural and projective space.

97

When the stud ent has to dra\\ an orth og raphic projectio n of it, including plan,
elevati on, section and differen t

t)

pes of persp ectives, he \\ ill have his efforts

supported by the vilal fa ctu al expe rien ce of making a model and articulating

space.

His abstract arrangement of lin e, plane and point empha sizes space,

opposed

La

88

the co ncept o f a solid objec t. such as a cube. usuall y employed as the

departure for all

I)

pes of architectural drafting. In order to see the difference. in

addit io n to the space modu lat or. a neutra l cube is rep resented by all th e foregoing

mea ns, drawn from th e grea test range of viewpoints to demonstrate the factors bearing
on the choice o f vantage poi nt and th e relationships between the human eye and
the ca mera lens, This teaches the " truth" about th e obj ect. th e vari ous form s of its
representati o n a nd th e degree o f " truth " according to various aims.
The space modu la to r prov ides the oppo rtunity to relate design to direct work with materials as aga inst prev ious a rchit ectural meth ods in which stru ctural inventions were .
hampered by the shortcomings o f visua li za ti on on paper alone. On the other hand ,
structu ral projects co uld Le so lved just as well b y working with th e model alone;
.

but again th is "ould not g ive th e experi ence in visuali za ti on and development on

.,

"

paper which is esse ntial to the explo itati on o f a "space fantasy". one o f the main requirements of co ntemporary archi tecture,

the primitive house

In the st udy of archit ect ure th e tasks are ap proached with personal initiative and op'
portunity for ind ividual research and express ion. The first task is to design a Hprimi_

Figs. 119 a, b. c, d. 0 Alfonso Carrara,

1941

live house" in the fun cti ona l. but not completely chronologica l, sense o f the word.-

Whalebone house for the arctic regions

The choice of th e site in tropical or arctic zones, the climatic and geographical co ndi
t ions, mountainous or plain territory, the ava ilability of certain building materials,
living and working, co nditi ons

all these are influential in solving the problem. Thus

the student designs log cab ins. stone and bamboo houses, grass huts, skin tents. One
student used as a structu re for his house the ske leton of a whale.
The primitive hou se is in more than o ne way instrumenta l to architect ural effic iency.
The whole process of erectin g a structure for a given site leads the student to the
resourcefu l rediscovery of fun ctional principles. to the diligent eva luati on of techn ological and biological requirements. In this way the student. without any other resources than hi s

0\\

n capaciti es. is bound to fe-enact the inven tive mechan ics of age-

old architectures. S in ce the old tasks of indigenous constru cti on are presented to
the stud ent li vin g in th e indust rial age , h e often re-thinks and improves the traditional
handling of materials and tech niq ues under the impact of th e new technology which is
his inheritance. As in a chemical reacti on. the traditional technique and the student's
sense of di sco \'ery are agents operatin g upon each oth er. The tech niq ue is modified
and tran sm ut ed by his use. his thou ght and attitude are sti mulated and invigorated
by the pristine new ness whi ch he has fou nd in co ncepts lon g accepted or taken for

granted wi th out question. A peg j oi nt. for exam pl e. re\'eals un suspected features
C. F. N ed; u'orkecl out a stimulating program for lhis project.

98

about dri\'ing nail5; a chair of pl)\\ood, "ith legs cut ou t from th e flat sheet, brings
home to him th e function of the brace in lumber constructions.
It is easy to see now the value of the "pre-education" in th e Basic Cou rse. The artless
and unprejudiced approach to struct ures and the studies of relationship of volume

and space, leads. directly to th e more ad\a nced and complex work.

There are a great /llImber 0/ other architectl/ral and social tasks growing Ollt
0/ sllch a begin/ling. For e.wmple, ';the
comparative house". This inl'olt-es the
design 0/ lllO identical shelters to be
erected from tlidely differing building
materials to display their peculiar char.
acter;stics a/ld their effect upon th e
desien 0/ the structures. Thus, iJ the
sllldeni designs a shelter by using stone
or adobe and then a second time br
using plYlliood or steel, the change.(
occurring in the spacing 0/ elements

Fig. 120. 0 Robert Preusser, 1939

Tent made of hide lor the ste ppe

- '" ---

ami their relatire bulk fixes quite firmly

ill his mind the nature 0/ materials aad
Iheir effect upon his design.
Other problems are "the wheel and the
joot" or "traffic organization in the com
muaity"; " community center" (a social
and cOllstructiLe recreational center
rather than the usual shopping center ).
SlI ch problems open the road to an un
derstanding 0/ contemporary needs
rather than to the emphasis oj "the..
hOllse."

----

:tfl:-----

-- --

-- . --=~~
-_.,
-

--....
- ----

J-

. _..
~

,+--#----,1L-_

........ ..,. ". ,," ..,.

~

"

"

t-

._-

--

-. -~ -- .

.... _.._-

99

---

.... .--

-- ,
...,-Ji l~
~

~ '~ri

.~

Fig. 121. 0 He nry Kann, 1940

Bomboo house for tropical climate
The first task o f th e archi tectural c1a s ~ is
to choose a location lor a house somewhere on the qlobe, thE' nat tV, qeoqraphlc
and malerial nmdiIH'n'" ,I which thedes:qn
must then con!:lder E' Th::!1 they Will d efine the shape of the house. The stude nt
has 10 solve the losk wlillout falling back
on the resources 0 1 previous practices. Bu t
after the work is dene he Is asked to tudy
and compare the trodltion 1

relatIon to

h lS

,wn Vf'U >n

luHons i n

Fig. 122. 0 Henry Kann, 1940

Dormitory for the Institute's summer
school at Somonauk, Illinois
Design and model were executed by the
student himself

contemporary house
\~'h i l e

in th e prim il i\re ho use j th e exercise j ust desc ribed ) ma inl y run cti onal co nsidera-

tio ns are ta ken and only restricted material reso urces used, the approach to the contemporary house is an outg rowth of the fun cti onal a nd spatia l demand of our day
as exemplifi ed in the space modul ator. A d welli ng should not be merel y the fulfillmen t of elemen ta ry ph ys ical requirements. It must answer them in integration with an
o rga nic spati al so lution, \\ ith the natural human desire for vi sual and plastic essentials. Man must have not on ly phys ical but also psychological comfort by exp eri.
encing orga ni zed space. T he d well ing should not onl y be a retreat, but al so a life
in space, a full relatio nship wi th it. Thus in a rchitectural tasks as well as in an y other
task at the I nstitute, the solutions ha ve to be found through a method of approach
whi ch coo rdi nates all elements into a n en tit y. H ouses have to be designed with the

simultaneous co nsiderati on of pl an, material , structure, facade and eco nomy j these
elemen ts are not to be co nsidered in succession but in integ ra ti on so th at each componen t acts a nd reacts in terdepend ently. This is achi eved through the mechanics of
planning which , growin g o ut of the previo us exe rcises on a small er scale, is proven
here to be the universal guide fo r any proj ect.
1n a later phase of these exercises, great em phas is is given Lo th e reco nsiderati on of
o rga ni zing space in a free plan, without bein g li mited by co nventi onal roo m divi sions,
co ncerned o nl y with the dynamics of placi ng equ ip men t fo r co nvenient living. This
app roach frees the student from the fetters of obsolete stan dards, that is, from the
123 a,.
bOB eo t

nee Ta keuc hI, 1943

F19S.
Studio house

idea that he must use a rchitectural elements in the old wa ys, in un alterable shapes
a nd posit ions.
The architectura l studies again and agai n are interrelated with workshop experience.
As the stu dent of the arch itectu ral class is also a mem ber of one o r the other specialized workshop, he has an opportun ity to closely correlate his wo rkshop findin gs with
hi s architecture. Th us, whi le he designs the structure of his house, he can al so plan

the interior, color scheme, furniture, and li ghti ng fi xtures with expert kno wl edge,
fusing indoor and ou tdoor construction into a li ving unity.

That this approach has its merits is indicated lhrou.qh lhe numerous prizes which
lhe young students under Ralph R apson received in, architectural co mpetitions .

100

Figs. 124 a. b. c, d. 0 Rosalind Wheel

er, 1942
flexible apartment for parents, children
and outdoor living
The children have their own complete quar
te~ at the riqhl. The parents mlqht use
the chlldren's playroom for parties. Adult
quarters, left. SI_pine; quarters for porents
upstaIrs. children downltaln. Parents look
through qlass wall on to Ihe broad and
eJ:ponsive livinq terroce.

Fig. 125. 0 Rosalind Ray Wheeler, 1943

Living room with motion picture projection

."

..

--.

, , "

-. __ ..

" '."

"'"

_.

"

,"', .,

..

Fig. 127. Lubelkin end the Tecton Group,

the larger concelll of tltruclure

Architecture is a complex profession" ith manifold technologi cal requirements, none
of which ca n be neglected . Thus th ere ari!Ses th e need for a new engineering training
\\hi ch, besides handlin g the normal structura l engineering problems, must concen trate
o n intensive workshop research based upon the ilwentive mechanics acquired in the
previous steps or training. To this belongs laboratory experi mentation with architectural models, not so much as three-dimensional representations. but as studies in
materia ls. techniqu es, and space stru cture .
SI)utial co n ccllls
In the past, architecture was understood main ly as an in terpretatio n of spa tia l co ncepts
in single stru ctures. and archit ecture \\ as conceived as a co nstructi on resulting from
the materials. The type of constru ct ion determin ed th e maximum size of rooms, their
proportions, openings and fenestrat ion . and through th em th e articula tion of space.
Ancient architecture was so lid. heavy. One of the world's most famous buildings

,1934

......

Penguin pool in the London Zoo

JIIIII""'"

The .Iecre:ary of the London Zoo, Jultan

Huxley. was Instrumental In qivlng nltw
dlTechon to the zoological architecture of
the world hy commIssIonIng contempora~y
architects to build shelters lor the animali;
This reinforced concrete "theater", erected
with the collaboration of the Danish en
glneltr. Ove Arup, shows an Imagmative
use of the structural slob which Will be
more and more employltd. in future archltecture
Besides the peng~'in pool, the Tecton group
erected in London and Whipsnade a great
number of other butldings-on elephant, a
gorilla, and other shelters. The gorilla
house is a movable structure; one-half of
the Circular drum forming the cage revolves. In winter the half of the building
becomes a public hall (so that the cage
itself is in a semicircle), and in summer o r
on worm days, the outer shell disappears
behind the pennanent cage, leaving only
the semiCIrcular skeleton of bars as an
open-air cage for the apes

was the Pantheon in Rome_ \\ ilh th e largest free interio r of the antique world, ex,
tendin g beh\een columns se t in a huge circle. From th e outside, th e Pantheon formed
a precise

C) lind er

adjacent to a cube-two hea, y stereo metric bod ies with few

ope nin gs. The old In dians of the Ameri cas built !Sim il ar!).
The go thic and later th e rena is!San ce architects started to ar ticulate such bodies.
There appeared co m ex a nd co nca "e. large a nd !Small shapes \\ ilh large r windo ws,
but basicall y th e building remained a so lid volume. e!Sse ntiall y no t architecture but
a modeled sculp ture. The de"elopment of the opening- more th an other elements-s,\as responsible for th e change of a rch itec ture from so lid ,'olul11 e into light , airy
str ucture.
,

In baroque architecture the basic geometflc bodies. c~ lind er. cube and eggshape
were retained but the "olumes perforated. Architecture became lighter. seemingly

less bound by the forces of gra,'itr

Then landscaping and gardening came into their

0\\ II

and influenced a rchit ecture.

Schinkel, the great German architect, groped toward a closer co nt act with nature.
Around 1800 he designed a palace \\ here the fronl wa ll was a lmost eli minated.
From such projects it was on ly a step to the buildings by Louis Sullivan and Frank

Lloyd Wright. The Robie House in Chicago (1906) has a widely opened front
wall and canlile,ered roof. made possible by the ingenious use of reinforced conc rete.
The building is one of the great landmarks in American arch it ectu re.
The skeleton structure in steel is a characteri::.tic American de,eiopme nt ,,hich brought
the "Chicago "indow." This has three pane!S. an immovab le large center panel and

See also pp. f!H-!!6r1.

102

Fig. 126, Mission of Ranchos de Taos.

New Mexico
This is a several hundred years old mis
sion buill of adobe. a yellow clay of the
soil. The sculpture-hke, monolithic shape
is achieved by ,he proper use of en indigenous material which does not permit
large o penings

Fig. 128. Artaria and Schmidt, 1928

Steel structure (Basle, Switzerland)
Such a skeleton can be filled In with
solid o r Wlth transparent glass walls, both

nonbearing

two movab le smaller olles at the sides for easy ventilation. After the invention of the
Chicago window Louis Sullivan pioneered th e ribbon \\ indo\\' whi ch opened up the
solid wall even more.
The transformati on of solid architecture into transparen cy was ca rried further by

\.
f

the de\'elopment of the crystal plate glass window. In co mbinati on with a bare steel
construclion a transparen t apartm en t can be built. The beginning for thi s was the
greenhouse and th e \\orld-f amous Crystal palace in Londo n t 1852). The transparent
staircase of th e "" erkbund building by Gropius {Colog ne, 191-1.J translated these
principles for industrial use. Later. the same type of transparency \,'as suggested for
a skysc rap er: like the one designed by l\Iies van der Rohe ( 1923) . If his mode l should
one da y be reali zed th e transpa rent stru ct ure wo ul d appear as a gigan ti c soap bubble,
pla inl y showi ng th e deviation from th e heavy solid mass of th e Pantheon,
Contemporary architecture is built not from bodies but from slabs. from planes of

Fig. 129. Stamo Papadaki, 1932

Reinforced concrete frame work for a
two-story building (Athens, Greece)
skeleton can also be filled in wllh
non.beanng opaque o r with transparent
qiass walls. In splle o f this, such frame
structures a re often handled as bnck bwld
C!'lqs, camouflagmg new polentiai1!les wllh
obsolete schemes

ThlS

different substances such as concrete, glass. sheet me tal. plywood. The penguin pool
by Lubetkin and the Tecton gro up in the London Zoo and the Zurich house by
Breuer and Roth Brothers show th in reinforced concrete slabs with ribbon windows
Ch;('(fflO /NUI fl pr olliisil'fl flnd lafill' Ip,,,Ullfl grolol{l for modrnl . I IIH'l'if'flll (lr('hi It'clu r e until the ('0111 m ";'"1 E .l'posilioll in 1893. Siufe tTlI' li the good work of the
ChicflgO School, f:'.1C'f'pl fo r F rrlll~' L loyd lr rigld, llfls l,ce/! IlI'glecfed.

103

--
Fig. 130. Marcel Breuer and the Roth
Brolhers. 1934
House Giedion, Zurich
One 01 the best examples of contemporary
architecture using the "slab" as the mom
structured device
I

cut into the wall. Slabs are used for the floors, balcony walls j ever) ",here slaba,
sheets, planes, instead of solid bodies.

Fenestration not only gi \es character to a building but determines the light quality
o{ its rooms. The higher the window the better it sohes its original (unction which is
to admit light deeply into the room . This was the basic principle leading to the de
velopment of a functional fenes tration of the Bauhaus, built by Gropius in 1926.
Classrooms had long ribbon windows; th e studios of the older students large sin!le
\\ indows combined with glass doors j and the workshops a full glass curtain. four
stories hi gh. Jt was more than a coi ncidence, rather a proof o{ right and timely
reasoning, that similar light and transparent glass skin was independently used at
many places from Budapest to San Francisco.
An interesting application of the opening can be found in a new arch structure, the
"suspended house" by Paul Nelson. The single rooms are suspended from the ceiling
in a honeycomb construction providing space for a large living room two Roors high,
that amplifies life and vitalizes the qualities of recreation and leisure.

Fig. 131. W. Polk . 1916

This building' in San Francisco shows a
complete glon facade. u:cept for "gingerbread" on the top. It could be the pride of
any contemporary architect

In a French school (Se rri eres) the children themselves can, with little effort, fold
away the surrounding glass walls, so that the classrooms can be changed into a garden.
Different fun cti ons of buildings, different functions of rooms ask for different fenes-

tration. Airplane factories must have columnless workshops and large openings similar to the han gars in which airplanes are stored. In reinforced concrete, by using
parabolic arches, immense free areas ca n be produced. Truss constructions engineered
for such purposes show increased openings. The newes t suggestion is that the roof be
supported by pressed air columns; limitless open space could be provided without
impairing movement or sigh t. Such structural solutions will largely define the form
of the new architecture, but it is still difficult to see its correct shape because we have

Fig. 132. Paul Nelson. 1937

Model of the suspended house
Erected on a double arch construction, the
living quarters In the shape of space cells
ore sus,::ended from the ceiling

not yet found the \\a y to fit it to the human scale. The problems of noise and visual
insulation in structures \\ ithout partitions have not been solved either and here only
ex periments ca n lead the way. But the fact stands out: architecture today more
than ever before--co uld fulfill biological requiremen ts, a basically sound living with
air, sun~ li ght. and vegetation if the public demand for it co uld be crystallized.

If

architecture is to be a n integra] part of th e b iological who le, then the individual's

personal wishes have to be brought into a healt hy balance with the requirements of
the group. The co ncepL of shelter must be extended to a large-scale social planning
inc1uding civic and comm unit y centers as germinating ground for public opi nion
and a democra tic cil ilization. including the arts. And what a task remains smoothing
out the ugly discrepanc)' bet\\een presen t living and future potentialities and what a
Flg. 133. Gustave Freyssinet, 1914
Reinforced concrete hangar for a dirigi
ble In Orly. France
The arches constructed under the direction
of the engineer allow tremendous inside
space without dIsturbIng columns

task of a planned use of all land!

H. Il. Sterf'ns. Jr. (Arrhileclural R ecord. Dec .. 1943)
Se(' the 11001.: of Cf .!:Jl (Congress of JIo de rn A.rchitf'clure) by Jose Louis Sert:
uCan 011T Cili('s Surriur'7 ( H flrrard VniuTsify Press, 1943), an excellent surrey of
the conlemporrtry siluation.

104

Fiq. 134. Van der Vlugt and Brinkman,

1925
Van Nelle factories in Rotterdam
Artificial light

enhances

the crystalline

quality of Ihis building with its e xcellent

fenestration. The Bauhaus in Dessau by
Gropius and this factory have been considered for a long lime as the best Europe
an examples of large scale architecture

1-1000

OUCT

Fig. 135. H. H. Stevens. Jr., 1943

--

Model and cons truction of a n airpla ne

factory
The roof is held by compressed oir, o llering open sp::lce for the producl!on of large

cnrplanes without sight-and-movemen t-impedmg columns

105

'.

I~~;~~{~:\
.......... ..
....
'
.
........
_--l-'--' ,_' ".,.'..."..."" "...""'"...."",
' "",....
..
--!.L
. ,.",'-.', .....-,'........,. ... '"
. .'.,'.,.
... ......." ,"..
.""............
", ~ ".' ,10",.
,.,

"

\.
~

,~

-',. ,

".

'

, '\,"
"

.......

"

.' ." _~ , ,.,

,,,,

,,' -'
", ,

,'i.'
".

X\

\ .'.

..)

---.,..

.. -:;.-

", to"

'""'"

;fII~,

Figs. 137

0,

b. 0

George Fred Ked::,

1940

....

unit:

The tronsduo house

,.\
""
....," ,," ....
.",.'. ."

t;I'

~\\,; .

. ,': . -

~.;."

"

,.~.

,. ," .1

covers four slages; Ihe areos

1. for young children, a play and sleeping

A house which tries Ie satisfy the new so'

cial trends, especially concerning family
living. With Ihe growth of the children,
the function of the single units of the house
may change. Therefore, it has two elements, a transitional and the basic unit
The basic unit is comprised of the parents
mulhpurpote room and the transitional unit

2. lo r adolescen ts, the area may be dr

v ided as dictated by needs and inlerests of occupants;
3. for young married couple, sell contained
unit by addihon of kitchen;
4. for use by parents when married children assume operation of household, or
taken over by aged grandparents when
married children move away

..

.. ,;;.,

'!:f' (

social planning

In this country the foundin g of most cities was prompted not by the need for healthful
dwelling co nditions but by th e demands of productio n, transportation. and distribu
tion of commoditi es. Res iden tial districts. for instance. were pu shed away from rivers
and lake fronts to lea,'e th e beaches for wharves. ,\arehouses. and factories; tene

'

ments were erected on nea rb y co mpan y land. regardl ess of th e smoke and grime of
mills and factor ies. These are a few of the obvio us res ults of an economy in which
th e profit motive is dec isi,'e.
At th e end of th e last century the 'fealthier part of th e city population moved into the
suburbs. Ele,'ated lines were built to alleviate traffic defi ciencies and to serve as
transportation for th e sub urbanites. Garden cities were built.

I n most cases this

brought improved and healthier li,-ing condit ions as compa red to the chaos of th e

.....

Fig. 138. Alvor AcUa, 1938

Row of houses for workers in Finland
ThiS is a good example of efficient planmnq. simple c onstructiOn, cnd esthetic and
bioloqical cons Ideration of an architectural
task

Fig. 139, a, b. 0 Ralph Rapson, 1945

Case Study house for " Arts ond Architecture". Los Angeles, California
Mak ing a house as an eJ:lenSlon of nature
cnd even bringing it m side. With th is idea
o uts ide and inside are fused

Fig. 136. 0 Ralph Rapson and Robert

Bruce Togue, 1943
7he leg islative pala ce of Ecuador (competition project)
At the begin ning of the new movement in
the arts. s y mmetry w a s looked upo n w lth
s uspicion because its use had become mechanica;, Since then. however. the pnnqpies cf mode rn architecture have been
greatly clanfled and toda y not con temporcry a rchitecture. but the old, is on the
d ele~si ve. The young a rchitects aga:n dare
to use all mea ns at their command, even
symmetry-if the task would require such
:: solution

Fig. 140. Deutscher-Werkbund, 1927

Weissenhof housing project exhibition in
Stuttgart
This has been the most spectacular demon
strahan In the history of modem archuec
lure. With the chief of planning. Mies van
der Rohe. the best European orchltectsPeter Behrens, Walter Gropius, Le eorbusi
er, J. J. P. Oud, Mort Slam. Ludwig Hilber
selmer, Bruno and Max Taut, Hans Shor
oun, Adolph Radlng , Victor Bourgeois, Richard Doecker. etc.-joined to erect houses
lor modern living

city, but caused loss of tim e for sleep and recreation because of tiring trips to and
from factories and offices. It created that forlorn soul- the comm uter. With the
mass producti on of autos. the ele\'ated lines became technologically obsolete but were
kept on as a chea p means of interci ty travel. Their structures built to solve one
problem, beca me in turn a hazard themselves to the new auto traffi c and thus produ ced co ngesti on. dwarfing and darkening the streets, showering th em with dirt,
reve rberatin g deafening n o i se~a trul y antibiological si tuati on. In addition, the former residential areas in th e ci t)'. \\hich were vaca ted by the suburbanites, decayed
in to slu llls. blighted areas. These could not be rehabilitated beca use low-cost housing
projects are unpro fi~ab l e for rea l estate o\,'ners and th e cities lacked planning and
legislation to take O\er thi s ta sk. The tax pa~ ments in the city proper dwindled.
The wealthy c itize n ~li\ ing in th e sub urb~paid his usually lowe r tax rates in his
ne\\' cO ll1lllunit~ "hile co ntinuing to use th e cOIH'e ni ences of the c it y during his
\\orkin g and recrea ti on hours. The poo rer taxpa)er remainin g in the city had to
maintain th e public sen ices.

108

The new town planners offer help. The)' suggest the elimination of congesti on by
the planning of small er to\\llships on a human sca le. embedded in green and connected by excellent traffic lanes \, ith each other and \\ ith the places of work and the
center of the replanned ci t).
But constru cti, e to\\n planning does not only emphasize traffic, excellen t networks
of highways and the elimina ti on of crossings. Social planning is town, regional and
country planning. It is planning of shelter, commu ni ca ti on and traffic, individ.ual and
'.Vature must be a dally experience, not
a u;eekend sensation." (Cropius)

group fun cti ons, ed uca ti on and \\ork, recuperation and rec rea tion, relating th e differen t functi ons of th e indh idual and th e communit y so that each can have th e maximum
benefit from the planning.
The future ci ty "ill be transparent, clean. hygienic. It will be rich with the ameni ties
of landscaping faithful to its environment. It will find better and more economical
solu ti ons to the problems of traffic. parking, heating. air conditioning, and visual
and acoustic insulation. There will be better offices, factories, schools, hospitals;
more stadiums. communicatin g continuous parks and swimming pools, playgrounds
and chic centers. Such planning requires a projection of more and more elements
into a "ellrelated. well-functioning community of healthy and happy neighborhoods.
Fig. 141. 0 Ke nneth Evertsen. 1939
Recreation a nd h ealth center
Ad joining a dense population crea this
ar tificial island is suggested fo r Chicago's
La ke Michigan

,'.

.-...~

"

"

".
,"~t

'~
<

to..
O"OJ(CT()

SCH(

'. ~

r :.s'c-

;t'N'~[TH [vFI)->1 N

i'

"
,p:.

.. '

DES'C

AIIC""(TECUAl

,.

C:'Cn

.!H"C~

f('

/..

"}

The T\' t\ and Public Houo;:in g Administration of this coun try \\ilh its war housing
program did remarkable preparatory work in bringing at least the idea of \\ell-planned
shelter to communities. Though it erec ted houses \\ ith unprecedented speed, and was
fig. 142. Walter Gropius and Marcel
Breuer, 1941
Two-story apartments, New Kensington,
near Pittsburgh, Po.
One of th. best planned and executed
housing projects dUring the second World
War. Followmg the condllions of the rolling country, a particularly favorable and
agreeable fr_ plannmg origmated. But
m spite of obvious advan tages, conserva\lve real estate owners and landlords 01tacked the modern architecture Itself. Afler
g reat newspaper polemics and heated diSputes the dwellers themselves overwhelmingly decided i.n favor of the buildings.
Such mCldents prove how difficult It is to
make people understand that shapes of desiqn ongmate not as a personal whim of
the planner ond deSigner but that they
grow out from the qlven con::hhons----olmost
w,th the ineVitability of an organic process

often hampered by priority regulations. it produced results which. because of their

social ori entation. ,dll leave an imprint on future housing projects. But the enlightenment of all people. including realtors and building con tracto rs. is needed.
There l11ust be a general understanding that the individual's prosperity depends upon
public welfare before a more complete planning can be realized. Slight improvements,
as started rece ntly in New York and on the Chicago lake front with parks and public
beaches are only sl11all steps toward social planning. Now. after a terrible war. we

.,

,'
'.

- .,
~

Fig. 143. Wolter Gropius and Marcel

Breuer, 1941
Aluminum dty terrace, New Kensington
near Pittsburgh, Po.

have more oppo rtuniti es and greater res ponsibilities. And it is imperati ve to watch

Defense housing- development of 250 units.

Layout on hilly and sloping- land. Com
munity building- at left, cenler. Family
dwellings grouped in shorl rows of from
Sl:t 10 e ight units

the reconstruction plans of destroyed Europe. Even without the la rge economic mea ns
of thi s co untr y, the European planners will- I believe-present th e world with aston
ishingly posi tive schemes in which the human bein g and his pe rso nal and social
welfare will be the point of departure.

Th e Polish architects II ele lJa and Szymon Syrkus have already advanced plans for
lhe reconstruction of Warsaw which ecerl/ planner should study. Their schemes of
space articulation for the pedestrian as well as fOT the motorist represent a. most interes ting approach (0 town and regional planning.

III

Figs. 144 a, b. Konrad Wachsmann and

Walter Gropius, General Panel Corporation, New York, 1943
The packaged house
Complete ports (If external shell; partitions,
floors, ceIlings and roof of a Jour-room
family dwelling, prefabricated and delivered in a box, 19' x 8' x 7V2'
At right is the ground plan showing the
basic house with the possible additions
when the family Is growing

-,
~'"

po~""

I.,.I ,. C- 0

'"

' .)"

r
H
k,

,:' ','Tt(

. .,

112

.,

ft '_ (;

.,

,
'.- --

. ,.

I"~ I(.

-- -

....

"

......'0.1.

'

- --

,
"

-,,'

..

- -J

bl illtegratioll-the arts
pailltillg
photographg
sealpta.e
spaee-tillle probleills
lIIotioll pieta. es
lite.uta.e
g,'oap poetry

pailltillg
One may ask, why the different chapters on the arts? The answer is simple. The
special experiences in a single field may help to approach other fields oj human
activity as well, proving that the intuitive logic and emotional organization oj human
expression can transcend into a conscious organization oj the whole of life.
The modern movement as manifested in the arts, architecture, and literature is between
thirty alld jorty years old. The majority of the public is little informed oj its basic
principles, its main direction, and is unaware oj its significance.
As to the visual arts: beginning with the last century a remarkable change took place
in painting. A new space-consciousness emerged much in opposition to the cherished
tradition of the renaissance painting that gave the illusion of three dimensional objects
in an illusionistic space. The renaissance painter constructed the scene to be painted
from an unchangeable, fixed point following the rules oj the vanishing point perspective. But speeding on the roads and circling in the skies has given modern man the
opportunity to see more than his renaissance predecessor. The man at the wheel sees
persons alld objects in quick succession, in permanent motion.
AJter the subtle attempts of Cezanne to create a new way oj painting which would
express such a vision, the avalanching power of the cubists brought forth a m,ore
accurate method. They showed the object, its elevation, plan and section on the flat
canvas- as if it would be seen from many viewpoints, in motion, revolving before
the eyes oj the spectator. This could have been considered merely as an im,pravement
in the art oj rendering. But then a mutati on occurred: The abstract artists, the neoplasticists, suprematists, and constructivists discovered that in the efforts oj the cubists

113

not so much the representation 0/ objects ami the description of their mOlion u.:as the
most important feature but the visual force and emotional wealth of relationships.
the constructive pOlelllial of the visual fundamentals.
This development of the visual arts /rom fixed perspective to "vision in motion"
is \ is-ion in relatimlships. The fixed viewpoint, the isolated handling of problems
as a norm is rejected alld replaced by a flexible approach, by seeing matlers ill a
constantly changing moving field of mulual relationships. This may start a 'lew phase
ill the history oj mankind. based upon the universal principle oj relationships . It is
the clue to all the chauges u..hich look or lcill take place in the sciellces as /vell as ill
philosophy, including education alld all other fields, in jact, in our u:hole civilization.
iss ues
An anal~ sis of con temporary painting should be valuable in helping to o\-ercome
emotional illiteracy and isolation. It also helps t o lessen the prevalent fear that the
ne"

art is unintelligible. This fear is destructive si nce it o ften creates hostility thus

robbing the individual of the pleasure of takin g part in the vital processes of art.
Depending upon th eir pre\ iOlls experience and knowledge, some on lookers ha\'e a
predetermined expecta ti on of '-art," a signal reaction, as th e general semantists put it.
They do not realize that the great painter comm unica tes with nothing else but the
common language of art based upon visual fundamentals. They do not realize that
the personal \,aY5 of using and interpreting th ese ele men ts const itute the idiom of
the arti ~l and that such an idiom usua ll y has a simple system by which understand
ing or a "ork of art can be brought about. \Vhcn s uch systems are explained and
made transparent, much of the spirit at work can be recaptured. However, it must
ne\'er be forgotten that \ erbalization can show on l y a limited scope of art and. segre

gated from emotional experience. it can sometimes lead away from the real mean1l1g
rather than toward it.
Int ellectual grasp has to be coordina ted "ilh the e motional. The spectator must be
prepared to sense th e under!) ing meaning of the artist's approach not as a "verbaliza
ble," but mainly as a passionate vis ua l message about actual problems of his time.
A school's duty is t o sensitise th e studen t to advanced th o ug ht and artistic expression.
]n the In stitute, the student is incessantly confronted with con temporary art and
through exercises encouraged to participate in its problems .

Besides compli ca ted socia l and economic issues, th ere appeared at the end of the 19th
century two great complex areas of human experience. The one was vision in mo,
tion; the other. the discovery that the subconscious is a part of the organic function
of the human being. Both concepts are actually different sides of the same problem:
that is space-time. The one belongs to the physical, the other to the psychological
sphere. In manipulating, measuring and experiencing our physical and psychological
environment space.time is an added dimension, a refinement of our tools in grasping
our environment and ourselves within .

See also rhapter "space -lime," pages Q.41,.-269 .

114

On one level, space- tim e is on ly a ph ys ica l measure as a re length, breadth a nd thickness \dth which man has been so long familiar. And as "jth all profound insight, it
is seepin g into th e whole of our cu lture, that is, on a second level, space-time is the
way in \\hich we envisage fee lin gs and psychological events. 1t is in term of the
cultural lag of thi s physical and emotional insight th at much of th e violent reaction
against the newness and " unill telli gib ili t}" o f mode rn art can be properly understood .

We can apply th e ph) sica I space- ti me to ma tte rs old a nd new which we habitually
define in other term s. Peeling an appl e, for example, and laying the skin Aat on the
table gives us a two dimensional space- time diagram epitomizing the essen tiall y three
dimensional rotation of the apple and the essenti a ll y three dimens ional journey of
the knife blade around it.
The "Statesman's Yearbook," \\ilh its mul tifold tables of statis ti cs is a compilation of

space-time diagrams composed of numbers rather th an apple peelings. The statistics

of th e movement of wool from A usLra l ia to New England ove r a decade are an exact
expression of a rather complicated manoeuvre in quantitative and time combina
tions .
Your hand in itself is a space-time diagram! The painter \\ho intends to render the
hand truly in all its aspects of growth wou ld properly have to start wi th the first
fertilized cell, continuing with the embryonic hand through all its stages to its presen t sta tus. The solution for such a rendering problem would be, of course, not the
obvious juxtaposition of th e sin gle stages but a synthesis of the space-time aspects.
When such a rendering is achieved, the specta tor himself will mentally recreate
the process of growth; and in doing so, he is exerc isi ng vision in Illotion. The rendering itself is, as in any space-ti me diagram, mo ti on arrested for vision. Whether one
studies statistics or looks at the space-ti me rendering of the hand, his contribu~ion
is to unfreeze the sign lan guage of vision and recreate the motion. Later, after he liberates himself from traditional vision, he wi ll be able to apprehend this emotionally

as well as intellectually; see it, feel it, know it. Once he has achieved this power he
will have broken past the isolation of things to a deeper and richer unity of insight.
Through the use of this psychological insight and the psychoanal ysis of Sigmund
Freud, space-time fundamentals may be understood also as the syntax and grammar of
an emo ti onal language which may fe -create the path of the inner motion. This can
express the problems of living (through the arts) more directly and synchron ousl y
in their totality than could be done by an y mere descriptive version. And as people
have to learn to read and relate th e manifo ld sig ns of traffic control at metropolitan
stree t intersections for ph) sica l safety , they must learn also to read and relate the
emo ti onal meanin g of the expressive fundam entals used in the different arts in order
to avoid the danger zones of psychological "intersections."
It is to be expected that statistical material and similar problems of visualizat ion

will be belter handled in the future when we appreciate the technique of pictorial
rendering of mot ion. Notable efforts were made in this direction by Otto Neurath
( Oxiol'd ) and by 17~ e use of Ilho{ornonla(](' .

us

The recognilion of these problems is still difficult for very few have as yet the proper
altitude for it. But because Ih e idea of vision in l1)otion and Ihe subconscious relationships have far-reaching implications l every crealive worker in his field willy-nilly
tries to find the means for their exposi ti on.

cubism
Cubism . \, ilhout being entirely co nsci ous of ils role, became a po lent instrument in
this process of indoctrination. Like Einstein in physics, Freud in psychoanalysis, the
cubist painters had a treme nd ous impact. Their work introduced a whole new outlook.
Fig. 145. Pablo Picasso, 1943
Still life
Though a lete work of Picasso, it demonatrolea dearly the pre-cubisl principle of
"distortion", signifymg a composite view
of the objects

From GiOllo to Ci;;anne eler> pain ter

has assured the spectator that his rendering 01 nature is u;ithout "distortion" .
But th is !Cos only a pious I,ish since a
draltsman oL!Co)s has to simplify his
subject when he trallslales it i l l to linear
lorm. And the painter has 10 in terpret
the objects in colors; has to leave out
details; has 10 set a dark object in to a
light su rrounding and a light object into
a dark one if he I(,i shes to emphasize
them. By these subtle manipulations
the pain ler "distorts".

II

the painter feels that in a still lile

a chf1nged relationship of objects lj;ould
improve his composition, he-ol course
-changes the position 01 those objects
and no one Itould complaIn. But the
common belief is that such a rearrangement should not be allolj;ed in the case
of that sacrosanct-the human body.
But after all, lace lilting and beau ty
surgery are commonly practiced today
and one should not It onder th at the
painter may desire-lor a more expres
sive purpose-those priJ:iieges of the
surgeon. There is only a shade of dil
ference betu:een "distortion" 01 a color
scheme and of actual ports 01 the human
lace, or other such "immutables".

Cubism is "vision in motion," a new essay at two-dimensional rendering of rotated

objecls.

An analysis of cubism can best start with the painlings of Cezanne. By leaving out
of hi s pictures the nonessential s, a device which characterizes his aquarelles and especiall y hi s so-call ed "unfinished" canvases, he demonstrated a kind of scientific inquiry
into painting-Ihe precise observation of visual elements like "isolated cultures" in
a biological lest tube. Cezanne tried to say with less more than his predecessors had
said previously with much.
The effort to show only the essenlials was ca rried further by the early cubists in
stereometrizing of the objects. (Yet Cezanne had prepared even for Ihis development
by statin g that the painter who ca n paint a sphere, cylinder and cone, can paint everythin g.) The bizarre name "cubism" originaled with some Braque and Picasso landscapes which did not sho w too much deviation from nature, except that windows and
doors were left out of buildings. The resultin g shapes were rather cube-like, hence the
name. The attitude in th ese landscapes toward li ght was more remarkable Ihan the
prismatic simplifi ca ti on of the shapes.

Contrary to what had been done in the

past, these pictures did not foll ow the natural conditions of lighting but deliberately
used li ght and shadow effects, a kind of shadin g, in order to define the objects in a
geometric clarity. The "cubist" painter was more interested in rendering the objects
in the most economical wa y than in the light and shad ow relationships as determined
by Ih e casual position of the sun . With that he became independent of the servile type
of observa ti on to which, for example, the documentary photographer was subordinated . Photographic emulsion rendered shadow and light exactly at Ihe spots where
they appeared at the time of the exposure, but the cubist carried through the task of
renderin g without any considerati on of such accidenta l circumstances. He rendered
the object in its true nature, in its tota1it y. With thi s, he unbound himself from the
di ctates of na turali stic renderin gs; from the pressure of conventional , repetitive. and
imitative demands to a growi ng co nsciousness of the autonomous interpreting power
of the artist.
As a young boy Alexander Kostellow, a P ersian artist, now P rofessor at Pratt I nsti
tute, went to Paris in order to learn to draw and paint. Wh en he returned to Persia
his teacher there asked him to draw a bird. H e did it as he had learned in E urop e. The
teacher reprimanded him: "Do you know that, to draw something as it is, is t'ery
'CulgarF"

116


a more
The next step in the de\elopment of cubism \\as the bird'sc)e \l e \\, gl\lng
inclusi\'e \ isla. To see an object frontally means to see it in ele\'alion. From above

1I 0l

on ly the ele\ation can be seen, but also the plan and some o r the sides. Also

from above, the original shapes are seen \\ iLh greater clariL) than in the centralperspecti\e \islaS and "anishing point renderings which distort the real proportions.
One sees "truer". lnstead of an egg shape one sees the undi~torted sphere; instead
of an oval, the circle.
This attempt at belLer and more perfect rendering was only a prcliminar) step. Suddenly, the view from above chan ged into a view from ever) \,here.
The classical rendering on the static plane, on th e painted surface, sho\\ ed only one
aspect, one view. But in reality objects ca n be seen from th e front, profile, threequarter profile, and from the back. A person is really defined in his threedimensio nalit y \\ hen he is seen from e\lery angle. This definition can be acco mplished
either by turning th e perso n or moving around him. Cezanne already indicated this
problem. He painted objects in Ihe very same painting from different viewpoints: the
one from above, the other frontally, the third froll1 the side. He paint ed also a bottle,

as
a
composite
\
'
lew.
for example, in a peculiar distortion which can be expla ined
that is, seen simultaneo usly from the front and side.
Fig. 146. A. E. Brinkman, 1930
The south cross nave of the monastery
church In Ottobeuren
This is a composite view produced by as
sembled perspechves in depth and height.
Th. photograph recreates the movement of
the eyes as they wander from the benches
upw'lrd 10 the ceiling

Phot ogralJhy, which had indirectly given im.petus to early cubism, leticr learned
from it. In the twenties it slarted to favor bird's, frog's , and fish's-eye views. It even
lried to give up the traditional horizon l-ine because it cut the object in undesirable
ways. Casual horizon lincs caused confusion. They rarely contribute to a better explanation of the object. T oday, photographs often are taken from above on an inclined
surface or against a curved background, eliminating the horizon line. This allows a
concentration on lhe object itself which no longer is cut haphazardly, Also. the con.temporary photographer uses any number of light sources at rarious angles if they
help him define his object betler. Interesting enough the old-limers-"lhe sun-worshipersn-violently oppose such a ste p.
For a long lill~e this treatment was only inte rpreted as a kind of expressionistic
distortion. At the writing of "'the new 1.ision" (1925-1928) I was 1I0t yel able to comment on this aspect of "distortion ."
Fig. 148. In front of the Depot, SI.
Anto n, 1935
This picture (a fish-eye view) was taken
with a Robin Hill camera, which has a
wide angle lens of 180 degrees
In the second World War, the fish'eye
view became especially important in the
cartog raphy of large territories

Fig. 149. a Milton Halbe. 19 42

Head, multi viewed

Fig. 147. Paul Cezanne, 1903

Still life
Observe the peculiar distortion of the jug,
whIch bulges more on the right side than
on the left, The same Is true of Ihe bottle

117

distortion
Some distortions ha\ e a correcli\e. illusionistic function as in paintings or sculptures
placed high

011 building~.

(The slone figures of saints mounted on the roof o( the

Hofkirche in Dre:--den "as deliberately distorted. This "distortion" \\ as onh calculated to eliminate distortion. to make them appear tall "hen \iewed from below.)
But distortion usuall) has literary or plastic meaning. Sometimes the t\\O are integrated. Distortion ,dth plastic meaning stri\'es (or \ isual enrichment as in (rag and
fishe)e yie\\s.

Plastic distortions mar overemphasize dimen sion and proportion,

depth. "idth. length. concave, convex. geometric and free shapes. Literary distortion
~

in the visual arts) coun ts on the intellectual shock deliberately produced for a more

expressi\e charac teriza ti on of objects and persons. as in caricature or visual pun.

for instance showing a man's chest as a chest of drawers. Because the suggestive
plastic meaning of distortions is \ ery stro ng. paintings of an exalted, delirious character often emplo) ed anatomically false placing of extremi ti es and organs " ithout en
dangerin g the plastic unity of the work. On th e contrary. the purpose of such an
action" a::i
Fig. 150. Gaetano Chiaverri. 1738-1746
Hofkirche in Dresden: sculpture on the
roof
In order to make the saints appear mightier
from below. the proportions were distorted,
the base made very lorge and the head
very small. This enhanced the perspective
effec'

pre('isel~

to create a peculiar entity.

Cezanne's desire to bring the objects more truthfully to the specta tor led hi m to choose
the most re\ealing \ ie\\ point in the very same painting. from abo\e. from th e side.
from below. as it be~t suited th e discrimination of the single object. The result was a

composite view. a " distorti on" if judged within the cOllven ti on of th e vanishing
point central persperli\e. but in reality it was vision in Trw/ioll (rendered on the
picture plane).
\Ve may thus say that distorti o n equals motion because \\hat we genera ll y call "dis
tortion" is only distortion in relation to the fixed perspecli\e of the renaissance painter.
Distortion can th en he

under~t()od- in

addition to its other meanings- as space-

time synonym. The illustration. Parallel". is photographic proof of this statement.

The little S(IU3re::. of the mosaic tiles at the boll am of the s" imming pool record
e).actl y the motion !"a\csl of the water surface through a thousandfold \ariety.
Folio" ing Cezanne. th e cubists cha nged the static and arrested monocular \"ision of

the renaissance to binocular \ision - vision in motion .- In the yeT) earl) as "ell as
the later cubist paintings the familiar pitcher. glass, pipe. dolin, etc., appeared more
distorted than in the paintings of Cezanne. Their composite views were unu sual ren-

,
Fig. lSI. 0 Gladys Rabung, 1944
Study of deformation
(two prints of the same photoqraph com
bmed)

Fig. 152. 0 HaUula Moholy-Nagy (age

eleven), 1945
Compression
,jrom the Institute 01 Deslgn's Children's
;0$$)

derin gs showing the object mainl y from two sides. frolll above and in olle of the
eleva tion s. By juxtaposing or mingling these vie\\s. the result \\as a co mposite object
appearing for th e uninitiated as a '-d istortion"

(\\i thin the cOll\en lion of the fi'i:ed

- Cezanne 011('(' declared llwt by mot'ing his head slightly to thp lefl or right, while
standing on the same spot. he could paint a great number of dijJerellt pictures; that
is . his method of paillting was from. a fixed position, without motion of th e eye-monocular, Later, tov.,'ard the end of his life. he apparently gat'e up the rigid classical
t'iewpoint and tried to "embrace" the object with both eyes, especially-as we saw-by
shifting his 7JOsilioll of ous('rrafion in the same painting. This anticipated lhe visual
situatiol1 of the drirer at the wliepl of lhe speeding ca r or plane. Th ere ihe motion
automniicfll1,'1 produces 11 '(1)inoClIlflr" l'ision Hen if the dril'er, parndo.rical1y. had but
011(' pUf'.

Fig. 153, Ryuil Sibata. 1937

"Parallel"
ThiS Ulu$tration Is a photographic proof 01
the statement that "distortion may mean
vision in molton". The httle squares of the
mO$OIC tiles at the bottom 01 the $wlmming
pool record exactly the motion (waves) of
the water surface in r:ich variety

\.

Fig. 154. Hans Mem1ing, 14331494

The martyrdom of Christ
Action contmuity. Starling In the top leI!
hand corner, the various episodes of the
i:Est days of Jesus Christ are arranged
roughly m the form of a "w", flmshing
wIth the crucifixion at the top on the right

vanishing point perspecti\te) . In reality, the process was vision in motion (rendered
on the picture plane ). Its practical co nsequence was a revision of our visual perception.

atte mpts o f r ende rin g m oti o n

Attempts to represent moti on or its path have been made previously. The 14th
century illustrati ons of th e sce ne at Gol gotha were painted as a spiralling road on a
hill with Christ ca rrying th e cross not only in one, but in all the stages of his Calvary.
His fi gure appears a number of times on the one canvas, simultaneously juxtaposing
th e differe nt phases of his movements. The ascending road in this type of painting
den oted not only the place of his suffering but its time measure as welL
Another version of vision in motion is the drawing showing Dante and Virgil visiting
purgatory. The fi gures move from right to left and can be seen in different positions
at different places. listenin g to the sinners. Such a motion rendering is very similar
to the visual synopsis of an animated ca rtoon. The main motives of the film a re

'/J~

--

""

0l

1.

f'
( '.

Fig. 155. Edvard Munch. 1895

"Tingle-tangle" (lithograph)
Attempts at recording motion ore not new .
This drawing done so long ago shows dUo
ferent phoses of the lifting of the dancer's
I. .

rendered first; then the gaps are filled in for the final production. This method is
adopted from the comics, which are essentially the static predecessors of motion pictures. They are popular with children as well as grownups of a primitive emotional and
cognative existence. They tell stories visually, giving adventure and action on the
crude level of actuality without philosophic or reflective content.
A rendering of vision in motion is given also in photographs of fireworks, in the
diagram of the continuous Hight of a skywriting plane; in the motion photos of Muybridge as well as in industrial time and motion studies. These representations produce
visual synopsis which engenders a simultaneity of grasp. Cubism, futurism , photomontage, superimposed photographs, stroboscopic exposures and scientific graphs
pave the way for this new type of communication. They are but a beginning in the
perfection of visual Hmanuscripts" which will be read more quickly and precisely
than verbal ones and will express some things which the word, in its nature, never can.
Every pictorial rendering is an abstraction to be retranslated into its original meaning.
People have to be educated in deciphering and understanding them, just as they are
taught to read and write. A photograph is generally understood as a facsimile of an
object. Nevertheless it might be well to remember that even a photograph could not
be "read" unless one had learned how to approach it, to retranslate its black and
white and gray gradations on the flat plane into the original three-dimensional scene.
In days to come, when more science and technology will be introduced in the daily
routine, there will be more need for space-time rendering and their punctilious interpretation.

the system of cubism

Around 1910 the means of such an approach were yet rather inarticulate. The cubists
tried again and again to pose the problem and give a solution. One of their most
successful discoveries was the presentation of the object or person in motion from
every viewpoint as if revolved and rotated before the spectator. The idea was natural
and simple, but its convi ncing execution took years. The history of cubism is the
sum of the efforts at solving this problem. Each cubist painter brought his personal
findings into this multi-view system which, though intuiti ve, can be described and
anal yzed today.
The solution for a simultaneous vista was to superimpose these various views, each
over the other. - The problem of legibili ty, however, arose. The solution was sought
in visual fundamentals- bringing di scrimination, order, definiti on, separation to the
many and chao ti c detai1s which occurred when various views were superimposed.
Again, as with the varied approaches to th e multiple view, the main lines of the cubist
system can be found in the individual attempts to attain maximum legibility.

- The superimposition of different views into one homogeneous unit has long been a
standard practice of cabinet makers. Their working drawings are superimposed over
each other, the plan, the elevation and the section of the furniture piece to be built.

121

y ' 1
~

..,
\..
I ~

\ isual fundamentals
The e~ es react to ,isual ex pre~s i o n beca use its elemenl s a fTec t ph ys iolog ical and
ps~ ch o l ogical perceptio n. Art er some e\. pc ri ence. it is possible to di sc ri minate betw een

such eleme nt s and thu s u~c th e-Ill mo re skillfull ) and co nscio usly in orde r to create
a stronge r emoti onal impac t upo n th e spec tator. Jt is nevcl' th e obj ec t itself, not e,'en
the ac tual rra gment s used in th e cubist collages, \, hi ch a ffect th e spectato r, but their
direc t and pure , isual mea nin g a nd th eir combinati o n into a coherent visual o rd er.
This "isual o rde r ha s a biolog ica l foundati o n. It is more an un conscious than a
conscious aITa ir.
On the fiat pl a ne. in pa inti ng and photog ra ph y. visual ru ndam enl als a re as valid
as they a re in sculpture and a rchit ecture and with ce rt a in modifi ca ti on in mobil es,
dance_ theater, and ci nema_
Cezann e and th e cubist pa inters o rga ni zed their wo rk thro ugh visual fund ament als
to affc('t th e spectato r insta ntan eously or to slo w down hi s reacti ons, as with a ti me
fuse_ Co mposition " as th e means with whi ch they accom plished thi s and composition
was achi eved through re lati onsh ip of th e visual funda ment a ls projecti ng th e co ntent
in the most economi cal way.
The d sua l fun damentals emphas ized b) the cubi sts we re based mai nl y on co ntr asts:
Fig. 157. Jim Davis. 1945
Path of motion
An a lmost identical line composi lio n as
Fu;. 156

black and w h ile

full and em ply

dark and light

p erforoled ari d solid

geomet ric alld free sh apes

curved and straight

complem en ta ry colors

convex amI concave

positive and negat ive

distorled and lIT1ch allged;

posi ti ons with co nt rasting relations hips,

points- lilies- pIa TIes- bodies;
Fig. 156. Herbert Motter. 194 4
Man dressing (side view)
Motion study wuh hghts las!ened on the
body of a man changlnQ clothes. Such
motion studies introduced by Taylor and
G!lbreth. have been a new departure for
;nd:Js!riai :mprovements by study and
elirn :n~l!on of the lupedlu!lus

di recti ons,
hori=,olltal

oblique

l)ertical

converging and dil:ergillg:

oTle shape from allolher

halves from each other ;

shi ftin g.

tex tures (ma teri als) _

Fig. 158.
Millie Goldsholl. 1943
Positive-negallve
Photogroph of a mirror from which the
Sliver was scratched 011 In the shape of
curving lines. (The block surface With the
whne lmes II the shadow cast by the mnror)

ills/ead

0/

brushed, combed color

rough alld smooth

shill)' and dull

color mi=red /I.';tll SOlid and p;raphile

shaded and clear

collage;

plastic effects de\ eloped rrolll the nature of color. plane and li ne as oppo .. ed to
artificial ill usions.
psychological aller-images

123

u.'arm and cold color

recedin g amI adl'clflcing color.

oluliono of legibililY
The cubists instincti\ely feIt that their main difficulty "as to overcome an apparent
confusion accompanying the use of superimpositions. This stimulated them to a

nUIll-

ber of solutions \\hich had a mantellous range of optical \\ it, a richness of pictorial
ingenuity, an accomplished use of the brush and pigment. Though many of these
attempts to disentangle the confusion of superimposed views were seemingly independent of any tradition. the performances often were based upon previous formal
findings.

(Even cubism had to build on the work of its predecessors. )

Shading, for example. one of the most important of the cubist means, has for ages
been employed for exact definition and visual discrimination. Darkening the background around it lifted the object out of the vacuum. By using arbitrary shading
and light, the cubists brought clarity into the superimposed elevation, plan, section,
profile. and threequarter profile. This was, at least. their intention.

Fig. 159. Robert Delauney, 1931

Simultaneouii compoSition
Delauney was the first among the cubists
to use the primary colors as Important elements of his compositions

But in the

process of realization the idea shifted to a fireworks of visual imagery. The diligent
shading of small prisms. cubes. spheres. and segments produced a spatial kaleidoscope
of intense

vibration~

dark and light relationships which turn ed out to be almost a

preconception of the photogram, the camera less photography.

Later, le.xtures {woody. sandy, glossy } were added to th e shading. They helped to
attain better leg ibilit y. Then. real material values ca me ( in th e "collages" ), bits and
ends pasted, glued directly on the surface. This was followed by a rich and arbitrary
use of colors and new types of "pattern" - all for clarity, g reater discrimination of
the parts and the \\ hole.
As for th e deliberate free shading. there is an ea rl y. rather naturalistic still life by
Braque, where th e idea of separa tin g and defining objects has been skillfull y accomplished. The painting depicts a chess board and playing cards. Ordinarily, one card
lying over another does not cast a shadow since it is too thin. But without shadow,
painted cards could not be very \\ell discriminated. To get a definition and a contrast. Braque raised and t\dsted them so that th ey cast unusually large shad ows.
With this he achieHd two results: first. discrimination; second, vision in motion.
This painting is revealing in another way, too. It is a vision of the tendencies intro
duced in the third phase of cubism~ \\hen stereometry "as replaced by a co mplete
dissQiution of the three-dimensional objects into flat planes, especiall y jn collages.
The most importanl parl of this playjng card still life by Braque is th e lower half
of the painting. There the naturalistic departure ca nn ot be any more identified. Why
did Braque paint these lines, light and clark surfaces, \\hich seem to divide the area
into little space cells? There is no apparent reason, except the urge to follow freely
the subconscious dynamics of visual fundamentals produced by the interesting rhythm
of the cards and their large shadows. Braque started out to paint the objects. cards
and chess board. but he unexpectedl) arrived at an autonomous visual structure little
bound to nature but rich in an inherent quality for releasing emotional reactions.

pamter
was
This anal)sis of Braque's still life should not be taken too literally. The

124

Fig. 160. George Broque, 1909

SUll life: Chessboard and playing cards

Fig. 161. 0 Institute of Design. 1942

Students work demonstrating the method
of cubism
From the left to the right: texture, shadmg,
shiftmq, color, and revolving the object in
spaee. The third drawinq from the right IS
enlarqed In fiq. 162

--'

,
/

/
I

Fig, 162. 0 Harry Sparnon Powell. 1943

Coffee pot
Study of side, front, bird's-eye view, and
section of the pot (see above on the panel)
synthellzed in a composite picture of the
cubist system

125

/
,;

hardl y

3\\

are of his intentions as th ey are here sLated. He painted with the instinct

and passion of a rebel, \\ ith an inspiration which. ca nnot be adequately verbalized.

But \\hil e he fough t \dlh traditi on, the painting is not yet a co mplete rejection of
perspecthe. Though he rna) ha\'e been influenced by subco nscious directions, hunches
and gues~e~. th ough he may hale thought to employ his own means according to
his needs, his attempts had been prepared for by his predecessors. Braque, in dissolvin g the objects into planes, only followed a historic trend. a long line of ancestry.
There is, for instan ce, a David picture from the tim e of the French revolution. - A
girl is si tti ng in a salon. behind her a glass door. One of the panes is broken as if
a Jacobin had th rown a stone through it. This is but a literary explanation. The
real re\'olut ion in the pain tin g is the attempt to omi t the classical, converging line
perspecti\e. The painting is organized mainly in planes placed one behind th e other.
The girl is in front. behind her is the glass door and behind that, parallel with the
Fig. 163. Jacques Louis Dav id, 1748 1825
Portrait of Mlle . Charlolle Duval D'Og nes

door, a high wall. As a sli ght reminder of th e old perspective some buildings appear
on th e ri ght, lookin g more like an eleva tion than a perspective renderin g.
This method of slipping planes. each behind the other. became standard for spatial
articulation in the 19th century. in painting as well as in architecture. But in painting
the main emphasis was still on subject maller, on the illusion of object and landscape.
In cubism the same spati al arrange ment is used for the first time more purely, with
little complicat ion by the subject maller .

111

ihe Jl elropoliia n J[usewn . X ew 1'01'71'

Fig. 165. George Bra q ue, 1914
Still life

fig. 164. George Braque, 1928

Still life with knife

IiIIIII......
,.....

Braque in this picture uses the whole vocabulary of cubism: shading, shifti ng, line,
plane, te xtu re a nd color-includmg the free
shape instead of the oval. which rece ived
la le r such great attention, especially in
Ihe work of A rp

.,

< ..'

-.,
."

-.

, r

,I

f"

,......, "'"j
.

.. , ..... "

-.

...

"

.. , .

.. .

I
J

J
I

:/

,.-....

./

Fig. 167. Pablo PIcasso, 1913

The violln

Fig. 166. Poblo Picasso, 1913

Collage

In the ea rl y cubi st collages an aSlonishing skill was apparent in manipu lating these
planes. They \\ ere employed in a hid eandseek co mbination, woven each behind
and above the other. When one does not worry about what each element means in its
naturalisti c co nnotation, th en one can enjoy the pictorial and graphic wealth of these
interpenetrating planes, shadin gs and textures. One ca n enjoy the juxtaposed elements,
th e cor respo ndence of lines and surfaces. the con tinuation of planes, passing far back
under other planes and co ming out from th e back to the front to di sa ppear again; one
can enjoy the subtl e modulations" hich are brought to a cresce nd o by the spacebuilding power of lines crossing, curving around and runnin g diagona lly. All that is
a celebra ti on for the eye, a rhythmical an d emoti onal exultati on. To be sure, classical
paintings offered such rhythms [or the eyes, too. The co rrespo nd ence o[ planes.
shapes. lines. points were alwa ys the organ izing elemen ts of a visual expression. But
cubism brought to all this a purity, arriving at a new visual microcosmos of primordial
emoti onal va lues.
\V ith the coll age- which is so mewhat analogous to the assembly technique of the
machine technology and thu s perhaps more readily acceptable- the cubi sts systematized their original aims. The collage is the peak of their efforts to create an efficient,
spontaneous shorthand for a fuller vision. In the collages the cubists used bits of
wallpaper. tobacco "rappers, newspaper clippings. pieces of book illustrati on as a
visual srnecdoche. the fragments standing for th e whole.
Ferna nd Leger's paintings give the coll age fragments another, new meaning. The
object (objet) replaces the subject matter(sujet) of the past. ]n lhe new painting

128

...' .

"" '.~
oJ

.
."
~

.,. <..;.:.
....
.. . ....

.'

....
'.
" ...'":'" l-'10

.....

L_

2C

Fig. 168. Pablo Picasso, 191 4

The clock (collage)

Fig. 169. George Broque, 1914

Collage

Fig. 170. Kasimir Molevich. 1921

Composition

This collage is olmost a completely ok>.

stroet composition with only a shght troce
of the oblect. It greatly mfluenced the
work of the supremalists and constructivists.

Broque's collages represent a rich hideand-seek relation of interwoven elements,

relationships of light and dark; of horizon-

tal, vertical and oblique.

The cubists Introduced a new grammar into

pointing where the old rules of bendmg

words,

declination

and

conjugation.

changed; where prepositions were used

ofter the words and wheN! the adjectives

and nouns become verbs

130

~I

/
.

.1'

Fig'. 171. Kurt SchwUters, 1920

Merz (collage)

Figs. 173 a, b. 0 Frances Sensko. 1942

Collage and its exoci rendering
This exercise is a great help for the coordination of the eye and hand.

Fig. 172. 0 Angelo Testa. 1942

Collage
In the Institute of Design, the collage bec:ame an 9J:ercise to coordmate drawing,
painting and photography

131

there is no need to re~o rt to themes as in a battle picture or in a stili life. The object
alone suffices. In fact Leger uses not only objects but color itself as a selfsufficienl
element, as an "'objcct"- preparing for the_ legality of the abstract, constructi"ist
painting \\hich \\as to be the next mo"e.

Leger can be explained also through the conno tati ons of the "object". His predominantly \'isual approach has a slight intellectual presupposition. In his later
paintings the close-up of the detail designates the whole. He paints, for example, a
nail and speaks with it [or a barn j he uses a footprint in the sand to indicate a diver,
a finger for the whole hand. Howe"er this is seco ndar y to his approach, His most
effective means of picture organization are forceful \'isual contrasts: three-dimensional with Aat shapes: thick with thin lines: primary colors with black, white and
gray.

\
,~ ~

Fig. 174. Fernand Leger. 1919

Drawing

Fig, 175. Fernand Leger, 1941

Farm Landscape

Fig. 177. Fernand Leger. 1941

Chinatown

Fiq. 176. A photoqraph of the dump on

the frum where Leger conceived his
Farm Landscape"

Looking 01 the painting upside dewn i t

disc:loses a figure reminiscent of Chinese
characters

133

To appreciale Ihe painting of a cubist one should see it with the eyes, not with the
mind. The re is nOlhing reprehensible in being attracted by the eyes alone as a bee
is altracled

10

a no\\ er. Unfortunately, people do not dare to judge a painting until

ul ey are sure that "' it makes sense", until it satisfies a superficial insistence upon "log.
ic'. This approach co ntradicts th e direct visual process which tran smutes a "picture"
into the ('o lor, co ntrasts of light and dark and other fundementals from which the real
visual excitement emanates, Wh ether of old or new paintings, only one question should
Fig. 178. Paul Klee, 1930
Rhythmical
Klee Is one of the great conjurers of color

be asked: Does th e painter give with the motion of his brush, with color, black and
white co ntrasts, a uniqu e visual experience no matter how much or how little of it
ca n be put into \, ords? This is th e only valid testimony. One mi ght then di sco ver
that two kinds of painters exist: one who tints (o r colors ) and the oth er who paints;
th e ones \\ 110 are predominantly interested in th e aspects of shapes (which, being
painters. ther " lint" ) like Raphael, P oussi n, In gres, Picasso, Arp, Lissitsky; and the
oth ers \\ho conce ntrate on color a nd light like Greco, VanGogh, Renoir, Matisse,
Kan din sk). Rembrandt, Kl ee, Mondrian. And there a re of course the composite
lypes like Cezanne. Seurat. Toulouse.Lautrec, Leger. Malevich, Miro, and some of the
constructi, ists. The fact is that the pure type rarely exists and that the pe rsonality of
painters best co uld be expressed by an eq uation : P (pa inter) = C (co lor )

+ S (shape ) ,

whe reb) C can be 80% and S 20 % or vice versa. To be able to und erstand this
means to understand the important components of painting. If th e painter, for example, possesses the po\\er of color, he can hardl y make a "boring" picture, He may
Fig. 179. Thea van Doesburg, 1930
Arith metic compositio n

be some" hal co nfused, he may h ave to fi ght with his elements before he can arou se
en thu siasm in the spec talor, but his possession of thi s visual vitality is half the victory.
The ability

10

produce this vigor of color, or for that matter, texture a nd other visual

fundamental s. is mainly innate. But experi ence ca n help immensely to come closer
to it especia ll y if it is combined with the stud y of physiological and opti cal th eories
and jf it is ha!3ed up on a subconscious "philosophy" .

In the anal~sis of cubism, many more particulars could be mentioned. There is the

Fig. 180. E1 Lissitzki, 1919

Proun
Lissltzkl stated tha t lor him pa inting is a
"t ranSition to architecture'

L. Moholy-Nagy, 1930
Construction on Aluminum
Fig. 181. 0

The snylhelic materiols hove required a

new painting technique which replaces the
completely smooth "texture" of the pre
vious construchvisl pictures

difference in Braque and Picasso collages. Braque used a complicated system of inter
woven planes "hile Picasso employed simpler construction. the planes appearing
more in isolation. though each was placed behind th e other. These varia nces made
Braque the father of suprema tism as well as constructi vism a nd Picasso of nco
plasticism.
There is a lso th e prophetic emphasis on texture, a visua l " tactilism", through which
the cubists emerged as winners in the fight against the ornament. The textures of the
(' ubi sts were later tran sformed into flat, painted pallerns- a develop ment which still
has to be studi ed b)' th e practical men of the arts. by textile printers, com mercial
artists. ad,'ertising and packaging designers.
One could also show how postcubism, under the influence of surrealism, turned to the
double, triple and quadruple images, to the plu ralistic vista, th e many in one. In
contrast to th e second period of cubism, where generall y the rotated portrait stood for
1:14

Fig. 182. W K:::ndinsky, 1909

Landscape
Xandmuy, cs well as Matisse, can be
d e n ved-m the:f early stag_from Cezanne by a stepp;nq up of his color scheme

f,;>"

~,J' .

r ',

Figs. 184 a, h. 0 Edward Golden, 1945

Textures
These rubbings were made o n thin trecing
paper and then 'Used as pho toqraphic negatives

Fig. 183. Jean Arp, 1928

Neo-geometric relief

135

.. .
....
.......
-.'
..
-..
.
.
-. .. -,
'.
.
.....
".
.-...
"
....
"'
............... ....--".......
... .
...
. . . . . ........
....
.
. '... ......... . .
'

. .....
......

-,

.. oo -

'

" -.,

.~.

"

::.:;~:.:

~~~

.."

....
....
"
........
.... ..
..

'.'

. ' ...
o . '
:.~.:~:~'.'
..
' ...
. .,"

.
.......
.
. .'
... ............

" o.

. ......
. '

Fig. 185. Ralph Samuel. 1944

Earth pattern (aerial view )

136

Fig. 186. 0 Mory McCroy, 1944

Drawing
The conscious and delicate variollon of
the line textures is a further development
of the tendenCies found !n cubism

Fig. 187. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy. 1935

Space modulator
Perforated zinc sheet painted on the front
and bac k

138

Flq. 188. 0

L. Moholy-Naqy. 1935
Warpinq the plane by locomotion of
polnls (spoce modulator In cork)

Both of these pin p ictures are basically derived from the collage. The difference Is
that the materials here do not symboli:te
objects but they are autonomous objects
themselve., and so, eaniers of pure textures form ing visual material relationships

physical exactness, here different faces attempt to exp ress th e psychological mobility
of a person; sometimes the femal e co mponent of th e ma le, sometimes the dark co unterpart of the light half- a multitude of various psychological characteri stics.

(It

seems to me that in 1914. Picasso in hi s little bronze sc ulpture, the "Absinthe Glass"
showed such a double image; no t only the vessel in motion but also the di si nteg rated
features of the drinker. )
One could speak about more details. but the most impo rtant fact remains that, from
its inception, cubism became a prime mover in the visual arts. All atlempts at visual
expression by the followin g gene ration have been directl y o r indirectly influenced by
it. Young painters, howeve r. despite a certain dependence on the cubi st struggle for
a " better understandin g" of the ex ternal. ph ysica l unive rse. became mor6 and more
concerned with the pure usc of ,isual fundamentals with which they were able to
articulate emolio nallife, an inner ,ision in motion. Those you ng artists were the first
in the history of art to express the emo tional universe without manipulating a camouFig . 189. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1945
Spoce modulator (on transparent plastic)

flage of ex ternalities.

"Ught texture" as a further de velopme nt 01

the collage

Th e Guggenheim 11ltlsewn of X 0l101Jjecti1:e Art

lh rse painir rs' u'o r/. in this rOll llt ,y.

139

111

.Y. Y . has th e best collectio n of

Fig. 190. Arnold Newman. 1942

The portrait of Plet Mondrion
An outstanding- pioneer of abstract paint
inq In the past generation Is Mondrtan.

His writings and painting'S are amonq the

most valuable sources of the new arl ~

prooch

140

Altholl.gh there are rather clear and

legible differences betlt'een the various
art-isms, there is a tendency /0 lump
nerything j" pllirlting under the label
"abstract" 1/:hen it dedates Jrom nature,
and to label ereTJlhing "lIonobjective
ad' when no traces oj a naturalistic
departure can be found. While Jar the
art historian such cmde definitions uBl
not suffice, I am inclined to agree u;ith
this "folk" terminology as it slowly
maces toward the greater simplification
oj the language (such as ';alLlomobile"
becomes "car"). "abstract" and "non.
objectire" become simply the "Ad' oj
the next generation.

Fig. 191. Pie! Mondrian. 1915

Plus minus composition
This picture was pointed from the lourth
floor 01 a Scheveningen hotel in Holland.
lacing the sea. The small horizontal-vertical lines indicate the rolling waves and
the backbone 01 the painting is the pier.
In his later work (such as above. right) no
such reminiscencies 01 nature can be found

Fig. 192. Piel Mondrian, 1936

Neoplastidst composition

in defense of "abstract" art

Because he is not informed about the historic sequence of the artist's efforts, the layman is often unab le to find the main direction, the "sense" in the art isms of his con
Figs. 191 a. b. 0 Leah Nolan, 1942
Stereoscopic translation of a detail oj
the above painting by Mondrian
Since lines can be understoo d as virtually
suspended in space, this s tudy was mode
to show the infmite richness of spalial posi
hons of lines and their relationships

temporaries. There may be too many names: impressionism, pointillism, neoimpressionism, fauvism, expressionism, cubism, futurism, suprematism, neoplasticism, dadaism, surrealism, constructivism, nonobjectivism. But in analyzing the paintings of
these various groups one soon finds a commo n denominator, the supremacy of color
over "story"; the directness of perceptional, sensorial values against the illusionistic
rendering of nature; the emphasis on visual fundamentals to express a particular concept. Contemporary art generally tends more toward the direct and sensuous than
the literary conceptual values. It emphasizes more the general, the universal than the
special. It is based more upon biological than symbolic function (without excluding
the possibility of its later transformation into symbol meanings ) .

141

Fig. 194. Robert Motherwell, 1943

Untitled <Mexico)

fig. 193. 0 L. MoholyNcgy, 1920

Construction
At the begmning of neopiasticism and con
strucllvism, there were traces 01 a natural
istJc mlluence as in this pamting, for
which the point of departure was a 25 to
30 leet high cable-repair-car of the tram
company in Berlin. This seems to iustdy
the general bellef that the palOter mlUt
depart from nature. The truth is, however ,
thai m the later phase of the development
my and my friends' palOtings emanated
from an inner vISIon without any recourse
to "motives" from nature or technology

It is a favorite sa) ing that an artist has to start from nature, that no painting or
sculpture exis ts "hich hadn ' t been stimulated by direct visual experience. Such statemen ts are often quoted to disparage the eHorts of the younger generation. "There
is no abstract art. You must always start with something. Afterwards you can remove
all traces of reality." (Picasso)

It is tim e to make a co unter-suggestion and show that such statements are erroneous
because it is onl y the relationship between visual elements and not the subject matter
whi ch produces ,'isual structu re with an intrinsic meaning.

142

---

----- -

_.......
Fig. 195. Herbert Boyer, 1944
Lomiferous landscape

144

Fig. 196. Wossily Kandinsky. 1925

Little Dreom in Red
Kond insky is the great inllialor of abstract
painting. whose theoretical work represents
the beginning of a new art history which,
as ho stales, "in Its consequent development will grow beyond the frontier of
pcinhng and, in fact, art In general"

145

Fig. 197. George L K. Morris. 1939-1943

Mural composition

Fig. 198. 0 Robert 1. Wolff. 1945

Painting VI (New York group)

14(,

One o/tell hears that the conSlructivi.51

paintings aTe cold and dispassionate-

emotionless.
This is, however, ollly the reaction oj the

uninitiated. The neoplasticisl, construe

ridst and non-objective paintings do
haLe emotional content and meaning
presenteli, howeter, rdlll generally valid

oll(i objectir;e

psychophysical Junda-

mefllals rather than with the representational language oj the indiL'idualiSI, the capriciousLy emotional artUI 0/

the past.
There are trw tendencies in contempo-

J
Fig. 199. E1 Lissilzki, 1924-1925
"Construction 99"

Fig. 200. 0 Werner Drewes, 1938

Painting

rary painting: the one which l4;ishes to

overcome the i mitation of "objects",
(anyth ing at all to create the illusion
0/ three-dimensio nal objects on the pictllre plane); and the second which tries
to builel lip a new " pictorial space" with
the rueding antl ad,;an cing, centrifugal
and centripetal, etc. forces of color.

Fig. 20 I. Ben Nicholson, 1937

Relief
Posihve-neqaHve interrelatedness.
If this picture is turned upside down the
negahve incision (intaglio) will appear as
a (raised) bas-relief

119

Li"e Ih(' "'t'manticbt, \\ho

~trhes

for logica l cleanliness. a clearing a\\ay of loosely

trailin g ('o nnolathe associations in the yerbal sphere. the abstract artist seeks to dis
engage the ,isual fundamentals from the welter of traditional s) mbolism and inher
ited illusionisti c expectat ions.

\~'e

should exult in this puritanic task and not merely

be frighten ed or stumble into a possible richness \\hi ch the old connotation s may yet
yield. \X e mu st leave the arts with a clean surface that onl) permanent and vital
meaning. nati\ c to the age) et to come. may adhere.
The intrinsic meaning of an abstract painting. as a pec uliar form of visual articula
tion , lies mainly in the integration of the visual elcments, in its freedom Ironl. the

imitation of nature and the philoso phy co nnected \\ ith it. In the past, nature ob
sen 'a nce and co ntemplation of it- has bee n a might) stimulu s beca use of its bal
anced, o rganic performan ce. But the naive idea of identity tak en over from late
Greek culture led only to a servile imitation. The first po werful lever of liberation
was co ncomitan tl y developed with the empiri cal tec hnic of sc ientifi c resea rch. that is,
the " labora tory aspect" of science where the co nditio ns of obse rvation can be pro
duced and \aried at \\ ill. Impressionism and cubi sm brought a reevaluation of na

Fig. 202. Willi Baumeister. 1938

Composilion

ture in terms of \ isual research still intermi ngled \\ ith naturalisti c elemen ts. The art
of the postcubist period deriled its first abstraction from nat ure. but later it freed
itself from th at departure and articulated the basic means of \ isua l impact- shape.
size, position, direction, poi nt, line, plane. color, rh) thm

a nd built with th em a

completel ) ne\\ stru cture of vision. This was the ir attem pt to gra sp emo ti onall y th e
problems o f space-ti me. One fun cti on of abstracL art was and is th e experimental
demonstration of th e forceful possibility of such an approach and to ex tend it also to
the problems of the inner vision and th e inner vis io n in motion.
This fundamental concept and concern of the abstrac t painter does not seem to be
ill\ohed in the details of "social reality:' Consequen tl ), abst ract art is often inter
preted b) the social revolu ti onaries as the art of the escapists. But the artist's duty is
not to be ah\a)s in opposition . He may concentrate his forces on the cen tral problem
of \ isuall) constitu tin g a better world. ) et to be born, and Jllay or may not
treat the shortcomings of society as transitory facts

011

the periphery of hi s efforts. In

a deeper sense. the interpretation of spaceti me \\ ilh light and color is a trul y revolu
tionar) act.
Color and light are the primc movers of abst rac t, nonobjecti ve painting; th e basis of
a research \\hich serves with its pure stru ctural va lu es, not on ly as a measuring rod
for a new " esthetics", but in their functional values for a desirable new social order.
On an oth er le\ el, abstract pain ti ng can be understood as a n arrested, frozen phase
of a kinetic light di splay leading back to the original emot iona l, sensuous meaning of
color of "hich \llilliam Turner (Itt51851 ) . the great English painter. was an ad
mirable predecesso r.

UA rt i.(J an imiiaii01l of reality. It holds the m irror up to nature." ( Aristotle in

"Poet ics".) B Ill it simply goes beyond hum.an al)ililirs to cren.te the ('xact r eplica 0/
n. 1I orO" l/it' .,frlldllrl'.

]50

1940~

Fig. 203. 0 L MoholyNagy,

Space modula tor w ith fluctuoting black
a nd w hite arcs
This painting introduces a psychologically
delennined mohon if one Iries to dehne
whether the black or the w hite arc is in
front of the other. There is the feeling of
a dehnite movement of the arcs fo rward
and backward

- -

In the renaissance. the function of color was auxiliary to the perfect illusion of ob',-

jects in space. l\Ionocular perspective was devised to produce that illusion with

the

help of color. It is important to observe that these paintings had La be viewed from
one certain point "hence the scene would appear undistorted. Today, we find un

bearable this fixed relationship of the spectator to the painting in which his observa
tion is permanently bound. {In facL, in the same way, we find al1 other fixed and rigid

Fig. 204. Amadeus Merion, 1828

A construcUon in the study of Hummel's free perspective

point of reference, static relationships, unbearable.} Renaissance painting wiped out

the prerenaissance directness of visual experience and became not only static but also
strongly illustrative. Prerenaissance painting did not try to imitate reality. It admitted
that it had been painted to express moods, devotion, wonder, and ecstasy with the
sensuous and emotional power of color. It emphasized less the "story" and more the
vital performance of color to which the spectator could react directly without reasoning and co nscio us analysis. The decay started with the vanishing point perspective
which seemed to be a dazzling performance, since the painter could render scenes as
the eyes perceived th em. Suddenly every effort was concentrated on the perfection
of imitation WiUl the result that three hundred years of practice by the "perspectivists'
taught e\'erybody to evaluate painting by its illusionistic potency. Their method of
rendering became the automatic possession of generations who did not even have to
learn th e original rules of geometri c construction; who knew by heart "how to do it."
When photography appeared. th e excitement of this manually produced space and
object illusion diminished; it co uld not stand the competition of the mechanically

Fig. 205. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1940

VisIon in motion (space modulator)

perfect execution of most complicated, th ough also monocu lar, photographic per
spectives. Contemporary painters, confron ted with the static, restricted vision of a
fixed perspective, countermarched to color and produced on the fl at surface a new

kinetic concept of spatial articu lation, vision in motion.

"ision in motion

vision in motion
is seeing while moving.
'"
.
VlSl.On
m motton
is seeing moving objects either in reality or in forms of visual representation as in
cubism and futurism. In the latter case the spectator, stimulated by the specific means
of rendering, recreates mentally and emotionally the original motion.

VlSl.on m motton
is simultaneous grasp. Simultaneous grasp is creative performance seeing, feeling
and thinking in relationiihip and not as a series of isolated phenomena. It instan
taneously integrates and transmutes single elements into a coherent whole. This is
valid for physical vision as well as for the abstract.
VlSl.On m motton
is a synonym for simultaneity and

menSlOn.
'.,

a means to comprehend the new di

.
mOlton

VlSl.On In
also signifies planning, the projective dynamics of our visionary faculties.

stages In
space InterpretatIOn

No new approach in rendering and interpreting space can ever be fully evaluated
without the knowledge of traditional pictorial representations. The new can best be
measured through its relationship to the old. Since prehistoric time, painting was
connected with spatial interpretation and has employed color and imagery in numerous
forms of spatial articulation, a few of which can easily be listed:

rhythm-in rock paintings

layers above each other- by the primitives
layers beside each other- in old bible (codex ) illustrations
size differences, great and smail, tail and short- in mediaeval paintings of madonnas.
saints and angels

parallel perspective- in prerenai ssance paintings

vanishing point perspective- in the art of the renaissan ce
spiralling and other ty pes 0/ motion-in the baroque
air perspective-in Poussin and hi s followers
layers, planes, behind each other- in David's compositions
strong foreground fron1,ing-in pa intin gs of Degas
sharp, unsharp-in pai ntin gs of Vermeer and Reno ir

153

mirrorings alld reflections- in paintings of Manet

distortion such as the bird, jrog, worm and fish-eye ttielCs- in the foreshortenings of
Mantegna and the baroque murals and- later- in expressionism
receding and advancing colors--consciously begun with Cezanne
penetration oj pLanes
interchangeable positive alld negative pal/erns

superlmpOSttLOns

in cubism
and suprematism

crossing lines
many- faces-in-one (pluralism )
ex plosion
stroboscopic view

in futuri sm

tran sparell cy ami mov in g light- in x-ra y photos and constructivism_

This enum erati on ha s no valu e order. The evaluation depends upon the unadul.
terated use of the visual means to express sociobiological concepts. For example,
starting with impressionism and Cezanne, cubi sm brought a new sensibility to visual
fundamental s embod ying vi sion in more perceptional than intellectual terms through
lines. planes, color, texture and th eir spatial qualities; a new meaning of crossings,
shadin gs, juxtapositions or positive and negative pattern, divergence of directions.
Cubism di scard ed th e obsolete anthropomorphi c illustrative space of the renaissance.

It built up a new constru ction. of vi sual rather than literary connotation. Though
cubi sm in its first phase did not work with stro ng primary

colors~

the introduction

of num erous whites and gra ys a nd browns created a new color consciousness, new
degrees of spatial refin ement in the recedin g and advan cin g valu es. Kandinsky and
other abstract pa inters s uch as Malevich, Mondrian and th e constru ctivists developed
thi s further by plun gin g into th e clear prima r y colors. This advan ce was bound to

be foll owed by th e direc t use of colored li ght itself. pleading fo r a hi gher order of
space arti cul ati o n escapin g all literar y co ncealment.
011

color

Am ong th e hi stori cal mean s o f pictorial ex pressio n, color evoked th e strongest response. II had been in vestigated far longer a nd more effectivel y th an other means of
express ion, such as shapes o r tactile valu es. But in spite of growin g scientific and
practi cal research our consciolls knowledge of color is still defi cient. To be sure, there
is a co nce pt of color and a kn owledge of detail s, but th ere are still a great many
missi ng links.

who ha s an instinctive feel

One o f th e best research wo rkers in colo r is th e pamter

for colo r a nd who has lea rn ed a good dea l more about it through in cessant experiment ati on. \Vith colo r he builds space. reco rd s emoti on, o rgani zes life. He can whispe r as well as shout wi th it. But can he al wa ys be sure about hi s effects and his
sphere of in nu ence? Ca n he plan with ce rta int y? The truth is that th e normal , ph ys iological response to color often beco mes co nfu sed by symb olic reference to past civilizations. For exa mple. co unterrevo luti ona ri es memo rialized th e blood y sign of the

154

gui ll otine during

~'the

reign of terror" in France in the form of a red scarf, but today

red is the color of re\'olution.

Color is embedded in tradition and symbolism. From the time of the first flags and
emblems, creating the romance of heraldry, the customs of religions, peoples and
nations ha\Te been given meaning by hues of th e spectrum. Even the color of ice
cream to a chi ld or a girl's dress
tions.

10

a sweetheart ca n produce lifelong symbolic fixa-

Con temporary painting tries to free us from such fixations by emphasizing again the
direct sensuous perceptional impact of color upon the spectator.
Color preferences seem to go along with certain personality traits. Most people are
born with a natural liking for the colors at the two ends of the spectrum-red and
blue. Ch ildren and primitives are particularly attracted to vivid, vital primary colors,
especiall y red and yellow.
Colors have different properties. They can be pure, intense, dark, warm, cool ; they
can appear large or small, near or far, light or heav}'. concentric or eccentric. Deep
colors tend to appear heavier than pale colors. The li gh test of all colors is white and
the heaviest is black. The brighter the color, the larger it appears. The "largest"
color is white, followed b}' yellow. red , green, blue, and black. Colors are also cold
or warm. The greens, blues, and blacks are considered cold; the yellows, reds, and
whites warm. Warm colors seem to advance, the cold ones recede. The lens of the
eye does not focus equally UpOIl all hues. Red makes the e},e "far-sighted", b}' causing
the lens to grow thicker. This act ion will give red a nearer position than blue which
causes th e eye to grow "near-sighted" as it flattens the lens. A relative complication
sets in when one knows that ever}' color can be made warm or cold by being mixed
wi th the neighboring color at either side.
An experiment made at the University of Wisconsin gives an explanation of how
color is able to change size or show recedi ng and advancing values, producing stereometric and space va lues. Black, while, yellow, green and blue cubes of the same
size were put alongside each other. The white cube appeared to be the largest,
black the smallest. Yellow was larger than green and blue was smaller than green.
The same phenomenon can be formulated in other words: the white cubes, seemingly
the largest, appeared 10 be nearest the spectator; the black, the smallest, appeared
10 be farthest away- which is again another exp ression for the receding and advancing
value of color found in th e cold and warm hues.
Pa inters not only sensed such phenomena in isolation but reall}' laid th e foundation
for a whole new system in the trealm ent of space as Cezanne did in his pictures where
a new type of space articulation appeared. He not only tended to use color in ils direct
sensor}, impact but was the firsl who tried to overcome the illusionistic space {vanish S . E isc ll ,'O fein in 7,is boo!.'. "Fihn Sense ," gires a thoroll qh account of these sym bol
t'alues.

155

ing point perspecti\e ) with the pure spatial properties of color. Cezanne's pictures
generally appear as twodimensional because of the use of flat planes, but they really
ca n be seen best in their three-dimensional quality created by the receding and advancing values of colors, indicating near and far.
Painters may twist the original characteristics of colors. Indeed, the constructivists'
work often offers such surprises, for example, that black or blue can be made to
stand in front of white.
The upper part of a black plane can be made to appear bluish if a yellow plane is
juxtaposed; th e same black below can simultaneously appear reddish beside a green
plane.
The psychological after-images and the subjective changes in the neighboring colors
ha\'e until now been little obse rved, th ough they are valuable elements in the painter's
craftsmanship. For instance, Juan Gris used in one of his cubist pictures (in the
Philadelphia Muse um ) light brown and black which were " psychol ogically"- that is,
in the spectator's e~e mixed to violet in the middle of the canvas. TIlen with the
pigment embodying this h) pathetical violet he covered a large surface on the painting.
This painted violet appears out of key onl y until one is able to perceive the virtual
violet, justif) ing the painted one.

Fig. 206. Juan Gris. 1915

Still life
The upper left comer of the picture is painted redviolet. As a psy chological after
Imaqe, exactly the same color appears in
the middle of the picture althouqh the surfa ce there is painted black and brown

The basic approa ch of the renaissance painters-and even more, of th eir followerswas built upon th e obse rvati on that surfaces of obj ects refl ected or absorbed certain
parts of the spectrum . As some pigments possessed si milar qualities they were used
for the visualization of the orig inal effects observed on surfaces of bodies. A three
dimensional object, if normally lit, disclosed a plastic shap e throu gh its lighter and
darker shad ings. In a civilization which concentrates its efforts on reco rding rather
than expressing the painter had only to obse rve those shadin gs and simulate them.
He mixed different pigments and put them on his canvas in the obse rved order or
used oth er techniques for the same effect.
Over th e ce nt ur ies painters accumulated secret methods to achieve the radiance of
color obse n ed in nature, by subtl e manipulations, through fin e shadin g, underpainting, transpa rent va rnishing, juxtaposition of co mplementaries, psychological afterimages, colored spo ts, shad ows and other finesses of a co lor dictionary. Through
such efforts they often ac hie\ed an intensity almost eq ual to th e natural phenom enon.
The most successful app lications resulted when th e painter did not mix the pigments
on the palett e, but "in" th e eyes of the spectator. It was known already to Aristotlethat colors in juxtaposi ti on will mix on th e retin a \\hen seen from a distance. This
principle "as empl oyed in Byza nti ne painting as well as in th e Florentine and Venetian
pictures of th e 14th and 15th ce nturies. Fra An gelico and Botticelli used for the
fea tures of their models a th in coat of green coloring as a firot layer and then cove red
the gree n surface "ith innumerable fine red ljnes, th e resu lt being a de licate whitish
ye llowish fl esh color, such as the faces of angels and saints are su pposed to have .
"De Sensu el Se'lsilibus"

156

An old rule required that a picture had to be looked at from a distance eight times
its diagonal measurement. The purpose was to secure the right position for a "sub
jecti,'c" mixing of the first layer and the superimposed strokes in the eres of the
onlooker. This mixing in the eye produced mantelous radiant effects. Nc\'crtheless
the real fascination of color, the inner glow of a painting- its foremost qualitycould never be put down in ru les. This depended on the stroke of genius and had to
be found and interpreted anew by every painter.
~7hen

scientific advances, especiall y the vanishing point perspecti,'c. made the renais-

sance painters beiic\'c that they could successfully cope with the problem of a perfect
spatial illusion, radiance of color was only applied for this end. Miche langelo's unfin
ished ca m'as in the London National Ga llery is a good example for this point. lronically, the illusion of flesh coloring has been attained in this picture by abstra ct means.
He used a green undercoating. The shadows of the green clothes. howe,'er, he painted
first in red, then varnished with light transparent green, the whole being apprehended
by the eyes as green fabric with dark folds.
Rubens used the optical energy of the " turbid" medium in order to ob tain deceptive
flesh colorings with transparent blue shado\fs. Un til his I'secret" was discovered
nobody could e\'er copy his pain tings. I n co mparison with his radiant transparent
colors, every imitation by pigment mixtures seemed dull and hea,'y. Rubens sketched
his paintings with brown brush strokes on a white background and painted over the
whole with a creamy translucent white. The result was a transparent orange rose, the
marvel of pink skin with bluish transparent shadows, By purel y optical effects with
the use of a "iscid white he achieved this flesh tone. impossible to repea t by clistomary
mixture of pigments alone.
The knowledge of such effects. th ough mainl y applied for the purpose of naturalistic
illusion, enlarged the painter's professional skill and helped to reali ze

as in the post-

baroque period-a ~ ' superhul1lan" beauty born of nostalgia for a better past. Tiepolo
painted shadows on a fa ce not with gray or brown but with vermilion red. The
result was greater lightness and intensi ty because of the elimination of the muddilymixed dirt y ton es previously llsed for shadows. The c;uccessors of Tiepolo lighted up

by P rofessor R ukemann. Courlauld I nstitute, L ondon

Goethe gave a physiological explanation for these effects in his ant iK ewtonian
color theory. H e established the fact that through a "turbidlJ medium dark appeared
as blue; and light, seen through a turbid medium produced yellow~orange to yellowred. ("T u rbid" here means layers of translucencies.) H e explained that the sky is
blue because we look throu.qh the "turbid" atmosphere into the darkness of the uni1.'erse. The sunset also is produced by the turbid m.edium, because of the thick layers
of the atmosphere through which one looks against the glowing surface, the sun appears
dark red. A lthou,qh scientists hat'e another explanation today, Goethe is altogether a
masterly teacher of psychophysical optical effects, and I belieL'e that we shall often
refer to him during our future researches. By the way, his yellow-orange-red effect in
combination with the "turbid medium" can be experimentally produced by placing
white sheels of paper before an electric light bulb. More sheets produce a more reddish
glow. The same effect can be observed on windows with drawn white curtains lit from
behind. The bluish effects can be produced by laying either sheets of frosted glass or
plastics or tracing paper orer a black surface .
See his picture in the Detroit I nstitute of Art

157

their palettes even more by using clear primaries in complementary pairs, yellow and

blue, red and green.

But no matter how great the manual skill of the painter has been, he never could
really duplicate the color effect of nature. The direct reflection and absorption showed

always a more intensive value. For this reason , the prerenaissance painter did not
even try to compe te with such original effects by a servile imitation. He painted color
relationships of greater intensit y and produced an organic glow from within without

.-..)
I

any intent at deception. There, color became active not through the differentiation
of reflection, or through the power of absorption of any particular material upon
which li gh t rays were cast, but thro ugh the planned action of the artist who brought
th e colo rs to th e peak of their radiant potential by combining them solely in relation
to each other. He knew about the vibrating quality of the complementary pair, green
and red- caused by their co ntra st as well as the similarity of their grey values; he
kne\\" about the activity and clear leg ibilit y of the complementaries yellow and bluee--because of the great con tra st in their lightness values; and he knew a number of other
physiological color facts. The prerenaissance painter was aware that it is not the
use of th e primary colo rs alone which gives the painting its radiant quality, since the
stron g colors may mix in the eyes to a neutral gray, but the mastered relationships

0/

the colors, the shapes and their position within a certai n area. It was here that
the real conquest of color began. The same instinctive response to color led to the
intense color scheme of Delacroix and later of the expressio ni sts who finally freed
themselves from the dominance of imitation and dared to employ color freely-without excuses.
2

VanGogh, in order to intensify his colors, applied th em on the calwas in thick strokes
as if they had been squeezed out of the tube. The pigment appeared as relief casting
a shadow, while the edges were touched by light. Thus light and shadow were automatically drawn into the picture as a determining, qualitative factor, generating three
values out of one hue. The origi nal desire to give an illusionistic rendering of nature
was here transformed into a color light display, emphasizing the pure emotional and
at the same time spatial properties of color and light. With this development the
narrative, story-telling element in painting became more and more suppressed. This
has made possible the development of contemporary painting where color is employed
in its pure perceptional impact.
The neoimpressionists even dared to move toward a scientific objectivity in optical
problems. At the end of the last centur y, Signac, Cross and especially Seurat preconceived the meth od of color photography as a new medium of expression by working with light effects. These painters, the pointillists, set sma ll color dots adjacent to
o ne another which produced. when seen from a sufficient distance the illusion of a
broad, vibrating field of colored light. They created, from juxtaposed red and green

dots a bright yellow: just as was done later in the autochromatic Lumiere photoFigs. 207 a, b, c. Close-up of the brush
te x tures of the

paintings

3 0ugh, (2) Sauro! and

(3)

of (l)

Cezonne

V an

graphic plate and the Dufay color film. In support of their theory they adduced as
ev idence a discovery made by Ducos de Hauron in the year 1869 that the human

158

eye splits the spectrum colo rs, red a nd g reen, iuto minute points and visuali zes yell ow
on account of the so-call ed additive ad mixture of colored lights.
Previous to impress io ni sm, pa int ers ge ne rall y mix ed color on the palette. They used
mainl y three primary hu es, red, blue, a nd yellow, a nd could co mpose all other tones
by mixin g these pigments. This process is called " admixture by subtra ction." The
phrase mea ns that each ne\\ mix ed color becomes darker tha n the lightest colo r of
an y mi xture. The dark er color subtracts li ght from the li ght color.
Besides th e primae) color pigments th ere are three oth er primaries, the light primaries. red , green, and blue of th e spect rum . The mixture of these li ght pri maries
is called ';admixture by ad ditio n," beca use the new mi xed colo red -li ght- bein g the
additi on of the oth er li ghts- appears more intensive than the co mpo nent li ghts. This
can be verified by throwing th e li ghts of d ifTerent filtered projectors on one spot of a
screen. The mixing of g reen and red li ghts will create yellow. This will be li ght er
than either th e sin gle green o r th e red. In contrast th e admixture by subtracti on of
g reen a nd red pigment wi ll produce not yello w but a dirty olive brown tone whi ch
will be less intensive than either the green or th e red.

It is ob\Tious that painters tri ed to overco me th e ins ufficiencies of the subtracti ve ad

mi xtures. Different painters used different systems. Cezanne's sys tem of achieving
vibrating color schemes was simila r to th at o f Seurat, only instead of dots he used
fine strokes of vari ous co lors.
Renoir juxtaposed complementar y red-g reen, blue-yell ow spots to produce luminous
color effects.
]n all these pictures th e eye accomplished the mixin g of colors as it had done in the
old Flo rent ine paintin gs- with one essential difference. U ntil Seurat, painting was
mainl y the problem of using color to produce the illusion of volume in space. Seurat,
possessed by the idea of vibrati ng li ght, empl oyed color as an element of light
symph onies. The shapes in hi s paintings were without detail a nd were used onl y as
the ca rriers of a colored li ght stru cture. In this sense, Seurat is the great progenitor
of th e co ntem po rar y painter who brin gs a refinement to color relati onships through
visual dev ices which produ ce elemental im pacts.

Colors ha \Te a n end less varia tio n beca use th e hues may appear differen t through
added propert ies such as the translucen t, fil my, opaque, lustrous, mat, Auffy, and
rough. Es tima tes as to the nu mber of colo rs seen by the human eye have been made
fr om ti me to ti me. The guesses range from a few thousa nd to ten mi llion established
( in theory ) by th e U. S. Burea u of Standards. Yet no system p resen ts mo re than
fifteen hun dred sample color swa tches for practi cal use. Although the spectrum consists of an infin ite range of wavelength s, we resolve them into six to ten primary
colors, fo llowing the psychological law of the threshold of optimum discrimination.
T his means that whi le innumerab le gradations of color exist. we tend to react to sim-

159

pie but strong sensa ti ons, and often \\ e simplify what we see to prevent its throwing
us into confusion.

The co lors th at ha,>e unique appea l to th e average man are surprisingly few. The

infinite ph ys ical di\ ersity of color is a th eoretical affair which, however, can be used
as a stimulus to make the eyes see an increasing range of color. - The old painters
generally worked with two compl ementary pairs, redgreen, blue-yellow.

Titian

usuall y painted with four colors only, Rubens with seven. Monclrian used only three
colors : red, yellow, and blue. " ' hen in the history of painting a new color was
employ ed , for example, purple-red. to complement yellow, as in the paintings of Greco,
it almost ca used a revolution.

The fundamental perception of color is an inborn faculty in every human being. The
appreciation of color depends upon the general psychophysical fact that man answers
e"ery cnlor with its co ntrast, with its complementary. The eyes react to red with
green, to yellow with blue. Wh en children paint, without knowledge of rules, they
always operate with a "color automatism"; they answer to every color or color group
almost automatically with the complementary. This means that color harmon y is
the perfectly balanced co ndition of th e complementary energies whereby the complemen tary to every color is the result of th e physiological function of the eye. This
law has been the ruling scheme in paint ing at all times despite the fact that it was
frequentl y buried beneath symbolic and associative values. Even if the complementary
pairs are missing from a pain ti ng and ollly si ngle colors are used, the potential energy
of the complemen tari es vigorously acts in the uncon~cious mind.
Of course, painters em ployed not onl y color com plementaries but other elements as
well, such as black and white con trast which holds a dynamic energy. At the cinema,
the eyes often react to white titles on a dark background by reversing the lettering
to black on a light background. This is the so-called 2 fter-image.
Complementaries that are considered " harmonious" entities exist in all color systems.
But in spi te of a rich nomenclature and other contributions to the problem, nobody
has been ab le as yet to work out a valid canon of color harmony. In fact all color
harmony systems concerned with pigments differ from each other, all defining a different numbers of colors and with th em the complementary pairs. Newton spoke of seven
colors, Goethe and Schopen hauer of six, Ostwald of eight, Munsell of ten. Goethe
defined the primary complementari es as yellow-redblue; blue-redyellow, purple-green_
Ostwald defined them as yellow-ultramarine, iceblue-orange, red-seagreen, violet-leafgreen . Munsell stip ulated the complementaries as yellow-purpleblue, blue-yellowred,
red-bluegreen, red purple-green, purple-green yellow. Newton only once mentioned a

I n one of m.y pictures I tried to achieve six white shades though besides the white
can vas color I used only one whi te pigment. T he other whites were the result 0/ visual
illusion produced within areas outlined with pencil and india ink as well as by trans
parency effects. T ests showed that the var'ia.tions of white ~er~ seen onl'!j ,by people
ex perienced in color perception. R efinem ent tn color percepizon 1S prerequtStte to f"'lch
plastic ex perience ,

160

co mpl ementar y pair; go ldindigo. This proves that in spile of th e universality of the
law of complementaries, we have thu s far been unable to defin e exactly with the
unaided eye the compl emen tary color pairs. The usual explanation, that their mixtures
give a neutral gray, is a vcry subj ective test, in the light of scientific colorimetry.
Green.red, blueyellow are th e basic com plementari es generall y seen in occidental
paintings. But tJlCse color pairs, if analyzed, show delicate differentiations in the
Fig. 208. Ostwald Color System

works of the various professional painters. This fact means that every painter in the

l'he complete drel. contains 24 hues, with

the psychological primaries, (red, yellow,
sea green and ultramarine blue) and their
secondaries (orange, leafgreen, Ice blue
and purple) as a basis

past has had his own interpretation of compl ementary harmonies. The differences
of the interpretation crea ted the pec uliar and unmistakable "quality" of th e indio
vidual painter.
\Ve have to reckon with a new phenomenon whi ch up till now has received but little
attention. Toda y a great part of our life is lived with electri c light, and since the
composition and the spectrum of thi s light differ from that of sunlight, the well-known
effects of classical color harm onies will have to undergo various tran sformations.
The color objects, draperi es, folds and all oLh er shadows, are chan ged by th e influence
of electric light. We learned frolll Goethe that objects lit by colored light produce
shadows in th eir compl ementary color. For instan ce, an object lighted with red
throws a green shad ow ( if so me white light is used as well). This was an important
element in the illusio nistic sta ge design of the first quarter of the century and it can
again become important in abstract colored motion pictures. In old stage performances the scenery was painted according to thi s principle with shadows in violet,

Fig. 209. Munsell Color Solid

This Is but one of several ways In which
the system may be illustrated. Ugh! colors
appear at a level near white, and dark
colors at a level near black. Intense hues
extend farther from the gray scale than
pole colors

green or red , in order to produce a perfect match to the yell ow, red and green filters
of stage lightin g. Similar res ults meet our eyes today in th e illumination of music
halls, variety shows, circuses, bars, night clubs. outd oor advertising, lit by fluorescent
and neon tubes.
The eye, train ed for centuries to observe th e shadow effects of daylight as interpreted
by painters, now sees the real complemen tary light contrasts, physically pure. This
seems to be of grea t importance though we are not yet able to tell what th e conse
quences will be. At the moment, experience shows rather the opposite: these li ght ef
fects when reproduced with pigments are offensively shrill. This is a surprising result.
One may ask: Will it be possible to do anything artistic with the purely physical
com plementaries, or shall we again have to fall back upon the subjectively interpreted
daylight effects? I do not think that the solution lies in this restriction. All ach ievemen ts of civili za tion and of art came rather slowly. Certai n tones- such as rose and
colo red grays- came into use as important elements in painting at a rather late stage
of each cultural cycle apparently requiring ma tu red power of discrimination.

161

"The first period of cave pamting knows only black and red outlines.
"The third period uc:es solid black, red and brown for the surface and employs a pigment to get
an effect of relief. Outlines black, body of animals modeled by smearing on it various tints ob.
tain ed by mixing red and black. lntroduclion of red \arialions: tannish red, orange red, sepia.
Fir;;;t traces of mixing color with while.
" In Egypt the oldest class of painting i.,; ,ac;;e painting (5000 B. c.). It shows white lines on hand
burnished red. The combination of a rich red with highly reflecting black is the first satisfying
uc:e of a color scheme in Egypt.
;'Dynac;;tie times (starting 3400 11. c.) Iotarled flat painting on waJls with a color scheme of black,
red, yellow, green, white.
"The fifth Dynasty introduced blue and gray (ca. 2000 n. c.)
"The twelfth Dynasty introdu ced \iolel.
"The e ight ee nth and nineteenth Dymtc;;ty, the lac:t great period, uses as main colors terra cotta red,
black. white, dark brown, (nile) green, blue, yellow. New is the dotting of blue with black, green
with yellow and the iridescent shades.
" ' n Crete the early Minoan period (3 1002100 B. c.) shows only red wash.
"The Fir.. t ~Iiddle Minoan period (2 1001900 n. c.) red, black, white.
"The Second Minoan period (19001700 D. c.) red, blue, black, white.
"The Third l\linoan period added gray.
" The late Minoan period (15001300 II. c.) shows rose, grayblu e, redbrown, creamy white, and
the u"e of tran<;parence for women's garments. Through all Crete periods red and black are
predominant.
"The fre<.coes in the palace of Menclau<; in Tyrrhene 20001000 n. c. show the first use of pink.
"Early Mycenae frescoes show the repetition of the colo r scheme red, black, later white.
"On the Greek Ma inland down to the 6th cent ury the main colors are black, white, red and yellow.
"Demokrito"l de<.cribed in his two treatic:es: 'On Color and On Paintin g' the work of the 5th century
painting as con"i"ling of four colors from which the others were obtained: red, yellow, black,
"hite. Gold is derived by mixing while and red with a touch of yellow, purple is made from
red. black and white (3 part~ of red, 1 part of black, 2 parts of white); indigo by mixing black
and )ellow; green from lellow lind purple, etc. The old Greeks knew 819 shades mixed of these
four hasic ('olor~.
"Greece in the age of the T)rants (600 Il. c.) used red for bodies, blue for hai r. The 5th century
"tarted attempts in shad in g.
"The hh century started the struggle with the third dimension.
"The 3rd and 2nd century knew all about sp:::ce, color and light, and no landscaping.
';Roman painting followed the Greek tradition.
" Pompeian wall painters firc:t u"ed superimposit ion of color to get a multi color effect. Over a
layer of black they laid a red layer and obtained by this method a rather deep, brownish red,
effect.
" Known colors up to the end of the Roman empire were the
earthcolors: red ochre, terra "erte, umber:
lead colors: white lead, red lead. yellow oxide of lead, coppe r, applied with vinegar;
lampblack, burnt ivory and charcoal;
blue was carbonate of copper;
vegetable and animal dye~: purple, madder (red and yellow), indigo, kermes ("earlet),
woad (blue).
"The only important color... modern times added to the classic color scheme were ultramarine and
lapis lazuli ."

(This passage from "Ancient Pailliing" by Mary Hamilt on Swindler, is a revealing historic aCCOl/nt
0/ color discrimination and IlsG/u.)

The purely automatic harm onies \\ hi ch are created by light projection will probably
und ergo a similar process or stepbystep de"elopment of artistic appreciation. The
individual painter's approach to th e difference between the objective, ph ys ically pure
percepti on and the c1assical subjecti ve perception will make up to a large ex tent the
content of painting for a lon g time to come.

162

Fig. 210. 0

Nathan Lerner, 1941

Model of a colored light frescoe

The three flags and perforated constructions
on the perimeter 01 the circle move around

the circumference of the large disk and at

the same lime around thelf own axis. The
result is, if lit with colored spotlights, a
fantastically rich, colored light display

from pigment to colored light

The prog ressive painter wh o is strugglin g with his traditi onal element, pigment, feels
that ver y soon a tra nsition will co me, a transition from pigment to light. The knowledge for thi s undertakin g ca n hardl y be acquired acc identall y. 1t must be based
partly upon scientifi c resea rch a nd a new techn ology. Unless the painter learn s to
clear his mind of cliches, he will not reach the goal of genui ne creation with li ght.
The pedagog ic value of manu al pigment painting is not to be denied. But in the f uture
such painti ng will not retain its exclusive monopoly.
" P aint ing wi th light" is a n old chapter in artistic Utopias. There are reports of

163

Fig. 213. 0 L. Moholy-Nogy, 1942

Hondshoped plastic
By 'healing. the Ihemopioalics become
obi. so that compound curvatures, concave
and conveJ: shapes can be created. The result is constantly changing relationships
between the pOinting Clnd Ihe clear background, the Introduction of highlights, shadows and reflections which, with the tradilionol means of the painter, hardly could
be achieved

Fig. 211. 0 Myron Kozman and Gordon

Webber. 1940
Light pointing
This "painting" was made from two wiremesh screens crossing each other at a 90
degree angle. Over Ihe wiremesh colored
cellophane layers were cemented. The
constructiOn, lighted with spotlights, revolved thrOWing everchanging colored
scenes on a screen

Fig. 212. Irene Rice Pereira, 1945

Radium Diagonals
The paInter comments: "This painting is in
two physical planes, but three surfaces
were used.
Front surfaco.~-hammered glass which creates the dIffraction of light.
Second surface-finely textured glass with
open planes In various dIrections made
with a permanent porcelain cement and silver leaf.
This surface is flat over scralchboard.
Gouache was used on the scralchboord
wilh incised lines and radio actIVe pain'"

.164

.....

o~

0-

~
0

(')
,

- ' ..

\
\

....

-1

"

antique illumination of th ea ter perfo rma nces by pitch. oil and candle which often
were enh anced by colo red glass chips an d prisms. Centuri es later appeared the magic
lantern, the fireworks, the li ght effects of the baroque opera. T oda y there are more
technological so urces fo r li ght pa inti ng th an at a ny other peri od of human histor y.
\Ve have light signs, li ght di splays, colo r organ s. But thi s is not yet the age of light
painting. It is only the ho ur of li ght advertisi ng, ser vin g publicit y, to catch the eye;
to shorten an inter val ; to fill me ntal gaps. Today moti on is admired, used mainl y
to sa ti sfy the novelt y craze fo r raw speed. Our culture provides blind motion in the
incessan t electric a rrow and in the mov ies, perfect symbol of thi s vica rio us age. We
have not yet inst ituti onalized the space tim e of o ur ph ys ical universe. In fact, the
modest attem pts of modern arti sts to embod y space-ti me into thei r wo rk stand in
danger of being lost in the flashy cha os of the superficiall y used light an d motio n.
Li ght is still used wi th out planni ng. as

in

crossfi res of searchli ghts, sky projecti ons,

and neon li ght ex travaga nza. But still th e ex istence of even such lightfor ms holds
promise for the future. There. li ght as a new medium will infuse vitalit y into the
e\'errecurr ing problems of li fe to which the painter will add ress hi msel f. It will
brin g forth a new fo r m of visual art. And as we go fo rwa rd fro m pa inti ng with
brushes and pigment s toward painti ng wi th instru me nts an d li ght, th ere must be co n
fidence that the ach ievement will no t impa ir th e directn ess no r lower the spiritual level
of painting.
Now eve rythi ng is in the first stage of rediscovery. P as t an d present are overl apping.
The pa inter must know his old craft bu t he has to become fam il iar with colo rimetry
too, wi th wa\c1ength s. purity. bright ness, excitat ion of light an d the manifold possibilities of art ificial ligh t sources. Then it will become obvious that the ph ys iology
of the eye is more closely rela ted to the pure li ght of th e spect rulll th an to the crud e
pigment m ixtures of th e palette.
The new pai nter already shows in his pigmen t work a tendency to employ strong,
unad ulterated harmonies and unmixed hues, proving that color co nscio usness is in a
process of evolu tion . This is allied with the new meth ods of light prod ucti on- the
electric li ght- and a new techniq ue of color presen tat ion . But certain ly more scien
tifi c facts about the nature of color observations should be ava ilable than are now
pre~ented

by the different color s) stems. This kn owledge Illust become par t of the

artist's practice. Many painters already use re-eva lu ated psychophysical effects such
as op tical illusions, changes in size. auto matic compleme nt ari es, halo effects around
nega tive shapes. new relations of hue. chroma. and va lue. But to enhance the rad iance
of color, besides these, more experiments are needed- with polished surfaces, with
transl ucencies which all ow a combi nat ion or pigment and di rect ligh t effects. - The
next step is the conscious and general use of reflections, diffused and transpa ren t, solid
a nd open shadows. mirroring. refraction wit h prism, wi th grati ng and interfe rence
of light. There should be mentioned. also, other forerun ners of a light.graphic; that

- See 1ny " A hstracf of an .4. rtis t" 'in lhe third edition of " the new
born <I) Go., 191,6, ),'. Y .)

166

1: isio n'~

( Witt en-

----~

---

---'
,
,

,
,
,
,
,
,

,
,
,
,

,
,

Fig. 214. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1936

Light pointing
The slight warpage and mohon of the
hinged celluloid sheets produces a combination of reflections and shadows on the
background cnd the pigmented surfaces of

the wings achieving an elfective combinetiOt

Here the solid textures of the "collag",," have been translated into a "light
texture"

167

,'a -_________________________________________________________________________________

is, noodlight, luminesce nce, phosphorescence, ultravioi et, infrared. polarized light,

cathode and x-rays.

Since the 18th century, man y perso ns have been \\ orkin g in this direction: Pater
Castel, Hoffman , Rimington, Scria bin, Hirschfeld-Mack, Thomas Wilfred, Raoul
Hausmann, Maurice Wetzel, Al exander Laszlo and man y oth ers. Each constructed
or planned a mo re or less surpri sing 'color organ" . Vikin g Eggeling has been the
pioneer for the black- and-whit e abstract film. Picabia, Leger, Fishinger, Ruttman, and
I tried to solve some of its problems. The nex t step will be to produ ce such
films in color.
Most of the visual wo rk of th e fUlu re lies with the " light painter" . He will have the
scientific knowledge of the ph ys icist and the technological skill of the engineer coupled
with his own imagination, creative intuition and emotional intensity. It is difficult to
go into details yet, but in the co min g experiments, research in the phys iology of the
eye and in the ph ysical properties of light will play a n important part.
" optophonetic"
Nothing is achieved without effort. One must never become tired of observing the
simple or rich phenomena of light and color offered by the dail y routine at home,
on the stage, in th e street a nd in the laboratory. One must explore their genuine
characteristics, their peculia r qualities. Then all end eavors will point- as Raoul
Hausmann previsioned- in one direction, to an optophonetic a rt. This will allow us
to see music and hear pictures simultaneously : a startli ng articulation of space-time.
The first steps to it- a mu ral art of th is age

lead most probabl y through photogra-

phy. cinema and television .

The first part of Disney's " Fantasia" was such an attem pt. Unfor tunately it was
later cut out of the film in the false belief that the public was not ready for it. The
public here, as in so many other cases, is used as a scapegoat fo r the producers' own
incapacity to sustain a genu'i nely artistic conce pt.

168

--

I
\
I

t,
I

/'

\
I

Fig. 215. 0 L. MoholyNagy. 1940 Space Modulator (plexiglasj

ph"t""rnph,,

fig. 216. a L. Moholy-Nogy, 1935

Dufay Color photograph
(Light filtering)

color photography
One would think that color photog raph y, th e new fronti er of photography, offers
the ideal means for Hlight creation" since ever ything can be reco rded today in color
with the ut most delicacy. 1ndeed, thi s is one of th e outstanding characteristics of
color photograph y. namely, its ability to record objects in nature so exactl y that
Through the. use of color photograph),
through the mechanical perfection 0/
the means, the range 0/ Ihe tOile repro-

even the air la ) ers and haze betwee n the camera and sce ne, as well as the chan ging
colors of th e day are ca ptured_ Howeve r thi s distorts the ori ginal meaning of colors
by laying the sa me casual " ti nge" o,ter all of them_ This is additional to the distor-

0/ colored light has become in-

ti on \\ hi ch th e chem ical em ul sion introd uces. The emulsion, \\ hi ch is th e ca rrier of

{initely enlarged. This protides the raw

malerial lor rhe crealit-e color photographer for expressite purposes.

a ll photographic colors, yields onl y art ificial primary color la ) ers_ only approximati ons of th e tru e spec trum primaries_ Because of th eir sy nth eti c nature they produce

duction

The main problem oj the color photographer today is 10 build up a new

thinking ill the use oj his means. Color
photography requires the reeducat ion oj

Ihe mind

(IS

JI;ell as the ere. Instead

0/

concelltrating 0/1 esthetic values derived

from pain ling liitll pigment, the photographer must free him self from the
obserwlion resllits 0/ the painter /tho
could report only about a few among
the innumerable light phenomena. (The
l)(Iinter has chosen, namely, the ones
uhich he cO/lld best tran ,~/Ole tdth his
man/lal technique. ttith pigment on canl'as-JeoLing others, the more complicated ones, aside_) This means, practically. that the photographer has to
think in terms 0/ light and must return
to direct light eDects as his primary

"ouree_

a borin gly unif) ing

~<com pl ex i o n"

of the color photographs.

I n oth er words, one

color photo- for the tim e bein g- looks rather like the oth er. In co mparison to such
shots_ good abstract pain tin g- ,dth its color va lues determined by the a rti st- appears
infinitely su perior.
There are a numbe r of oth er problems too. B) projectin g color slides on th e sc reen_
the blue or other monochromat ic I' haze-' of th e usual shots \\ ill be mixed with the
overwh elmingly red-)ellow li ght of th e projector bu lb, cau sin g additiona l color distorti on al though- officiall) - th ey are " balanced" to all ow for thi s efTect of the
incandescent illu minatio n. But the ma in difficu lt y at present is th at th e usual problems
of color photographers, no ma tter how com plicated. have been solved by th e painters
of Ule past. Most photographers _ howe,rer_ are quite uninform ed and happily co nsider
their own "discoveries" as original inventi ons_
Color photography will come into its own onl y if th e photographer is visua ll y
well ed ucated and understands painting as well as the uniqu e characteristics of his

170

lOt

Fiq. 217.

L. MoholY-Naqy, 1942

Color variation of paTt IV 01 the mollon

picture "Light Display: black and white
and gray" (Scenario pp. 288, 289)

own medium, its new and genuine "quality". Then he will be able to begin with
fundamental experiments. This justifies the

hope that indigenous results can be developed as the work progresses.

Among the significa nt properties of color
emulsion and of th e photo apparatus is
Lhe ability to mechani call y reproduce fleeting light and colored reflections as well as
colored shad ows (such as Goethe's complementary shadow effects) so that the translation becomes eth ereal, not pigment but col
ored light. In th e past these could neither
be observed th orou ghl y by th e eye nor
recorded with exactness and true quality
by th e easel painter. And exactly there is
the territory of new and exci ting promise.

It is also possible to present color-light

values not in order to create an illusion
of a naturalistic scene but to build up a
new feeling of space through different col
ored lights within a colored light display.
as they appear, for exa mpl e, in the " light
box", Promisi ng experiments can be made
with color filters, especiall y if some white

172

Flq. 218

Fig. 220

Fig. 219

Fig. 221

Fig. 218. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1945

Path of motion during a dance

These examples show an investigation

of the genuine properties and behavior
of color photography

The camera shuller was open and the color

film exposed while dancing, relating Ihis
motion to the light sources in the room

Fig. 219. 0 Gyorgy Kepes, 1943

A walk on Michigan Boulevard, Chicago.
towards neon light billboards
Fig. 220. 0 Dorothy Forsberg, 1944
Virtual Volume
While in Figs. 218 and 219 the camero was
moving while exposing the film, this color
shot was token of moving objects in a
light box with a stable camera

Fig. 221. 0 J. B. foley, 1940

Experiment in the light box
One of the difficulties in color shooting is
the mastery of clearly ci rcumscribed small
color areas. Colored light is generally produced with monochromatic color filter
placed over the light source--but if em
played, the filtered colored light envelopes
everything. In the light box (as it is described on pages 198-199) an exacl control
of the color areas can be maintained. Fig.
221 demonstrates this. The photograph was
taken of a benl piece of plywood lighted
with different colored spotlights through
little holes in the side waHs of a light box

areas ca n be kept free from their effect. Extreme close-ups are another good depar.
ture since they effectively co ncentrate light on a small area. Superimpositions,
colored motion diagrams of fireworks, the pattern obtained by walking toward moving car-headlights or neon signs are also fruitful experimental problems. The
supreme promise however remains the mastery of color photograms.
The true kinetic representation of color-ligh t values will bring the first great sensation of direct light display. Continuity and com position will be established through
the direct impact of purely optical laws and visual fundamentals-not by senti
men tal content. Natu rall y, much tim e will elapse before color photography and
the motion picture will reach the point where color will be divorced from the usual
naturalistic-illusionistic mean ing; where color will be understood for its own sake
and not as a sign or sy mbol representing an object. The creation of colored shap es
through light, freed from such co ntent, will probably lead to the abstract cinematograph, the kineti c equivalent of the static color photogram.

173

Such photosrophic experiments in color

as shown in Fiss. 216.-223 promise a
future development. thot is, the con
trolled and fascinating work with colored light. However, we have to know
much more about the medium, its physi.
cal and psychological eDects, its chem
istry, and about the sensitiveness of the
emulsions provided by laboratories to
record the visible and translate the in
visible part of the spectrum into color.

For example, Kodachronu film .seem.s 10

be sensitive 10 invisible rdtraviolelli&/u.
recording it as blue. For llau reason
Kodachrome skies photoKraph more hlru
than natural skies. Such and"",, Iw
more subtle-eDecls may in/frunce
everytil inK the camera sees. A requirement for the color p/toto6rapher mw:1
be then to moster Illis abc of li,lal in
the same way the painter masters /au
abc of color.

Fig. 223. F. W. Goro. 1945

Seven pholoqrams of a railroad worm
The South American railroad worm Is a
wonderful little creature which light. up
like a theater marquee when it Is eJ:cited.
It has one red light o n ils head and twentytwo greenish-yellow ones along Us body.
The railroad worm was so named because
it. lights look something like railroad signals. It is actually not a worm at all, but
the Ql1,lb of a beetle which lives In Uru
guay. The railroad w orm is of much interest 10 men who study the luminescence
of insects. Dr. E. Newton Harvey, a noted
Princeton physiologist. has three or four 01
them brouqht to the United States by plane
every year. One of Dr. Harvey's railroad
worms, pressed seven times with a sheet 01
color film by "Lile" photographer F. W.
Goro, made the selfportrmts- shown on the
opposite page-with Its own Ughts

Figs. 222 a, b. Eastman-Kodak, 1945

Test diagrams of a series of lens elements
A photographic lena consists sometimes 01
as many as seven elements. Their surfaces
must be ground and pOlished within a 1J2
light wave-I / IOO,OOO of an inch-of perfection . These elements afe then assembled
in a lens mount and inspected for performance. In this inspection. rays from a
pinpoint of light. about 200 feet away, pass
th rough the lens on the inspection bench.
Examined thraugh a powerful microscope,
they appear as a star
The symmetrical, "qood" star was fo rmed
by a lens at a point 11- "off axis" . If a
lens falls to bring the light rays into good
focus at all points, the star lacks symmetry
a nd dehnihon-the fau lts seen in the "bad "
star (right)
Such, and many other, sClentlhc experi
ments (especially with polarized light) will
have a bearinq upon the future dictionary
of the color photographer

174

Fig. 224. Samuel Wu, 1945

Seven exposures
The rich dIversity 01 color is due to the
use of color hl1ers placed in Iront 01 one
500 wall spotlight. One m0del hand was
used against a black background lor three

176

exposures-the camera was moved slightly

and two more shots were made. Then the
whole setup was removed and the yellow
spot was exposed on a white background.
The bJack background was replaced for
the last exposure- the frame

II

fig. 225.

0 Nathan Lerner. 1940

Eye on nails

(photomontage without IIcissors)

b lack a n d wh ite
Photography is a new medium of exp ression. Since its working rules have not yet
been frozen into unalterabl e dogmas, it has ex perimental potentialities. Moreover, by
analogy, one may find clues. ma y a pproach oth er media \, ith fresh insight. In fact,
it can be assumed that the anal)sis of photo. drawing. painting, would prove mutually
illuminating.
]n the official history of art, photography was for a long time co nsidered onl y a me
chanical means of record in g. Being mec hanica l, it \, as a rgued, it could not produce
a rt. And when any interpretati on tri ed to elevate photography to art, it was with
the estheticphil osophic co ncepts customary in the definition of painting. That is wh y
photography with conscio us " art" ambitions has remai ned in rath er rigid dependence
upon th e traditi onal forms of pa inting and has slowly passed through the successive
stages of all the va ri ous art "is m s .~' BuL fundamentally new discoveries ca nn ot long be
co nfin ed to th e mentality of bygone periods. \Vhen thaL happens all productive activity
is arrest ed. This was plainl)' see n in th e photography of th e last hundred yea rs, which
has yielded little results sa ve as a sort of visua l stenographer to scie nce, criminolog y
and journalism. But at least in these fields photography has been used wi th a knowl
edge of its working conditi ons, its scie nce and technology, opti cs and chemistry: in
other words, \\ ith a knowledge of its basic eleme nts. Here photography proved to be
the pioneer of an original dc\elopment peculiar unto itseH, un concerned with whether
it was called "art" or not.

177

Photography has not )el achieved an)lhing like its full stature, has not articulated
its

J,

..

('I

Ihis lack of "resulLs:' does not co ntradict the almost

unprecedented that such a "mechanical"' thing as

photograph~

regarded so con

'

0: J

intrinsic structure. ).

unbelievable impa ct "hich photographic \ision has had upon our culture. It is

...". I

0\'11

temptuou s)) ill the c reali\ e se nse- should have aC<luirecl in barely a century of evolution th e power to become onc of the primal") \-isuai forces in our life. formerly the

painter impressed hi s vision on his age; toda y it is the photographer. One has only

I.

to recall th e romanti c outlook of fo rmer generation s upon the pi ctorial presentation

of landsca pe and other objects. and compare it with the wa y they are perceived
now, namely. " phot ographically". Man y people may not realize it but the present
standard of \ isual ex press io n in any fi eld. painting. sculpture, architecture and espe-

Fig. 226.

ciall y the a(h ert is in g arts, is nourished b y th e \ isual food" hi ch th e new photography
L. Mohaly-Nagy, 1928

pro,-idcs. There is th e incisive sharpness of ca mera portraits pilled with pores and
furr owed by lin es: the air-del' of a ship at sea moving through waves that seem
frozen in li ght: th e chisell ed delicacy o f an ordinary sa wn bl ock o f wood; the closeup of a wove n tiss ue; th e \\ ho le o f rarely obse rved details of st ru cture, texture and
surface trea tm en t o f \, ha te\ e r objects \\ e ca re to ch oose \\ithin th e rea lm of the traditi onal, monocular vie" in g and renderin g o f th e world.
All these characte ri stics are not alt ogether dissimilar to th ose of naturalisti c painting
,l ith its imitath e ren deri ng. But as in painting so in ph oto graphy we have to learn
to sec, not the "picture'" no t the narrow rend erin g o f nature, but an ideal instrument
o f vis ual express io n. If

\' C

can see in th e ge nuine elemen ts of phot og raphy the self

suffi cie nt vehicle for direct. \ isual impact based upon th e pr ope rti es o f th e light sensitive emulsion, then "e may be nearer to "art" in the fi eld of photography too.

photographic quality
Blackand"hite photograph) re\'ealed for the first ti me li ght and shadow in their
interdependence. The de\'elopmen t of reliab le artificial ill umi nati on. like electricity,
brought an increasing ad o ption of nO\\ ing li gh t effec ts and richly g raduated shadows.
Fig. 227. 0

Through th ese elemen ts a g reater an im ation of surfaces and a more delicate visual

Le wis Fay . 1939

intensification \\as possib le. This mu ltitud e o f grada ti ons is one of th e fundamental
Fig. 223. 0 William Keck. 1939

"materia ls" of photog raph ). T h is fact holds tru e e\ en ",h en \\e pass beyo nd the
immed iate sphere o f black.\\ hit egra) \a lu cs a nd begin to think in terms o f color. Through the black-\\hitegra) reproduction o f co lored sub ject matters photography
h as enabled us to recognize th e most subtle differentiati ons in both th e gra y and
chromatic scales ; differentiations th at produ ce a new and hitherto un obtainabl e qual.
ity of \ is ual rend erin gs. This is o nly o ne element amo ng many. But it is the point
- A derice Lo dispel poslrr-like rjJecis all d creale a more delicat e and m eltin g impression is to u.se color i,l cOlljwIC fion wit h Ihe i nle rm pdia le lanes. Wh en pure color is
placed against pure colo r. plain lone against lo ne. (l hard . decoralite. poster-like effect
generally r('sults. Laie cltb isJlt. 'lIeopiaslicism and cons tr uclicis m, t ried fa ot'ercome
exactly this de/icienc.l/ and this (,fJo rl beca m e an i m po rtan t part of their uproblem
area". 'l'hi ... is 011(' clea r o('cosion in tdl1'ch pholoqrap h ic experim ent lent an in sight to
painting.

178

-.

....
,---"
"----' e...._-"--~_ V---"- '-"-.:....;.~L______________________

~,

' ",

Fig. 229. Berenice Abbott, 1944

Termite building

179

Fig. 231. 0

L. Moho1y-Nogy, 1926

Fig. 230. 0 Milton Hollie, 1942

Portrait in the round

181

,
\

'\

'.

Fig. 232. Joseph Breitenbach, 1940

Photograph of fragrance of a coffee bean
Patterns of fragrances are obtamed by extending the very small amount of malter of

which fragrance consists of as a very Ihm

(monomolecular) layer. The thickness of
this layer is 1/1,000,000 mm, which means:
if enlarged to the thickness of a sheet of
paper, the thickness of the paper itself enlarged at the same degree would be higher
than the Empire Stote building. The shapes
develop In lime and the forming of richer
and richer abstract pallerns may be observed and photographed. Generally the
layman believes that every odor has its
specilic pattern, just as there is a nome for
every color. This is not 01 all the case.
Very complicated phenomena caused by
molecular structure, surface tension and
electro-dynamical charges are involved.
Besides, the odors we are used to looking
upon as primary sensations of olfaction are
highly complicated mixtures 01 a dozen
and more odorant compounds

182

Fig. 233. 0 frank Levslik. 194 1

Billboard

183

Fig. 235. 0 L MoholyNogy . 1927

fig. 234. Allred Stieglitz, 1907

" The Steerage"
Alfred Stieglitz Is the great pioneer of contem porary photography. His w o rk and h is
in teqrity are already a matter of history

",here we must start in order to master the properties intr ins ic to photog raphy; where
we begin to deal more with the d irect senso r y impact of photographic va lues than
with the reproductive, illusioni stic function of portray al.

teac hin g pho tograp h y

In teaching photograph y one may be tempted to start with the familia r, with still life,
landscape o r portra it. Yet portra iture, for example, presents unsuspected diffi culties.
It is a complica ted task to obser ve the multiplicit y of details, the psychological expression, the textu re of the skin , the relati onships of the da rk a nd li ght and middle
values, and the other aspects of the face revealing its most cha racteri stic Iea tures.
H ow ca n a beginner, ,\ ho has never done any wo rk in pho tograph y, hope to master
this complexity at once? - The stim.ulatinu results produced in the P hotoqraphic W orkshop of the I nstitute
are due to the int'e,ttit:eness and research consciousness of its former and prpsp"t staffartis ts as well a.s technical experts-Gyorgy K epes, J. J . Smith, L eonard Niederko rn,
~-athan Lnner. Jim Browl1, ["ran1...- L eeslik, Edward R inker, E ugene B ielawski, E ugene
Ida1...-a, Fra'lh- Sokolik, l\'illilln !{eelt, H arry Callahan and A rthur Siegel.

185

Fig. 236. Carlotta Corpron. 1944

Pattern of light in a glass brick

186

Fig. 237.
The silhouette--the great pastime of the
18th century-is the predecessor of the pho-logjam (ctlllleraiess photography). which
introduced an Infinite variety of gray values into the one-tone shadow picture

Fig. 238, 0
Phologram

L. MoholyNagy, 1937

The problem is to find an approach to photograph~ \\hich breaks dO\\J1 the complex
tasks into their fundam ental elements. masterin g them one by one yet pointing
through each fUll cti on to th e \\h oleness of the solut io n.
photography without camera ( photogram )
]n order to lea rn about the properties of the light sensitive em ul sion, which is the
basic element of photography, it is besl to start with the making of camera less photographs. In 1835, Fox Talbot made the first crud e photog ram by laying lace on a
paper treated with photo-sensitive emulsion. ATound 1920 Jlan R ay and I. independent of each other. re-inrented the photog ram.
This technique has since become a standaTd means of l'isual expression.

187

Photopapcr or film exposed to light \\ill record the "aried intensity of light sources
in blad.. and \\hite and gray ,'alues. Practically. this is nothing more than a photonegali\e, produced b~ 13) ing objects on the em ulsion-covered surface. Opaque objects contac tin g this surface block out all light lea\ ing that part of the sheet un exposed. i.e .. \\ hite. Shadows of these objects caused by ligh tin g during th e exposure
re:; ult in yar) ing gray-\alues depending upon the density of the shadows. Areas flooded
"ith li ght. th at is, full) exposed . become black.
The photogra m exploits the unique charac teris tic of the photographic process- the
ahilit) to reco rd "ith delicate fidelity a great range of tonal values. The almost end-

fig. 240. 0
Phologrom

L.

MoholyN~gy,

1922

less range of gradations. subtlest differences in the g ray values, belongs to the fundamental prope rti es o f photographi c ex pression. The orga nized use of that gradation
creates photographi c qualit y. The photogram can be call ed the key to photography
because e\ er) good photograph must possess th e sa me fin e gradations between the
\, hit e and black ex tremes as th e photog ram.
The photogram co njures up as many interpretations as it has "iewe rs and with new
di sco veries its ori ginal ran ge ca n be grea tl y enlarged. For exa mpl e, printed transparent cellophane sheets, blank films engraved, sc rat ched glass plates covered with ink
dra" ings. ca n be used as 'negali,cs, ]n an enlarging apparatus combined with the
usual techniqu e of th e photogram th ese material s ma r give startling results. The
photogram ma y also be used as a new method of reco rdin g li gh l values when
materials such as oil, paint or ink are squ eezed between glass plates, This procedure
flatt ens out the oil dro ps or th e still wel, painted lines and fashions th em into astonish
ing shapes " hi ch ,ar} \\ ith the pressure applied.

These glass plates. used as nega-

tives. produce photographic records of the mechanical pressure. By substituting photographic e\'idence for guesswork in computing the pe rforma nce of material s. thi s
method may become a con tr ibuti on to techn ological application. similar to 1\1.
Hetenyi's experimen ts \\ ilh photo-elasticitr de\eloped for purely scientific reasons.
These may also be used one day as elemen ts of crea th'e expression.
The photogram understood as a diagrammatic record of the motion of light tran sla ted into black and white and gray values ca n lead to a gra sp of new types of
spatial relationships and spa ti al rendering. The recedi ng and advanci ng values of
I had an opportunity Lo use the oddity of oil drops squeezed between glass plates
and a qreat number 0/ oiher det:ices as uspecial effects" in the motion picture, "Things
to Come", by H . G. Wells. directed by A . Korda. ( Lol1 don Film, 1936)
The method 0/ three-dimensional photo-elasticity is based on the experimental fact
that samples of phenolic resins. such as Bakelite. j}[arblette and Troion. when antlealed in a loaded condition show a complele presenalion of
fa) the elastic deformation and
(b) the accom.panying bi-refringence produced by the loadin.q 0/ the annealing temperature as it is described in the article. "The Fundamentals of Three-Dimensional
Photo-Elasticity" by JI, Helenyi. (Research Laboratories, Westinghouse Electric
Mfg. Co.)
A similar melhod is tlsed for checking the hardening 0/ eye .qlasses used in industry
for accident pret:enlion. The appearance of a Jlaltese cross seen on such a glass behitld
polaroid ffll'lT.-eS possi1Jie an immediate decision as to its perfect execution. The cross
indicates diagrammatically the equalized centered slress performance.

188

Fig. 239. Dr. M. Helenyi. Westinghouse

Laboratories. 1942
Photo elasticity stress-pattern of a fly
wheel model between two polaroid
discs crossed and with a lamp behind
them

Fig. 241. 0 Gyorgy Kepes. 1939

Experiment without the camera

the gradations, \, hich are projecti ons of the "'Iight tracks'\ can be used for spacethat is, space-time-arti culali on.
Architecture and the moti on picture, both o f \,hich operate with light, should find
new insight in that articul ati on.

This wo rk need not onl y be for the so phisti cated . Both the photographic amateur
and the la yman, acqu irin g thro ugh the photog ram a deeper und erstanding of light
and space valu es, \\ ill be inspired to explo re the p otentialities o f the camera since

the photogra m teaches that th e same characteri stics o f g radati ons and contrasts have

to be applied to camera work too. Good photog raph y with the cam era must enable
us to cap ture the patt erned interpla y o f li ght a nd shadow exactl y as in cameraless
photog raph y. Thus ph otog raph y becomes th e translati on o f a wo rld saturated with
li ght and colo r into black. \\ ltite and gray g radati ons.

190

Fig. 242. Man Ray, 1943

Rayogram
Looking at the while surface full of black
lines, o ne finds an astonishi ng configuration of lines, dozens of d is to rte d fa ces and
figures, in its pluralism a perfect counterpart of the Picasso etching (o n page 250)
May Ray calls his cameraless photographs,
"rayograms"; Schade his photos without
camera, "shadogram". When I s tarted out
in 1921 with my cameratess photoqraph, I
suggested the na:!le "photogram" which
has been adopted since by mos t people

"

I
~

-r

'J
II ,

." ,

..:./
'-....,

>f
I

' I

...-'

-\

~ /~

:,.

V_ ..

If

/
/
,r'
,

-'

- -

--

.....

/
/

'\.

\
\

.::

....

'

!' -- .....
'

.
,

./

. .. .'

...,
.

..

-,

...

'

'

Fig. 244. 0 L. Moholy-Naqy. 1923

Ph otogrom

Fig. 243. 0 Gyorqy Kepes. 1941

Photogram

193

rig, 245. 0

L. Wohd,.Nogy. 193B

fig. 246. Luter Beall. 1944

Fh:toqrom

r ')4

Negative with white spots

ThIS picture (from a medical adverhsement)
shows a great slmllatlty to the photogrcun

The photog ram \\ hich originates as a negath-e wh ere black becomes whit e and white
beco mes black, fe\ erses th e habitual way of selectin g photog raphi c vi ews for their
black a nd \\ hite \'ahl es. B) thi s rc\ ersal of customary obse rvati on a new hidd en
world a ri5-cs out of ni ght scenes, settin gs in co ntrasts, glo\\ in g with sublime magnifict'nce, a pia) of radi atin g li ght so urces ell\'eloping the obj ects with an a ura and

gl\ lI1 g th em fresh po tenti alitips for I) ric or dra mati c qualit ).

Dictionary of the photoqram

Figs. 247-254
(These examples have been selected by
the author for a Circulating exhibition on
"Light as a Means of Expression", for the
Museum o f Modern A r t in New York)

1. a pine cone laid on ligh t sensitive paper

and exposed to flashlight (M-N)
2. on egg bealer (M-NJ
3. coarsely woven ribbon (M-N)
4. tracmg paper, pebbles, shells, string
and paper (John Buffalo)
S. a drawing made by a pinpomt flashlight (M-N)
6. two hands on the photo paper in the
develope r exposed to light. The result
is shown underneath as a
7. photog ram (Robert Longini)
8. Perforated cardboard and me tal, wire
mesh, wire, transparent plastic (M-N)
These are some of the elements from which
photog roms, I.e. light composition with
expressive intentions can be mode

The enemy o! photography is the convention, the fixed rules of the "how-to-do" .
The salvation of photography comes from
the experiment. The experimenter has no
preconceived Idea about photography. He
does not believe that photography is only
as it is known loday, the exact repehtion
and rendering of the customary vision. He
does not think that the photographic mistakes should be avoided since they are
usually "mistakes" only from the rouhne
angle of the historic development. He
dares to call "photography" all the results
which can be achieved with photographic
means with camera or WIthout; all the reaction of the photo sensitive media to chemicals. to light, heat, cold. pressure, etc.

197

light modulator
A light modulator is the second step in learning the ' e1ements of photography.
The function of the light modulator is to catch, reflect and modulate light. A flat
surface does not modulate. it only reflects light.

But any object with combined

concaveco nvex or wrinkled surfa ces may be co ns idered a lip;ht modulator s ince It

reflects light with varied intensi ty depending upon its s ubstance and the way Its

surfaces are turned towa rd th e light source.

As the ray s strike an object some are reflected, others absorbed, o thers pass through
it ( if it is tran sparent ). If th e substan ce is tran slucen t, it mainly diffuses the rays.
A human fa ce can be understood as a li gh t modulat o r. A face co ntains few straight,
fiat s urfaces. The surfaces are nea rl y all com pound curvatures. Surface, texture and
co lor of a fa ce vary wi th the person's age, fro III the skin o f a baby to that of an old
man with co untless degrees o f differences between. Then there are the eyes, the
beard, Ih e moustache. the hair, the eyebrows and the eyelashes, th e lips and the
Figs . 255-256. 0

J. ].

teeth. the ri ch variations in li ght and shadow of the ear- all present a problem in
Smith , 1940

Light Modulator
Every p iece of paper, crumpled or bent,
acts as a light modulator. Here a re shown
two aspec ts. positive and negative, of the
same piece of rolled paper. Every object
can be understood also as a photo modulator whether skin, stone, metal---anythmg
which reflects light.

li ght modula ti on . With all its complexity. the face offers a most adequate study for
th e modula tion o f light. As has been noted, however, a portrait is rather a difficult
photog raphi c task for a beginner. IL is more advisable th at the beg inn er manufacture
s imple li ght modulators o ut of paper. metal sheets, plastics or other materia ls which
can be scored. ro lled . twi sted. molded or cut to produ ce \rarious modulating light
surfaces. Every addition. ever y variation-another type of m aterial , sh in y, opaque,
or tra nsparent- will chan ge the modulati ng qualiti es. The variety of modulators is
end less. Each li ght modu lato r is the product of the individual's own ingenuity, dex
terit y and inte rest.

Fig. 257. 0
Fe ather

William Keck, 1940

One of th e photographer's tasks is to iden tify u nmi stakably for the spectator the true
sh ape and nature of hi s object. This ca n be accomplished b y li ght in g. fro m one or
ma ny angles. or with different co mbinations o f li ght.
At the beginning o f his studies, th e li ght modulator represents for the student the
"object." But the task always remai ns to use the li ght sources ( or move the object
or th e camera if th e light sou rce is fixed ) in such a way that the light defining th e
o bject immediately commu nicates the con ten t. Th e wo nder of cOlll munication li es in its
endless var iati on. A crea ti ve photographer must t ry to enlarp;e the habitual scope of
vision : create new relatio nships between known elements; utili ze the ex pressive power
o f surprise g rowing o ut of the p otenti aliti es o f th e photographic mean s.
A go od instrum ent for thi s is a " Ii ghtbox" made from a carton , two si des of which are
perforated so th at s potli ghts, some of them fitted with filters. can be placed at the
holes. Obj ects can h e hung o n strings stretched withi n the box. The spotli ghts can
then be arranged to strike the strin gs and objects in any ma nner desired . The light
box is thus a particularl y effective "labo ratory" for the stud y of receding and advancing values o{ the lit surfaces. Th ese effects produce direct emo ti ona l reactions

198

Fig. 258. 0 Millie Goldsholl, 1945

Light modulator

which can be enlarged upon through the combinations of ,"isual fundamentals, shape,
contour. texture, black and white and gray values and color. Thus. one may paint
with light as surely as one can paint with oil and pigment.

Fig. 259. 0

G. Abbott. 1942

Light box exercise

199

Fig. 260. 0

Nathan Lerner, 1943

Nathan Lerner, IL'ho ILOS the first to

make a crealive u.~e 0/ the light box
and made u;ith it the greatest number
0/ experiments, comments on them as
lollou:s:
"An}one working uith light soon disCOl'ers that Ireedom 0/ selection, a neeesson' lactor in the creatiL'e aetiritr, is
limited unless there is some method 01
seporating the accidental qualities 01
light from those quail ties desired.
For light is more than simply a neces
sarl' adjunct to tisuai lunctioning, it is
a possible medium 0/ expression in it
sd/. i/ ant" could only force ils bounds
and somehow make it reteai itself. Light
1>oH(SSe~ a tremendous ps)'chological
pOlar because it is so deeply immersed
ill Ihe /arthermou recesses 0/ our uncon
sdousness. and because it is so intimaleIv connecred l!.'irh our space experience

as to be almost identical uith il. For

risible space is lighted space and with
light therelore we can el.'oke space

expenence.
I felt that i/ I could creole a tirlUal
u'Ofld 0/ darkness, which I could then
dete/op into a di sciplined Ij;orld 0/ light,
I ,wuld be approaching the solution 0/
the problem 0/ controlled selection. fhe
achie/.ement lias perhaps simpler than
the uish I/.Ould indicate.
I made a box, It hich I/.as open on one
side and t!.'ith man)' holes cut into all
shies. These holes /tere used /or suspending objects and also sef/.'ed as open
ings /or light to enter. Ol'er these openings, objects r ,dre screen, etc.) could be
placed and projected on the mnterials
inside the boJ.. " 'hen desired the front
could be Cal eretl uith glass so that
smoke or gas could be introduced into

the box. This wOllld enable one to study

and photograph light in a pll.rer form,
as a beam, solid and beautiful, apart
from its bondage to objects. The inside
of the box was painted black.
With this simple deuice a Breat mea,sure
01 control Ot'l!r light can be exercised.
BUI aside Irom its LOlue as a method for
experimenting in a new medium, it has
a further general t'alue.
For light is one element; material object
another, and the relationship of one
to the other makes up our Lisuall/.'orld.
In the light box they become easily understood elements 0/ dsual communication. The light box, there/ore, has significance for any artiSI. IT' orking with
it can ghe him a deeper insight into
the tisual-psychological elements that
play an important role in making any
picture e::tciting amI meaning/ul."

Fig, 2600. 0 Nathan Lerner, 1938

Diagram for a light box
The manipulation of light can be approached with a"liqhl bolt",whlch is made
from a cardboard bOlt, the sides 01 which
are perforated so that spotlights-if needed, litted with filters-can be placed at
the holes. Objects A. B, and C, can be
hung on strings stretched within the bolt.
The spotlights, touchmq only the strings and
objects, create controlled lighted areas, situations which allow the study of the receding and advancing tone values

200

Fig. 261. 0 WIlllom Ked:. 1939

Reflections and mirroring

Tex tures and structures ca n also be understood as light modulators; similarly macro
and mi crosco pic and relief photographs and solarization. After working with the
light modulation in all its aspects the student will have no difficulty in photographing
any portrait, landscape or industrial sce ne. Having studi ed synthetic light modulators in the abstract. separately, the student ,\il1 know how each type of modulation

"ill be transcribed on the photographic plate, film or paper. There ,\iIl be many
shapes and t) pes of surfaces, space relationships, depth, height, comparative dimensions; interpenetrating surfaces that meet and cut one another; transparencies, mir
rorings, etc. By controlling the uses and effects of each indi,.idually and in relation
to one another in a photograph, he will be able to apply the principle of the light
modu lator as an element of a broad photographic concept.

In the interrelated trai ni ng of th e Instit ute the studen t"s stud y of light modulators is
integral to th e rest of his work. He learns to see his own experiments better and more
thoroughly; his sculpture, tactile chart. wire \\ork, wood cut, etc., take on new meanFig. 262. 0 Robert Buchbinder. 1939
LIght modulator

ing if he also understands them as light modulators. A single object shapes and
unfolds itself in the student's own hands: each different experiment is another end
which literall y constitutes the object anew. He may experience also different revelations from his work if it is rendered differently. In this he has a great variety, as he
not only photographs his own productions but at the same time makes freehand and
mechamcal drawmgs ot them.

Dictionary of the light modulator

Figs. 263-269. 0 Jean Kendall. 1946

1. a sheet of white paper on a dark back
ground
2. cullmg a sut in the paper a number 01
Qrey tones occur
3. another cut is made
4. one corner bent. causing a Qradual
darkening as the paper curves away
from the light source
5. the effeels of bendmg up two sides
6. fastenmg four comers pmduces more
complicated shadows
1. punching holes adds more values

Fig. 270. 0 L. Cuneo, 1937

LIght modulator

Fig. 271. 0 Institute of Design, 1939

Ught modulator (melalJ
Ugh! modulators in metal are most intriguing II p laced on gray background on which
the while reflectIons of shmy metal can
be well distinquished

Fig. 272. 0 Margaret Roth, 1939

Paper modulator contrasted with a flat
panel 01 grained wood

203

other experimenl8

shadow observation of
Photographic experiments may embrace a \\ide terrItory:
shapes on flat, curved or irregular surfaces. producing less or more emphasized distortions; observation of textures in the form of collages; mirror combinations; positive
and negathe images; partial enlargement and reduction of suitable subject matters;
use of prisms for shifting details of objects, for example, an ear in the place of an

eye.
Such experiments can be divided into three sections: light and objects; photographic
optics; processing and its manifold combinations. These tasks clearly circumscribed
at first can later de\elop into independent experiments. 'This is the prerogative of
every research worker.
Fig. 273. 0 Nick Savage, 1943
Transparency on black

Fig. 274. 0 Robert Erikson. 1943

RedUcing and magnifying

Fig. 275. 0 Institute of Design. 1941

Face in a multiple mirror

Fig. 276. 0 George Morris, Jr. 1943

ShUtingwith prisms
Can you see with your ear? or hear with
your eye?

204

Figs. 277 a, b. Edward Rinker. 1944

Photograph and 1Is distortion behind
corrugated glass.

205

pbolographic

VISion

In renderin g "hh the came ra one ma y find visual sensati ons ju!'t as surprising 88
in the direct reco rds of light e\ ol\'ed by photograms. Such particular developments
a re the bird. frog a nd fi sh-eye vi e\\ s. magnifi cati on, ultra speed shots, reflections,
penetrati ons, superim positions. sola rizati ons, di storti ons. Their s)stematic coordination opens up a new fi eld o f visual presentation, an extension of visual possibilities, in
whi ch we ma y expect much further progress. Photograph y can render, precisely
registe r, th e speed of obj ects or stop motion in a hundredth , thou sandth, or millionth
of a seco nd . 11 can "see" through mist. even in the dark. by using infrared emulsion.
fig. 278. Electron micrograph, 1940
One minute groin of fa ce powder, enlarged 25,000 times under an RCA electron microscope
The electron microscope uses "particles"
of eleclrlclty---electrons-inslead of rays
of light, and magnetic helds instead 01
glass lenses. to reveal the invIsible. It
allalnS direct magTllhcations of 10,000 to
30.000, with such hne detail that photog raphic enlargements 10 100.000 and even
200.000 urnes hie size are poSSible. This
electron microscope is a good example 0 1
the loct that sctenhhc hndings may result
in new lechno\cxjl1es, which In tum may
change hie as did the lens microscope of
Anthony Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), by giving medical sCience c new direction

It ca n penetrate and reco rd the inside of opaque, solid obj ects " ith x-ra y photography.
In combi nati on with the electron microsco pe. it can mak e visible fantasti cally minute
ma tt er. Such scientific and techn ological advan ces almost amount to a psychological
trans form ati on of our vision. since the sha rpn ess of th e lens and its un erring accuracy
fl elmholtz USN/ to fell his pupils that if an optician u.'p re to succeed in making a
hum an eye and brought it to him fo r his app rol;al, h e u.'o uld be bound to say: "This
is a clumsy pipcp of work."
Fig. 279. 0
Distortion

Fronk Sokolik , 1945

A camera was he ld in fro nt of a corrugated

glass plate behind w hich th ree persons
w e re stand Ing

I
,

,"

-,

,-

--

-~

Fig. 280. 0 Gsorqe Morris, Jr., 1943

Sola rization

The.e photos show the creative use of

'mistakes" a photographer can make and
include in his work: light strikinQ negative
and produdng solarization. To this he
could add: heat from the enlarQing lamp
burning Ihe film; hot water reticulation;
condensation frozen In refrigerator causing
patterned shrinkage of emulsion; crystalli
zallon of hypo, fingerprints, etc.

Fig. 281. a Eugene Idoka, 1942

Solarization

have now trained our powers of observation to a higher standard of visual perception
than ever before. Photography imparts a height ened and increased power of sight in
terms of time and space. Even a plain matter-of-fact enumeration of specific photographic techniques enables the student to div ine the power latent in these elements.
e ig ht , 'a ri e lies of ph otog raphi c visio n

1. A bSlract seeing by means of direct reco rds produ ced by light; th e photog ram
which ca ptures th e most deHcate gradations of light values, both chiarosc uro a nd
colored.
2 . Exact seeing by mean s of camera reco rd s; report age.
3. Rapid seeing by mean s of th e fi xati on of movements in the instantaneo us snap-

shot, stroboscopic photog raph y, an instantaneolls photograph with rh ythmical

interrupti on of the motion fl ow.
4 . Slow seeing by means of fixati on of movements sp read over a pe ri od of lime,

prolonged time exposures; e.g., the luminous tracks made by the headli ghts of
motorcars passing along a road at night; virtual vo lu me.
5. I ntensified seeing by mea ns of
(a) macro and microphotog raphy;
(b) filter photog raphy which, by chemical varia tion of the sensi ti zed surface,

permi ts photographic po tenti alities to be a ugmen ted in var ious ways, ranging
from th e revelatio n of far-distant lan dscapes ve iled in haze or fog to expos ures in complete da rkn ess-infra red photog raph y;
(cJ bird, frog and fi sh eye view.
6. Pelle/,rative seeing by means of x-rays; ra di ography.

207

7. Simultaneous seeing by means of superimpositions; a process of automatic pho-tomon lage.

8. Distorted seeing- optical jokes that can be automatically produced by
(a) exposure through a lens fitted with prisms. of reAecting mirrors or the dist~

graph
(b) mechanical and chemical manipulation of the negative during or after devel.

opingl using oil drops, suds. soaps, etc.; lighting. heating or freezing, resulting in distortion. reticulation. solarization, etc.

Fig. 282. 0 James Cross, 1943

Texture produced by dropping oil into
the developer.

Image sequences; senes

There is no more surpri sing. yet, in its natura lness and orgamc
sequence, sun
pier
form th an th e photographic series. This is the logical culmination of photography"ision in moti on. The se ries is no longer a " picture" and the canons of pictorial

estheti cs can on ly be applied to it mutatis mutandis. Here the single picture loses its
sepa rate identity and becomes a part of th e assembly; it becomes a structural element of the rela ted whole which is the thing itself. In this sequence of separate but
insepa rab le parts, a photographic series-photog raphic comics, pamphlets, books-scan be ei th er a potent weapon or tender poetry.
But first must co me the realization that the knowledge of photography is just as
important as th at of the alphabet.
The illiterate of the future will be the person ignorant of the use of the camera as
weU as of the pen_
Fig. 283. 0 Institute of Design, 1941
Distortion in the ferrotype

photogenic, ers us photocrea ti\,c

Photography- not only in series but also in single shots-can become the tool of the
fantastic, of the dream and the super-real. The desire to penetrate the subr.on scious
and set up a more gO \1ernable mechanism of inspiration is an eternal human com-

Fig. 284. 0
Reflections

Joseph A. Mills, 1942

The ferrotype was Ilt by two spotUghts,

their reHeclions cast on the wall and photographed.

208

Fig. 285. 0 Stanley Kazdailis, 1944

Virtual Volume
A long exposure of a revo lving wire strucTure

ponenl. Camera less photography, superimposition, prisms, photomontage, mechanical

or chemical distortion, the use of negatives and solarization, are all basic to the
technical means of photographic expression. And yet, properly used, they help to
create a more complex and imaginary language of photography.
There are indications that with a changing of intellectual attitude the photographer
of today is no longer exclusively interested in photogenic (the traditional illusionism
plus glamor) renderings, but more in s) nthetically composed situations. His attention is shifting to the control of photographic effects rather than on the eve nt itself.
He tries to acquire not only a photogenic but a photocreative mind. He will not only
select what he finds but he will produce situations, introduce devices so far unused
and neglected, which for him contain the necessary qualities of photographic expression. When he reaches a certain level of competence in the use of his tools th e artist
thus unhindered gropes toward new areas of expression within the realm of his
medium .

Objects. situatiolls, persons are called p hotogenic' if they hat'e lhe properties for
good photographic records. These properties can be of most dit'crs(' nature: roundness
of shape.; richness of texture; transparency; mirroring surface~' skeleton slructure~'
et:erything u'hich looks good in the photographic print .
7

209

A gro\\ ing control o\er the means liberates his creati\'e energies so that they can be
concentrated directly on the problems to be expressed. The problems may be of
conscious or subconscious nalure. They may be determined by motivations behind
which onl} emotional forces stand.
The inspiration to express these emotional forces may come from any layer of
existence. The choice of medium is in the artist's hand j he must have the ability to
summon artistic coherence out of the means he uses. ]n this way photography can
be used for subconscious "recordings". This sounds paradoxical since photography
was developed to serve exact observation and rendering of the immediate rea liLythe ideal tool of an age devoted to science and reason.
In the 19th century telescopic and microscopic "miracles", xray and infrared penetrations were substituted for fantasy and emotional longing. These phenomena, motion and speed. electricity and wireless. seemed to give food enough to the imagination without introducing subconscious automatism. Photography was the golden key
opening the door to the wonders of the external universe to everyone. The astonish
ing records of this period were objective representations, though they went in some
cases beyond the obsentation capacity of our eyes as in the high speed. micromacro.
xray, infrared and similar types of photography. This was the period of "realism"

in photography.
new directions

The new arts opposed the Hflattening" simplicity of a reality based upon logical
derivation alone, without the acknowledgment of the realm o[ the psychological space
time. The expressive character of dreams, the automatic writing employed by sur
realist authors, with direct impact of words- slang, misspellings and recoined idiomatic expressions- offered an analogy for a new use of the visual means.
Painters and photographers tried to enlarge the expressive content of their work by
fusing the customary with the unexpected and turning what the avant-garde termed
the "law of chance" -fortuitous findings- into meaningful results.

superimpOSition

The mechanical process of double exposure or printing photos o\'er each other was
one of the means used to generate imagination and emotional concentration. Superimpositions in simple as well as sophisticated manifestations can " record" dreams
or dream like content. Such superimpositions overcome space and time fixations
and unite strange and diverging subjects into new entities. They transpose insignifi.
cant si ngularities into meaningful complexities; banalities into vivid illumination.
The transparent qualit y of the superimpositions often suggest transparency of content
as well, reyealing unnoticed structural qualities in the object.
A utomatic writing was originally a psychological experiment. It u.'as produced in
a kind of self-hypnosis, writing down thoughts occurring without conscious cont rol.
It is a t.'ariation of the Ustreafn of consciousness" technique in literature.

210

Fig. 286. a A rthur Siegel. 1946

Supe rimpOSition of two neqatives

photomontage

Another way or e).tending the means of photograpb), is offered by the photomontage.

Around 1920 the dadaists, the predecessors or the surrealists, made the first photo
montage.- Their mosaics made up or magazine clippings, mea~uring tapes, catalog
illustrations, etc., sho\\ ed clearly the si ngl e elements crudely glued together as were
the cubi st collages. The dadaists in exhibiting the brutally torn and roughly-cut
photographs, showed that they held in co ntempt histori c "beauty" with its illusionisti c conn otati ons. Theirs was a "counter war", an emoti onal pandemonium full
of fur y and ridicule directed against th e imperialism or the first world war and the
social shortcomings of Ihei r epoch. These photomontages " ere rem iniscent of the
first ruturistic, bruilislic symphonies which combi ned noise and hubbub into a thundering orchestration.
Fig. 287. Rooul Housmonn, 1920
Totlin at home (photomontage)
Hausmann. the dadaist. was with John
Hartfield. Hannah Hoech and Geon;J8 Grou.
one of the first of the "photo monteurs.
The photomontage. an assemblage of sin
gle photographic illustrations into a new
unity. was derived from the "collage" of
the cubists. The collage itself was long
known at the end of the 18th century as a
kind of greeting card and it had a revival
in the 1850's

The photomontage later arrived at a more "rationall y" organized form somewhat
easier to grasp, though still with the interpenetration and fusion of bIZarre relationships sho \dn g the vicious, funny and willy, the earnest and tragic side or the creature;
often the plot against petti ness and inadequacy.
Photomontage

like superimpositi on-also altemp ts to develop a technique for the

recordings of events occurri ng on the threshold between dream and co nsciousness;

a tumultuous collision of whimsical detail from which hidden meanings flash; visual
poeLry with bitter jests and sometim es wi th blasphemy.
Most photomontages demand a co ncentrated gymnasti c of the eye and brain to speed
up the visua l digestion and increase the range of assoc iative relationships .
Phot omontage u.'as known lo old photographers who sometimes had to "patch -in"
indiridual photog raph s into group pictures when circumstances did not allow the shot
of lhe whole group .
Around 191~ the futurists tried to rejut'enale music. Luigi Russolo composed a
.futuristic symphony containing only noises (((bruits") prodllced by elect rically-powered
noise mechanisms. (See also page 292.)

1925 ~

Fig. 288. 0 Rebert SantrTsers. 1944

Photomontage
In the Institute of Design, Chicago, many
expenments are made which can be adapted for immediate practical use. This is such
on experiment, a combination of a drawing
and a photograph. This may have its 5ignilicance in newspaper illustration and ad
vertising. in printing an absorbent paper
which doesn't allow the use of line halftone
cuts

Fig. 289. 0 L. MoholyNagy.

The structure of the world (p~otomon
toge)
The photomontage can be dramatic, lyrical;
It can be naturalistIC, abs tract, etc. Here
is a satIrical montage making fun of
the fright of the monkey and the quackclacking super-qeese (pelicans) who dis
covered the simplicity of the world con
structed as a leg show

212

Fig. 290. Xonti Schawi nski. 1943

Variation on a theme: the face of Walter
Gropius
"I wish you further growth. I hope the
roots of your work go deeply into the
ground of America." Xanti Schawinski
says this with his photomontage to
Gropius.
The face on the top appearing in relief is
the result of printmg a negatIve cnd a

poslIlve over each other, slightly off regISter

2]4

I'

Fig. 291. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1943

"Zeus has his troubles too"
Photomontage on a photoqram background

215

tJculpture

th e ge n eral si tuationWhile many people succeed in establishing some sort of relationship between photography and painting, especiall y if these con tain subject matter, sculptural creation stands in a peculiar iso lat ion. People generall y cannot enter into the experi.
ence of sculpture, its plastic relati onships, biological and social implications. One
of the reasons may be that sculpture usually tells a very meager "story".
aspects of r epresen tation

To primitive man, representation of a person, animal or an object, meant maglC.

By making plastic images, which moved and overpowered him, he brought them
within the realm of touch, putting them at his service.
Another aspect of his life was the incomprehensible fact of death. By mummification or other preparations he changed the decaying co rp se into tangible reality so
that the dead ancestor, the root of the family, remained in th e family possession as
a po\,"erful protector. A later stage, the death mask, may have sublimated this
process. This became the origin of the portrait. The desire to materialize natural
forces and to secure their permanent presence was ex tended also to apparitions who
li\-ed only in the world of imagination. Through the ages man longed to be in contact with ancestors, gods, the personified powers of a rich pantheism.

Captured

within a definite form, they became- even if, and perhaps because, prayed to a8
deities- his servants.
Clay, wood, stone come to life in the artist's hands_ H e perceives the existence of
the typical, and what is common in different phenomena.

Then one day slight

deviations from the typical are observed_ To the origi nal observation of the typical
features are added the individual characteristi cs_ The slightest twitchin g of the

T he present chapter on usculplure" is a re1!ised ve rsion of the chapter on UvolumeU

from "t7,e new 'I."isionu and cont ains exam ples of the student work f rom the modeling
and sculpture classes of Alexander Archipenko, Robert J. Wolff. J ohannes Molzahn.
Galt"in A lbert and E merson TfoelfJer.

216

muscles of face and body is gh-en their values in expression. The whole representation is brought down to infinitely fine gradations. The way leads from the typical
to the individual. And when no further progress in this direction is possible, the
rebound occurs; instead of tangible realism a neutralizing calmness takes place, a
stylization, a stri\'ing for indifference toward the psychological aspects. This leads
to a more conscious emphasis of the expressive and meaningful effects of material,
shape, volume and their relationships. There is the great discovery: a "three.
dimensional" language developed for expression_
In the transitional period from realistic to abstract sculpture, common still life
objects from the Parisian cafe were represented; bottle, absinth glass, violin con
taining the concave-convex, curved and angular, solid and perforated, horizontai
and vertical, smooth and rough plastic elements. Later the objects wholly disappeared and the expressive impact \\ as produced by the relationships of the pure
sculptural elements to each other and in their relation to light. Not the representation of a person, animal or object was the problem any more, but the paramount
organization of spatial references. Through the biological organization of his
senses everyone can have a direct, unadulterated reaction to these elements. This
is the basis of the new esthetics of the constructive nonobjective sculpture-the
articulation of volume.

fundamental attitudes in trealing materials

We made pertinent studies in the psychophysical evaluation of color but we know

almost nothing concerning volume, shape and space. Therefore any attempt to
describe sculptural works in objective terms may benefit future research.
Sculpture ca n be approached from different viewpoints: tool , material, form, volume,
size, proportion, balance. positive-negative, setting, expression, light, etc. But the
beginning of appreciation comes from the way the sculpture is made, from its tech
nologi cal quality. The technique of making serves to ex press the structure, the form.
The form is the result of many components: will, tools, reaction of the material
synthetized in the process of making. This in turn changes over into a quality of

expression
.

Fig. 292. Henry Moore, 1936

Marble sculpture

H several people are handed identical blocks of material to be worked 011, certain
fundamental t.endencies can be observed. At first the worker respects the homogeneity of the block. He exam ines it, feels it all o\ter, estimates its weight, its
dimensions. Then he starts, according to his temperament, in the more passive
mood of a conserver or in the active mood of an experimenter, to work on the block
with a tool. His purpose may be quite clear. He may know what he would like to
crea te. but as he proceeds he may see that his tool and his material allow him only
a limited realization. He has to adapt himself to th ese requirements. Slowly he
becomes better acquainted with his ma terials and tools. He invents new methods
and implements with which to approach his medium. Sooner or later he dares to
proceed more drastically. He disco\'ers the play of light caused by his indentations

217

in the material. He tries to penetrate deeper into the block. He carves a hole into
it producing a "hollow. void space", a negative . volume. He notices the relations
between full and empty. between round and angular. dun and sharp, small and large,
raised and recessed. Such an articulation of the material is the basis of sculpture.

volume creal ion

As man faces his material and experiences it, he finds out that sculpture is the best
form , the original form. for taking possession of volume. Compared with volume,
everything else

technical handling, weight, structure. representational idea, likeness,

expression. proportion. rh ythm. consistency, color. texture-is secondary, belonging

to the sphere of mastery of details. These details are not primary to the essential
grasp of volume, and thu s, to the intrinsic law of sculptural expression.
Fig. 293. George L. K. Morris, 1938
Project for a monument (concrete)

The most intensive method of experiencing volume is the material grasp and artIcu-

lation of the threedimensional body which is a clearly circumscribed mass. But

this sensory. emotional approach has been in the co urse of cultural history more
and more superseded by an intellectual conception of likeness to known objects.
Thought content and illustration overrode form; description supplanted grasp.
There is. for instance, the organic "beauty" of a face

a light modulator as well as

plastic shape. Its elements are easy to discriminate, the subtle convexity of the fore
head which contin ues in the even hollows of the eyes, th e projecting nose with fine
articulation of its sides. the graceful, symmetrical curve of the mouth. Underneath
again the convexities and concavities; the muscles and bones are sheathed in tense
skin . Alas. almost no one can appreciate today these rich modulations of a face
beca use most people are accustomed to attach a subj ective meaning to the term
"beauty'-that is, the Hollywood standard. To rediscover a face, a head in its
superb sculptural quality, one must almost see it in reverse, as the inside of a mask.
The fine modulations of a frontall yturned face are only one part of this sculptural
quality. The experiences broaden when the head turns slightly to a three-quarter
profile. Then in younger faces, a tender contour is shown from the temple to the
chin. The protrusion of shapes which appeared rather flat when observed in front,
now offers a wealth of compound curvatures. The profile again is a singular experi.
ence of an organic shape which unpredictably changes at every move.
Through centuries faces were looked at as a depository of literary interest, and
po rtrait-conscious painting and sculpture evaluated them onl y for personal likeness.
The significance of the plastic features of a face, of shells, flowers and a thousand
other matters has to be rediscovered again, stripped of literary meaning.

The

abstract painters and sculptors who are experimenting with various plastic shapes
recapture for the unliterary eye their vital emotional power in an affirmative way.
As in photograph y where the light modulator can be used as the point of departure
for the discovery of the genuinely photographic elemen ts, so plastic modulators can
lead to the grasp of sculpture. The start is simple: a flat sheet of paper twisted; a

218

plain surface \\arped in large wa\es; a lump of clay wrung in a rag; a rod coiled to
a spiral. These are a few elements frol11 \\ hich the plastic q uality of the new sculpture can emerge independen t of imitation and story telling.

th e fh e stages of \'o!ume modulation ( articulation )

In \\orking \\ ith the ma terial and in discovering the volume

,
rel ationship~

as they

become clearer. \\e mar set do\\1'l \a .- io us stages of the plastic mod ulator. They give
not only the ge nesis of the grasp of sc ul ptu re by the indi\idual but they also indica te
the de\elopmenL of scul pture in genera) throughout the history of all civil iza ti ons.
The fi\e stages of the plastic "modu lator" are:
1. blocked,ollt
2.
3.

modeled (hollowedout)
perforated (bored. through)

4.

equipoised (suspended)

5.

}rine/ic (moving).

These explanations refer in general to SculpLure-in-the-round "hich finds its justification. like easel painting. without architectural relationships. The legible meaning of
this development mar be summarized also as the freeing of the material from its
weight; a development from mass to motion.

para lle l phe n o m e na

One can find close parallels to this de\'elopment in nature. For example, water at
rest. in motion, in solid . liquid, and gaseous forms exhibits similar tendencies. Water
exists as a tiny drop or as a smooth surface stretching out far and widej it may
appear as a placid or rushi ng brook, as ragi ng sea, as pattering rainfall, spraying
foun tain or a drifting clo ud of steam. It may be frozen . as in a snow crystal, ice or
crystalline flower on a window pane. These manifold changes arise from the extraordinary variety and adaptability of the "medium" to different shapes. Man has
often been mo\'ed to employ water for artistic ends. In earlier periods- in both the
East and West- water. so responsive to adapta tions, was exploited according to an
almost ethereal extension; from the calm lakes of Eng lish parks to gushing Latin
foun tains and foaming cascades. Al l such efTor ts were directed toward display ing
water under as many aspects as possible and to dematerialize its buik.
A similar quest for subduing or lightening material is made in many different forms
of human expression: in sculpture. from mass to motion; in painting, from colored
pigment to light; in architecture, from restricted and closed to free, open space. The
common denominator may not always be apparent as it often happens that one unit
breaks a\\ay from the uni ted front, like an advancing wedge. This, however, does
not last long; the others surge onward too. and the phalanx is reunited in the
ad\'anced position.

219

Fig. 294. 0 Dorothy Shepard. 1939

Sculpture (slone)

"olume modulator:
fi rst s tage ( the block )
The first stage of sculptural development is the block of ma terial which shows its
mass in plain, almost untouched volume such as the pyramids, do lmens, natural
monuments, meteorites ( the Caaba at Mecca), crystall ine blocks, prismso

second stage ( m o d e led )

The modeled {hollowed-out} block appears after the first stage; small and large ma5~
(volume), relationships of salient and sunken, positive and negative, round and
angular, sharp and dull. Void can be understood as IOnegative" volume and it can
be used as the legili mate contrast to 'opositi"eo, volume. There are early example5
of this treatmen t in totem poles and Egyptian sculptureso

220

Fig. 295. Umbetto Boedonl, 1911

The botUe
This sculpture reveals the great desire of
the early futurists and cubists to render
the object more perfectly than any 01 the
predecessors. Here the bottle is dissectec
end itl eomponent ports used lor a composite view

Fig. 297. 0 Allen Leepa, 1938

Relief texture study

Fig. 296. Jeon Arp, 1933

Configuration
Arp is the sculptor "non-qeometnc". He
once stated that In the best sculptures the
elements are 01 here--placed "by the
law of chance" . In such a sculpture the
various parts can be set in an ever-chang
ing and evervalid relationship, because
already in the single elements an organic
rightness Is manilest enabling them to produce an always vital configuration

221

Fig. 298. Ossip Zodklne. 1943

Head of a child (marble)
Effective simplification by "warping" few
planes

Fig. 299. 0 Alexander Archipenko. 1935

Figure
Archlpenko is the great initiator of the
positIVe and negative volume mterrebteci
ness

Fig. 302. 0 Warren Koepke, 1942

Sculpture (mirrored)

fig. 300. 0 Richard fillpovski. 1945

Aluminum sculpture

figS. 301 a, b, c. 0 Dorothy Riley, 1940

Volume family

1 he remarks of Robert f. Wolff about

his work Itjtll the students in th e Insti
lule of Desigll are es pecially revealing
ill the rase a/the "volume family" illustrated at the left:
"The tradition of sculpture is bound up
in the tou ch of things. Sculpture is
mouldillg, chipping, can.ing, building.
It is a process which concentrales the
creative intention within the boundaries
of the solid, self-enclosed image. It is
t.he Irmli!iolt 0/ monumental monologue.
It is a noble and necessary tradition and
it will sun.ir;e.
It Itill sllnive, but it will be trans
formell. It tdll be transformed by new
contrapllnlal rhythms, by th e architec
lure of spflCe and motion, by th e total
inflllence oj enl"iron menf.

In the Institute of Design, the problem 01

the great artist has often become a stirn
ulus In the training of the student leading
to skill, intellectual and emotional concentration and spiritual elevation. But whether it be hand sculpture, or sculpture in
plaster, stone or metal one's own experience of the "organic" rightness has been
a most important requirement.

We ask ourse(,les, can the rock em

bedded ill the earth forget its ageless,

self-contained existence to embrace the
nir and obsene the sky? A nd perhaps
u;ith the palter of a new compulsion
uproot and raise it.self to new balances
and buoyancies? To forget itself, and
el'en, lor the moment, destroy itself in
orr/fOr to discover the nature 0/ space
find the changing relationship of one
lhing to another. To discover this and

224

then to reappear in the image of this

new sensibility.
This is the problem. Sculpture searches
lor a con temporary existence.
We begin with a lump of mud a
jagged mass of stone. We induce
grou th, melamorphose. We are unmind
ful of finalities. We propel the motion
of change. flow does the object look.
nou., now, and now again? We do not
care. We ask, how is it changing?
We are not monologuists. The incomparable indiddu(Jl and the exalted ob
ject bore us. /TIe are not hypnotized by
single points of reference.
So Ite work on a community of objects.
tltO or three or perhaps more. We see
how they reflect and embrace the same
light, how they are Cltt by each other'f
shadou:s and con tours, how they share
each other's presence. We observe thaI
a local change is a universal change,
that when Ite touch one, we touch all.
Light and air become tangible. Whal
was once surrounding I:oid becomes unifying space. Space and substance are as
one.
We are sculptors. But in a sense we are
architects, too, for Ice design an existence lor the images we create."

third stage (perforated)

The perforated (boredthrough ) block is th e third sla ge. After masterin g the relali ons of all degrees of positive and nega tive volumes, an intens ive penetrati on into

Ih e material follows, creatin g pola r con trasts. The co mpl etely perforated sculpture
is a heightening to the \'cry limits of holl ow and solid. (Among th e ea rl y exa mples,
native work such as So ulh Sea canoes and African sc ulptUff> is characteri stic.)
s ucce8sion in time

In the hi story of sculpture the different stages of plastic development follow each
other. Each culture (Egyptian, lndian, Greek ) shows at the beginning th e barely
modeled block, and as a nex t step the carefull y modeled piece followed by perforat ions of a g rea ter o r lesse r ex ten t. The same approach is found in th e sculptural
\\o rk of the pre-literary natives, the so-called "primitives" (A merican Indian, Negro
and Sou th Sea ]s]anders) among whom sculptural crea ti on rests on very old tradition s.
FIg'. 303. Jacques Lipchitz. 1930
Melancholy (bronze)

amplification
The discovery of new material s and new tools inspired man to overcome the static
ri gidity of a straight block. With the use of metals, especiall y bronze cas ts, he came
to new structural findin gs. lust as a piece of clay ca n be twi sted , showin g complicated
torsions, he shaped marble and gra nite as if they were fl exible. In fact, given hi s
new techniqu es, marble and granite had become fl ex ible. Twisting added various
space directions to the material, as well as "coun terpo ints" of frozen motion in spacee-

Fig. 304. David Smith. 1938

Sull life

.,'"
Fig. 305. Max Bill, 19351937
Endless ribbon

225

the first step in rendering vision in motion. At the same time, this was a new poten.
tiality to volume articulation of solids as well as io light values. With this man came
to the better exploration of his means and toward a more dynamic solution of his
sculptural expression.
Michelangelo said that the sculptor's task is to free with his tools the sculpture hid
den in the marble block. But what a difference between the rich space curvatures
he dared to see in th e marble and the forms his gothic predecessors had seen! And
what a difference in the mastery of tools and in the handling of material and light!
The spi ral twisting of bodies was not only an attempt toward vision in motion but
also toward a more emphasized use of light as a medium of plastic organization.
Michelangelo's sc ulptures show deep shadows producing sharp and hard linear
definitions. On the oth er hand. Rodin, with an ingenious chisel.cut, introduced
transparent shado\\ s and so ft contours which made his sculptures appear ethereally
light. This fundamental difference of approach cautions against forming a judge
ment of "absolute" values of esthetics. Such values are relative and time-determined.

If history is analyzed in retrospect. even "eternal" values crumble. For instance, the
renaissance usuall y is considered as the peak of artisti c efforts; but are-evaluation
shows that actually it blurred th e meaning of sculpture as well as of painting. The
renaissance had predominantly illustrative and imitative interests compared with
the clearer and more ex pressive. the more direct material-and-tool-formed concepts
of the prerenaissance peri ods. In the naturalisti c illusionism of the renaissance,
ge nuin e plastic values of volume relationships in th e various materials gave way
to imitative hand ling. The Aat board or canvas of a painting was covered not with
layers of pigment but with th e illusion of nature. In sculpture, the material value
of marble a nd bronze was forgotten in the visual imitation of texture-effects of the
rea l objects_ No twithstanding the negative inAuence of this deception, there were
important sculptural elements highly developed. such as technical skill, sophistication
of structural explorati on and rich articulation of space directions. This inherited
knowledge combi ned with the prerenaissance concept of expression-emphasis gives

Fig. 306. Noum Gabo, 1937

Construction in space

1 a striking power to con temporary sculpt ure.

Fig. 307. 0 Institute of Design, 1944

Work b y the sculpture class of Johannes
Molzahn
Rich and d iversified s hape s (individual
a chievemen ts of students p roduce an alive
relationship on outqrow th of s imilar attitudes)

226

fig. 308. Jacques Upchitz, 1928

Woman with guitar-at Le Pradet (Var )
I'he contemporary sculptor tries to incor
parole his wark Into nature. lOIS !sCu,pNre
is placed on the terrace of Madame de
Mandret's summer house (by La Corbusler)

fiq. 309. 0 Dorothy Turck. 1945

Perforated volume

Fig. 310. 0 Calvin Albert, 1944

Sculpture

Fig. 311. 0 Robert Preusser, 1939

The mold, the cost, and the articulation
of the negative volume

--------------------------- . ~-------

FigS. 313 a, b, c, d. 0 Dorothy Riley. 1941

The spotial explanation of a building

by 0 George Fred Ked::

The acuipture class under Robert

J. Wolff,

in cooperation with the Qrchllecture department, Initiated a unique exercise for

spatial comprehension. First the student
makes a model of a building; then he has
to exploon with his own means (in this
cose with Ih. light-lines, a device seen In
the top illustration) the spatial tensions
prevailing among Ihe space cells (single
units) of the house, their relationship 10

each other cnd to the whole. The plastic

sight-lines produced an Interesting sculpture which has been then lifted out---away
from th. model- as "frozen Vision" (shown
in the bollam illustration)

Fig. 312. a Grace Seeliq, 1939

Articulation of the negative volume
The hollow plaster mold can be underslood as a "neQative volume"_ The exercise asks for the negative volume to be
filled with a wire structure in such a way
that this linear structure now defines the
hollow. The wire structure then can be
used again as a new departure for a I\ew
ac:ulpture quite different from the onginol
plaster casl

Fig. 314. 0 Institute 01 Design, 1939

Wire sculpture

Fig. 315. Walter Bodmer. 1938

Wire sculpture in the round

Fig. 316. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1945

Spirals of stress and slrain in linear
mobility
(Plexiglas sculpture)

Fig. 317. Theodore 1. Roszak. 1943

Construction {yellow. white and steen

fig. 318. Georges Vantongerlo. 1935

Y Ax-Bx Cx (metal)

233

Fig. 319. Theodore J. Roszak, 1945

Spaceform structure (bent steel wire)
The new sculptor will become again a
splendid craftsman, with the added knowledge of a line industrial mechanic and
modelmalter. He must know how to handle materials on the lathe, soldering, weld:ng, and other industrial processes.
111.e new sculpture emerging from the
industrial technologies started out with the
"Medrano" by Archipenko, assembled from
glas., wood, and metal. Then came the
constructivists' assemblies, studies In balance and motion, constructions in crystal
plate glasa, transparent plastics, melab,
and vulcanized Jiben

Space modulator (transparency plus)

Thermo-plastics can be handled

easily than glass; they can be
warped, rolled and cut.

Transparent plastic molded or shaped by

hand is a new enrichment of contemporary
sculpture. Though we have had transparent material for age~lass-its handling
was rather dIfficult. There have been
very few important glass sculptures.

111.is sculpture shows three types of transparent walls circumscribed by the thick
edges of the plastic or wire. One Is moderately transparent (rhodoid), the second per_
fectly transparent (plexiglas), and the third
supertransparent (air)

Fig. 320. 0

235

L. Mohaly-Nagy, 1940

more
bent,

' '/
/,

fourth siage (equil)oiscd hovering)

JL is pure speculation as to what comes beyond th.e. complete perforation of the third

stage. SLill deeply roo led in ) eSlerciays' tradition we can scarcely grasp the possibilities. the bold sublimations of the material, a triumph of pure relationships of
th e plastic elements as is shown in the equipoised sculpture, the selfcontained volume.
The preparation for the fourth stage can be traced in the successive steps of sculptural development. In an illusionistic way it already appeared in the gothic cathedrals,
\\ here sculptures perched precariously on ca ntilevered platforms. and in baroque
churches \\ here marble angels were suspended in the air.
,

Sculpture "normally" rests on a heavy base, occupying a certain, unalterable pOSI

tion in relation to ils su rroundings. lL also has definite directional relations to the
grou nd. hori zontal. vertical and oblique. The equipoised sculpture theoretically is
Fig. 321. 0

Curtis Rodgers, 1940

Mobile light sculpture

independent of any such direction; it con tains only relationships of material and
volume. All other possible elements are within its own system since it is in a hovering
floatin g condition.
The freedom from relationships to external points characterizes the fourth stage of
sculptural development.

It is floating volume in space

co nquer~ng

the forces of

gravity. This indepe ndence is at the sa me time the crux of the problem of equi.
librium, which is an important part of the total problem of plastic creation.
This fourth slage is a long way from the renaissance idea of sculpture viewed from
onl), olle prescribed position ( the mechanical application of the vanishing point
perspective of paintings to a threedimensional object). A sculpture, of course, could
have been viewed from any point if th e pictorial {monocular } ca non of the fixed
point had not had its influence upon it. The dogma of vie\\ing sculpture from one
point on ly and designing it to that end exploded later with the introduction of the
theor), of sc ulpture "in th e round".
Equipoised sculpture ca n usually be, but not necessarily, understood as kinetic sculp.
ture in balance, since objects can be best brought to a balanced rest in equipoise
through the action of opposed forces. But examples of equipoised sculptures which
do not depend 011 illusion crea ted by the use of glass or invisible wire suspension
are hard to find. True soluti ons are balloons, objects held up by air pressure as the
celluloid balls moving on water fountains; airplanes, helicopters, the spinning top,
especiall y the gyroscope variation. But all these examples are for the 1110st part still
limited in their formal quality by unavoidable comp ulsory considerations of the
power (steam, water. gas. electri city) which help to overcome gravity. The actual
realization of equipoised scu lpture will be more easi ly realized by the application
of magnetic forces or remote electrical con trol. This can be demonstrated in a simple
way by an electromagneti zed metal bar floating between two vertical glass plates.
Within the system of equipoised sculpture we can trace three earlier sta ges of the
plastic modulator: the block. the modeled and the perfora ted.

236

FIQ' 322. 0 William R. Marston, 194.1

Virtual volume

fifth .Iage (Ihe mohile)

In the successive sta ges of scu lptural development the main characteristic is the
reduction and light eni ng of the heavy mass so that even th e normal characteristics
of the material disappear. This is most effectively realized in the "mobile" or moving sculpture. H p.re the probiclll of virtu al volume relationships is posed. In mobiles,
material is utili zed not in it s mass but as a ca rri er of movement. To the three dimensions of vo lume. th e fourth. the tillle clement. movement, is added. Depending up on
the speed of motion, th e originall y hcavy block of material- the solid volumetransforms itself into a kind of ethereal ex tension. The "mobile" is a weightless
poising of \'olume relationships and interpenetrations. With this transformation,
lhe ori gi nal phenomenon of scu lpture- the elemcnts of which equalled material
fig. 322 a. 0 Harriet Heiner, 1941
Kinetic sculpture
Structure with a phonograph motor. This
wire mesh sculpture is rolating. Pingpong
balls in the outer frame move with different speeds as does the ball within the
clrcular path

Fig. 323. Umberto Boccioni, 1913

Marching man
(Muscles flexed in speed)

plus mass relationships- becomes dematerialized in the abstract formula: sculpture

eq uals volume relationships.

rhe history of kinetic scullllUl'e

The history of kinetic sculpt ure begins far back in the ages. The first application
was perhaps the Greek hydro-clock. Later, in the middle ages, came the clock displays in town halls and th e morc co mpli cated automata with moving, writing, and
chess playing fi gures. As a step toward kinetic sculpture in our time one may single
out toys, advertising signs, fOllntains, fireworks and the like. Recently the futurists
have come forward as conscious propagandists of th e "dynamic" as a principle of
~trtistic

creation. Boccioni presented the first "dynamic" sculptures such as the

dynami cs of a bottle. a march ing man- in his book. " Pittura, scultura futuri sta
(dinamismo plaslico)'. ]n 1912 he wrote:
"The futuri sts broke down the concept of repose, the sta tic- and put forward that
of movement- the dynamic. Thcy sho\\cd the new grasp of space by bringing mto
contrast the inner and Ihe ouler."

237

W rilten a~ a challenge to the ai ms of the Ru s!'ian co n ~lru ct i \ ists, the " Realist Ma ni

Fig. 326.

f~t o"

Detail of

(mobile)

of Cabo and Pen ner is of great intere!:!1. lIere are exce rpts from it: -

0 L. MoholYNaqy
the light display machiu

"Space a nd time are the tw o exclush e form s for fu lfillm ent of life. and therefore art
must be guid ed by these

h\ 0

basic form s if it is to em'om pass tru e life.

" To inco rporate our ex peri ence of the world in th e form s of space and time, thi s is
the sin gle goa l of our creative a rt.
" We deny volume as a spatial form of ex pressio n : space ca n be measured as liul e
by a vo lume as liquid \\ jth a measurin g sti ck. For \\ hat else co uld space be beyo nd
an impenetrable depth ? Depth is the onl y form of ex pression in space.
" In sc ul pture \\ e eli minate (ph ys ical ) l11a:o'5 as a plas lic eleme nt. Every engineer
kno \\ s th at th e static power l a nd power of resista nce of an object. do not depend
on mass. One exa mple wi ll suffi ce: raih\a} trac ~ ~. In spite of thi s fact. sculptors
labor un der the prej ud ice that mass and con tou r a re indi\ isi ble.

0 L. MoholyNagy, 1922- 1930

Motion scheme of the kinetic light disFig. 324.

play machine (mobile)

On a circular base through three transpar
ent frames, three motion areas were created. In the one. metal flags moved w ith
an irregular, wavy mollon. In the second
space cell, perforated metal discs moved up
and down releaslnq a lillie ball o n the
top which flashed across tbe area from the
right 10 the left and back again. In the
third cell, a glass spiral revolved producing a virtual cone

"We free ourse h es from th e thousa nd-year-o ld error of a rl , ori gina tin g in Eg} pt,
that onl y static rh ~ th ms ca n be its elements.

\Ve proclaim th at for presentday

percepti ons the mos t import ant elements of art a re th e kineti c rh} thllls:'
In 1922 I published, in colla bo rat ion \\ ith Alfred Kemeny. a mani festo on " The
Dynamic-Constru ctive System of Forces".- -

"Constru cti\ ism mea ns th e acti va ti on o f space by mea ns of a cl } na lllic-co nstru ctive
system of fo rces, th at is, construction of fo rces \\ ithi n one anoth er th al a re actu all y
at tens ion in phys ical space. and th ei r constru cti on \\ ithin space, also active as force
t ten~ions) .

"We must therefore put in the place of the .. tatic principle of classical a rt the dynamic
principle of universa l life. Stated practicall }: instead of static ma terial co nstructio n
(material and form relati ons) d\ nam ic con~truction ( \i tal constru ctidsm and force
relations) must be e\ ohed in \\ hich the material is emplo) ed only as the carrier of
(orces.
"Carr) ing further the unit of const ruction. a d) namic cons tructi\ e system of fo rce
is attained \\hereby man : heretofore me rely receptive in his observat ion of works of
art, experiences a height en in g of his

0\\

n faculties, and beco mes h imself an active

partner to th e forces unfoldi ng themselves.

"The first projects looki ng towa rd the dy nam ic-const ructi \'e s}stem of fo rces ca n
be only experimental demonst ratio n devices for Ihe te!:!t in g of co nnections between
man. material , forces anti space. ~ext comes the utilila ti on of the expe ri menta l
results for the creation of freely mo\ing ( free from mechanical and technica l movement ) work s of art:'

.t

(; ~rman translnlion appearl:fi

",. o.
" D er Sl IInll.,

ill "i 10", no. i.

1?
_, l ln??
i,_",

238

A1t ~s t (' rdfU11., 1927.

Fig. 325. 0

L. MoholyNagy, 19221930

The light display machine

This mo ving sculpture had 140 light bulbs
connected with a drum contact. This was
arranged s o that within a twominute turninq period , various colored and colorless
spotlights were switched on, creating a
light display on the inside walls of a cube
(my motion picture, " Light display, black
and white and gray", was made from Ihis
mobile; see pages 288289)

fig. 327. Herbert Matter. 1939

Calder's (mobile) in motion
This photographic motion study is mflnltely
more expressive thon the stalic picture of
the original. illustrated below, We hove
to learn to see the new eloquence of mobile
objects ond 011 movmg phenomena

Fig. 328. Alexander Calder. 1938

Mobile

Other allempts at vision in motion have been numerous. Vantongerlo, the Belgian
scu lptor. tried to sc ulpturall y ca pture mot ion inside a sphere. Archipenko made
mobile sc ulpt o-pain tin gs. Brancusi, in order to add the element of time to his otherhise static sculpture. "The Fish" and " Leda", placed them on a revolvin g base.
J oost Schm idt's thread sculptures showed space,time potentialities of torsions, Among
the young genera ti on of sc ulpt ors C iacometti a nd Alexander Ca lder tried to demon,
strate the biological expe rience and the plastic essential of motion in mobiles splendidl) interpreted as "\ irtual \'olume" in Herbert Matter's photographs.

240

dualitv- of ,olume
The metamo rphosis of sculpture is in progress and it obliges us to use the term
'"volume" in severa l ways, though basica ll y a ll volumes are members of this same
famil y. There are three discernibl e meanin gs of volume:

1. the clearl y circum scribed mass, body of measurable weight, tangible in three
dimensions j
2.

the negative volume, the void, the hole and opening j they are perceived merely

visually through their limiting walls j they are, alth ough bodil ess, outsta nding plastic
elements;
3.

volume produ ced by th e moti ons of points {smallest bodies} or by the motion

of linea r elements or larger bodi es. The result is virtua l vo lu me, a new element of
plastic creati on.
To sum up : sculpture is both material vo lume and its transformation into virtual
volume; it has ta ctile existence but ma y be chan ged to visual grasp ; from static to
kinetic ; from Illass to space time relationships.

8cullJtural development and emotional experience

To define sculpture on the basis of techn ological development is far from an exhaustive treatm ent of th e problem of sculptural creati on . It means only the first step
toward a reall y thoroughgo ing ex perience. The fi ve stages of plastic development
offer merely a rough differentiati on of th e outward technical concepti on. They are
a n introducti on to the first recogniti on of the creative problems involved in perceiving sculptural form. The complete ex perience of a work of sculpture implies,
alon g with a n emoti onal , bas ic grasp, knowledge of oth er elements as well. There
are th e geometrical and biotechni cal elements of co nstruction, laws of light, moti on,
size, mass (proportion ), relati onships of structure, tex ture, surface treatmen t, represe ntati on, ex pression. etc. As everywh ere, here too a wide comprehensive knowledge
of characteristi cs and elements is less important for creati ve work than th e capacity
and courage to build up new relati ons out of the elements of ex pression at hand. It
is the ri ght of the art ist to select and reject elements.
' Vhat actu all y ra ises them above a commonplace mean ing is the new complex
related ness given them by the shi fting of their impact. Wi tho ut thi s shifting, elements,
whether many or few or intriguin g by themselves. can never grow into an organ ismlike structure. They can only fo rm an aggregati on of pa rts, representi ng perhaps
an ar ra ngement, a rich arabesque, but remaini ng without significance for the bio- \ " nouns
- hmen t"0l man .
\oglca

R aoul France, the H ungarian biologist. has distinguished seten biolechnical con
slruclional elements: crystal. sphere . cone. plate, strip, rod and spiral (screw). He
maintained that these are the basic technical elements of the 'I.vorld and suffice to bring
all constructire processes to their optimum.

241

242

Figs. 329-330. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1940

Space modulator with perforations and
1Is virtual volume

243

8pn,.,.-lime problelu8

Social co nditions, the arL s, sciences, th e development of an industrial technology with

prefabricati on, new mat erials and new processes are the determining factors to

realize the new architectural development.

From them the architect and planner

will draw inspiration and factual kno wledge, resulting in a chan ged conception of
space. Ever y great period in human civilization organically creates its particular
spatial co nception. Th ough such space co nceptions were utilized in th e construction
of shelter, they were a lso fra meworks for the articulation of vi sual arts, play,
dan cin g, li ghtin g; in fact, fo r th e master y of life in ever y detai1.The hi sto ry of a rticulated space, the special space conceptions of different periods,
have been determined by th e gra sp of one, two, three or mo re dimensions.
The magnifi cence of the Egy ptian templ e co uld be co mprehended by walking through
a basicall y o ne-dimensional strai ght line, the sphinx alley, leadin g towards its facade.
Later the Creek a rch itec ts o f the Acro polis designed a two dimensional approach
to th e temple so th at the visitors had to move through the Propylaen, betwee n the
Erechteion a nd Parthenon, a ro un d th e colonn ades toward the main entrance.
The gothi c ca th edral also appl ied this co nce pt most intri guingly to the interior. The
spectator wa s pl aced in th e midst of the nave, vaults, balcony a nd choir, and became
th e cen ter of coordina ted space cell s of all directi ons.
The rena issance a nd the ba roqu e brought man into close r co ntact with th e inside
Fig. 331. The Cathedral in Metz

and o utside of the buildin g. Apa rt fr om th e " hangin g ga rd ens" of Semiramis and

Such a dome was the work of ge nerations

into which they put their best. This illustration shows a rich space articulation
starting oul with the wrought iron gales
continuing with numerous space cells i n to
the far distance of the nave, omplified by
Ihe repealed and disappearing arches In

th e Moor ishSpani sh a rch itecture, th ese were man's first attempts to integ rate build-

the perspective

ing and nature, no t me rely fit building into its surroun ding. In our age of airpla nes,

- See the "spar. p " chopier 0/ Uth e new vision".

244

a rchitecture is d e\\ ed not on I} fron tall y a nd from the sides, but a) so from abovevision in motion. The bird's-e}e-, iew, a nd its opposites, the worm's and fi sh-eye.
, iews. ha l e become a da il y ex perience. Arch itecture appea rs no longe r static but,
if Ke think of it in te rms of airplan es and motor cars, a rchit ecture is linked with
movement. The helico pter, fo r ex ample. ma y chan ge the entire aspect of town and
regional pla nni ng so that a formal a nd structura l congru ence with the new elements,
tim e a nd speed, will ma nifest itsel f.
Already the great spans of large airpl a ne han gars require a new depa rture for
space articul ation since th e columns, \\ hich former architecture used as a most
effecti ve mean s in modulatin g and articulating space, have been eliminated.
Fig . 332. S1. Paul's CathedraL London.
1936
A composite perspective (fisheye view)

But

the problem of space a rticul ati on in co ntempo rary a rchitecture is a simple affair in
compariso n with the complex problems of plannin g for a new space comprehension
cau sed by the infinite accelerati on of speed .

rendering motion (spacetirne) on the static plane

Motion in space can be grasped if its realit y is perceptible through th e senses. Difficulti es arise onl y if illusionistic motion has to be perceived. as in the cubi st paint.
ings which rendered obj ects as if the spectator were moving around them.
These interpretati ons of vision in motion denote not onl y an artistic achievement

but also an important practical step in visual perception as well as in the skill of
rend ering. The mass constructi on of war planes, for instance, call ed for complex
working instructi ons. But th e workers could not comprehend th eir tasks through
references co ntained in the customary blueprints. Factories had to resort to new
methods of visualization called " producti on illustration" mainl y derived from the
findings of contemporary painters, photographers a nd motion picture men, all of
whom tried to translate th e space-time sequence of producti on into a visually per
ceivable language. In thi s wa y a speedin g up of the work was accomplished. This
process is onl y in its infancy. Photomontage, superimpositions, diagrams, expl osion,
phantom, xray, cut-awa y techniqu es, stroboscopic moti on projections and other
combinations may enlarge its scope tremendousl y.

Fig. 333. Charlotta Rudolph. 1925

Action photograph of the dancer Palucco
An early motion study of a s equ e nce of
" frozen" insta nta neous movements

speed
Moti on, accelerated to h igh speed, cha nges the appearance o f th e obj ects a nd makes
it impossible to grasp th eir deta il s. There is clea rl y recogn iza ble difference between
the visual expe ri ence of a pedest rian and a driver in viewin g obj ects. The motor
car driver or airplane pilot ca n bri ng di sta nt and un re lated landmarks into spatial
relati onshi ps unknown to the pedestrian. The difference is produced by the changed
perception caused by the various speeds, vision in motion. To p rove this Jean
Ca rlu , the eminent French poster designer, made an experi ment in 1937. He mounted
two posters on two conveyor belts whi ch moved at di fferent speeds. T he one poster,
made by Toulou seLau trec a round 1900, was moved at six to seven mi les per hour

245

Fig. 334. Henri Tou1ouse-Lautrec, 18641901

Pointing

la pprox imatelr th e speed of a horse and buggy ); the other. a con temporary poster,
was mO\ecl at fift y miles per hour t th e speed of an automobile}. Both posters could
be read easil y. Then Ca rlu accelerated the speed of the ToulouseLautrec up to fifty
miles per hour. and at thi s speed th e poster could be seen onl y as a blur. The iruplic.1t ions are oln iolts. The a rti st. architect. advertising and display man, must count
with the qui ckl y moving vehicles requirin g a new orientation toward spatial organi.
zation and co mmuni cation. A ne\\ viewpoint in the visual art s is a natural consequen ce of thi s age of speed \\hi ch has to consider the moving eye. (And what an
imprO\ement it \\ ould be if the signmakers of streets and hi ghwa ys were also aware
of this [ael. )
Jea n Laba tu ( Princeton Univers ity) had the task of preparing effective outdoor
ad \'ertising for a factory si te half a mile long. si tuated along a highwa y with heavy
motor traffi c. Stud) ing th e problem. he found that the req uired water displa ys. fountains. li ght, even the shape of the pool which had to mirror th e buildings, had to be
related to the speed, that is. the rapidly chan ging position of th e spectator at the
wheel. On the basis of calcul ati ons as to tim e a nd vista, he suggested a " time facade".
It consisted of con tin uous mobile light and water displays placed so that they could

be perfectly seen in 30 to 60 seconds. the lime it took a ca r to drive along the site
at 30 to 60 miles per hour. Such an approach tran slates th e static meaning of
advertising into a kinetic process. "shootin g at a moving target".
Fig. 335. lohn H. Stickell, 1942
Action photo of a bomber in a searchlight hunt
With an open camera ahutte r, the film
recorded Ihis picture of a fligh t over Ge rmany . The broad waves ore searchlights
hunhng the moving plane. The waves reault from Ihe combined movements of the
lights and the diving of the bomber. The
d Ols ate anti-aircraft batteries firing at the
pJane

Photography. motion pictures, th e speed studi es of futurism and cubism handled

such aspects intuitively, an ticipa ting the vision in motion of a motorized world long
before an actual need existed for a new visual ed uca tion based upon scientific
standards. Safe air tra\'el, for instance, is greatl y dependent upon the skill and
visua l alertness of pilot and navigator. Their vision in motion especially at landing- the flashquick ability to identify small details within vast areas, has to be conditioned to the new validities of speed si nce even radar or oth er mechanical equipment can fail.

246

Fig. 336. Harold Edgerton, 1937

Indian club exercise
In such CI stroboscopIc photograph the velocity of the motIon con be read through
the vanous distances between the SIngle
shois of the club. rnnce they all have the
same time mec3uremeni of exposure

analysis of Sl)ced
Speed itself ca n become the subj ect of a visual analysis. We know of innumerable
photographic shots of arrested motion such as sport scenes, jumps and dives. On
the oth er hand we can observe slowly unfolding buds. moving clo ud s taken at interfrom the manifest o/the futurist painters, 1912:
"Indeed, all things mOt;e, (Ill things rull .
all things are rapidly changing. A profile is net;er motionless be/ore ollr eyes,
but it constan tly appears and disappears. On account 0/ the persistency 0/
aB image upon the retina, mOling objects constantly multiply themsehes;
their form changes like rapid vibrations, in their mud career. Thus a running horse has not lour legs bllt twenty,
and their mO/.emenu are triangular'.

vals; similarl y the effect of tim e expos ures of movi ng objects on stree ts and merrygo-rounds. Experiencing speed th at ca n be arrested, rendered, stretched and compressed, in short, articulated, we can state that we have possession of it, th at we
are approaching a new vocabu la ry of space- time_
Haro ld Edgerton ( M.l.T.) found a new way to render speed in stroboscopic photography. The relationship between the veloci ti es of the dissected movements gave

him the clue to lInprovlllg the action of golfers, turbines. spinning wheels and
various kinds of machinery. These pictures are juxtaposed details of frozen move T homas Ea kirls. American painter, when collaborating v.'ith E. Jluybridge in recordinq speed. made similar photographs as early as 1881-84 as Charles Bregler reported
ill the " Jlagflzil1r of .-trt", January, 1948.

247

....

Fig. 337. Thomas Eakins, 1881-1884

Action photo
Although we generally consider the futurists' attempts to render motion as the earliest, the truth is that even the spectacular
motion photographs by Professor Edgerton
(1937) are preceded by the work of Muybridge, and almost hteraHy by Muybridge',
collaborator, Thomas Eakins

Fig. 338. Umberto Boccioni, 1911

The power of the street
Boccionl said about this picture in an exhibition catalog, March 1912, (Sackville
Gallery, London): "The tendencies, dynamic
power, lile, ambience, anguish, which one
experiences in the city; the crushing sense
01 modern bustle"

" .~ \

ments analyzable and in relatiollship to each other and the whole cycle of motion,
They clearly show that space-time can not only be articulated but also employed as
a means of expression. These speed photographs are of more recent date, but they
are astonishingly simila r to futuristic paintings, In fact, they are their exact
repetitions: e.g., " Dog on the Leash", 1912; "Speed", 1913, both by Balla; "Nude
Desce ndin g the Stain\ay'" 19]2. by Marcel Duchamp. They all show the same juxtaposition of froze n mo\'ement.
The problem of futurism is similar to that of cubism. The difference is that cubism
takes to moti on as a means of better grasp of the object in space; futurism is
interested in motion for the sa ke of motion. Although both used superimpositions.
most of the futurist painti ngs seem merely a new naturalism beside the spatial
sophist icati on of cubism.
Around 1910 the futurists had begun to emphasize movements, saying, "The world's
splendor has been enriched by a new beauty- the bea ut y of speed ... , ." " We shall
sing," they continued, "of the man at the steering wheel. ... Who can still belie\'e
in the opacity of bodies since our sharpened and multiplied sensiti,'eness has penetrated th e obsc ure manifestations of the medium? \Vh y should we forget in our
creation the double power of ou r sight. capable of giving results analogous to those
of the x-rays?" Vmberto Boccioni in '"Power (If th e Street" . 1912. proj ected such
a double power of sight and such a fusion of the manifold elements of a street.

248

Fig. 339. Marcel Duchamp. 1912

Nude descending the stairway

Fig. 341. Carlo D. Carra. 1911

The funeral of the anarchist Galli
The futurist painting. aUempts the render
inq of a mollon dynamics. The "dramatic
intrepretation of the scuffle between the
cavalry and the proletariat"

Fig. 340. Herbert Matter. 1941

Figure in movement
Fig. 342. Pablo Picasso, 1936
Guernica (mura])
This picture translates the anger and desperation about the Nan bombing 01 Guernica into a plastic demonstration. Besides
the symbohc significance 01 Ihe painting
(the bull stands for fascism , and the horse
turning around in pain for the loyalists). it
Is the motion of the figures itself which
conveys the real meaning

into one simultaneous, exp ressi\ e representati on. Pab lo Picasso did th e same in
the mural of the bom bing of Cue mica, the Basqu e cit y. The painting is a monument of human torment and a powerful symbol of th e agony of the heroic Spa ni sh
loyalists. Visiting him in 1937, before the painting was placed in the Spanish Pavilion
at the Paris \" orld's Fair, he sa id th at he had a tt empt rd to render "the iI/side and
outside of a room simultaneousl)".
Among the Cuernica st udies "hich Picasso made there are a nu mber of dra\\ings
which record not only the space time visualiza ti on o f the successive changes of

physica l motion. but also the psychological space-time. th e emotional metamorphosis

caused by horror in the doom ed crea tures.

249

I I

r~

"...I_-I

*'
,

.',,,
I

Fig. 343. Pablo Picasso, 1936

Sbteh for Guernica mural (etching , second stoQe)

In th e old arts. ho rro r \\a s lIsual! ) rendered thro ugh the dist o rti on o f th e fa cial
muscles, distortion o f the open mou th. by enlarged and protruding e}eball s. Picasso
intensified this approach b)

mo\ in g and di stortin g the usualJ ) immO\able and

undistortable elements of the bod} , s uch as the e)es. ea rs and nose. In "Guern ica"
he shifted th e e)es 3\\a)' from th eir norlllal position; he turned th e ears upside
dO\\I1. In the studi es for th e mural he tran sfo rm ed th e e)e into a cup and th e lo \\ er
eyelid into a saucer fr om \\ hi ch leal'S poured. He exposed the tongue of a St ream
ing. ho rror-stri cken d ctim as a nam e, at other Li mes as a (Iagger to signi f) despa ir.
In one of th ese studi es he sho \\ ed a doze n variations of a face, cha nging the profile
FiQs. 344 a, b, C, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1 0
Th. face oppeslte is 0 psycholoqlcol spacetime study expressing the horror of bombinQ". A younQ molrOn changes into an old
woman with the d istorted features of a
ternhed creature. The pencil sketches
charllnQ the changes are by Robert Santmyers. student of the Institute. Turnmg the
larQe etchlnQ upside down, one sees Hiller 's caricature topped by a frightemng
headgear

of a you ng moth er under th e impact of un spea kabl e sufferi ng

intCl the di storted,

crumbled features of an old \\oman . This \\as done through inten\ea\ing the
features o f a panicky. qui ckly aging. hideo us creature, each expression gro\\ ing ou t
of th e other \\ ithout breaking th e oneness. The same etchin g, if looked at upsid e
down. solved the eni gma by displa) in g the deteriorated, piggish visage of Hitler,

V /,
,

;)(

(8f

)
I

---

",

I~r

'ft . -..
~

Figs. 345-346. Harold Edgerton, 1940

Multiflash of the " Mortels", an ocrobatic

eyes. Through Ihe superimpositions 01 the

various phases o f movement, the eyes In

lea rn

h is "{COlIS"

The photograph at th e right rec ords the seque n ce o f m o vement in s u perimposed flashe s. The g irl, th rown in lo th e air by the
acrob a t, Is caug ht by him . O bse rve in the
closeup on the left the positi on o f the man's

s imilar to the eyes of the Picasso etching

fo r the Guernlco mural (see pages 250-251).
Here again dis to rtion equals motion (see
figs. 151, 152, 153. 156, 157, 236, 275, 276.
277b, 279. 283)

oppear In strange distortion,

th e ca use o f the bestial destructi on . The old technique of the tra sh y "double image"
p ostca rds \\ as used here with unusual subtlety to make the psy chological spacetime as tran sparent as an x-rar photograph.

transparency and light

Th e pass ion for tran s parencies is one of the most ~pectacu lar features of our time.
In xray ph otos. s tru cture becomes tran sparency and transparency manifests structure. Th e x-ray piclures, 10 \\ hi ch the futuri st has co nsistently referr ed, are among
th e o utstandin g space- tim e renderings o n th e static plane. Th ey give simultaneously
th e inside and outside. th e view o f an opaqu e solid, its outline, but also its inner
structure. They h a\e to be studied to re\"eal th eir mea ning; but once the student
has lea rn ed th ei r lan guage. he \\ ill find them indisl>cnsa ble. In Illy pictures I have
tried to follow thi s line of space- time arti cul ati on by painting on wat erclear, tran~

Fig. 347. Xanti Schawinsk1. 1945

Plu ralistic head

parent plastics. introduc in g direct light effects, mob il e refl ection s and shadows,
indicating a trend a\\8) from th e stati c p igme ntati on o f surraces toward a kinetic
"Iight pai ntin g". The problem is o nl y how to control th ese colored " li ght paintings"
\\ ilh Ih e same precision as th e painter o f yesterd ay co ntroll ed the effects of his

pigments. (Figs. 189, 203, 205, 213215, 356)

Fig. 348. Dream
SuperimpOsition of the differen t scenes Irom
a motion pictu r e

photographic prac ti ce
Different space a nd lim e le\e ls usua ll y appear in ph otog raphic rend erin g as superimpositions. Th e renecli ons a nd transparent mirror in gs of th e passing traffi c in the
windows of mo tor cars or shops a re one example. I\lirroring means in this sense
the changing aspects of \ ision. the sha rpened iden tifi cat ion o f inside and outside
pen etrations.

In such renderings there is a blending of ind epend ent elements or

e\'ents into a coherent whole. Superimposition of photographs and distortion by

renection. as frequentl~ seen in mot ion pictures. can be applied as a new visual
lan guage to represent dreams. acting as a spacetime symbol. even synonym.

252

fiq.349. L. f. Ehrke and Dr. C. M. Slack,

1941
Man shoving (x-roy photograph)
Photoqraph taken at lIl,OOO,OOO of a sec
ond in the Westinghouse Research Laboratories, Bloomfield, New Jersey.
The electnc razor was gOing full-speed, Its
tiny motor making 116 revolutions per
second. Pictures may be made of larger
motors. even though covered With heavy
metal. Note the ring on the finQer , the
watch. the qlasses, and the sharply defined
mechanism 01 the ra'Zor

Fig. 350. Jellyfish

The transparent body discloses the shape.
surface as well as the inside structure
figs. 351 a, b. Prof. Laue, 1929
Atom structure 01 metal (x-ray photograph)

Fig. 352.
These ten single photographs of boy. hay
109 the best grades in their class dllK:lose
their unihed chC!:raclerisliCI in the lupe r

--

lmposillon, Fig. 353.

Fig. 353. The "good boy ", 1930

.....

Fig. 354. Andrew G. De Narie, 1933

Triple reflection
The son 01 Mussolini guarded by Depar"
men! of ;uslice men at the Newark Airport.
This 15 an automahC photom::>nlage producEtd by uncontrolled CIrcumstances 01
light and dark reflectmg areas. Such effects- -the :nslde ar.d the outside at once-photographed almost with an x-ray precl'
Sian, Will be a conscious concern of the
photographer of the lulure

Fig. 356. L. MohoJyNagy, 1936

Space modulator (Rhodoid)

..
,

'~.

j - - .. ~,

,'"

J-.

,,
I

Fig . 355. Frances Picabia. 1930

Superimposition
In this polntinQ' th. motion of the sln~le
figures (womcm. man and cot) is recorded
in a lund 01 Q'raphlc shorthond

Fig. 357. 0 L. Moho1y-Nagy. 1940

SpaCe modulator (construction in plexiglass on a mirroring plane)

Photomontage has a similar connotation. The final effect is a synopsis of actions,

composed of originally unrelated space and lime elements juxtaposed and fused
into a unit). (figs. 287291. 387, 389. 3901
A camera less picture ( photogram) can also be understood as \ ision in motion since
it is a diagram of the motion of light, creating the space-time continuum which
literally is the photogram_ ( figs. 238-254, 388)

symbols

This t)pe of anal) sis may help to find visual symbol values for space-lIme ex pen
enct:. Such a s) mbol is the spiral. It revolves from the outside to the inside with
constant ascent. Inside and outside are simultaneously seen.
The smoke diagram of a sk) \\ riter-plane, the dra\\ ing or light tracks of motion studies
(Figs. 4_ 156, 157. 191 , 327, 330 ), the various ways of di stortion. such as the curved
edge of bent plastic sheets and wire structures ( Figs. 306, 312, 314-317, 320, 329,
35{) , transparency (fi gs. 181, 189, 203, 205, 211.215, 350, 356) (light penetrates
matt er ) and inter penetration ( Figs. 216, 354, 355 ) ha\e also space-time connotation.

By future research such phenomena will help to clear and shortcut communicational
needs on th e plane of intellectual -e moti onal fusion.
mohile architecture

Mobile archit ec ture is space-time reality_ Automobiles and trains can be viewed
as mobile buildings_ That is, should be so vi e\\ ed. Unfortunately, they are still
large ly designed \\ ith th e traditi onal principles of stati c architecture, a more or less
obsolete supe rstru cture erected upon a new type_ th e mobilized base. The notion
of sendin g a " house" to sea_ as in th e lu xury liner. is simpl y imposing the past
upon th e present.
The ba re fact th at in thi s countr y from 600.000 to 800.000 famili es live today on
Y I OI,.UIT ", ... 'UUVUI OU"-O.T$ . H

" heels in tra ilers must innuence all architecture.

Am ong th e ex hib its at the 1939 World's Fair in New York was a " poetic" scene_
Janu s J oyce capluTrd this delicate quality, this becomillg, in a passage of
"a rcry shori spurr of lime through t'e ry ShOTt tim e of space."

Fig. 358 a, b, c, d, e.
Distortion diagrams lor the novice plio!
who has to learn the reac1i::m cI the machine to all his manoeuverings in the air.
Here agaIn: dilto rtion equa ll molion

UUlysses" ~

Fig. 357. Hans Finsler, 1925

Chocolate mixing machine

Fig. 360. Albert RengerPatzsch, 1924

"Architecture "

The movmg mass 01 soh chocolate forms a

twisted shope (distortion equals motion)

Dlstorhon achieved by using a prism in

iront 01 the lens

Fig.36l. Frank Lloyd Wright. 1937

The Kaufmann house ot Bear Run, near
Pittsburgh
In its unusual conception, courageous use
of reinforced concrete, this building is one
of the masleq:lleces of contemporary or
chltecture

In the li ght of the full moon the silhouette of a big building was visible. Then
majt:stically the sun rose and sudd enly a whole wing of th e building moved on rails
down to a tra iler-truck a nd drove away.
Gropius and \Va gner are advocating demountable, movable hou ses for future cities.

There are projects not only of movable but of mavin!!; hou ses too; sani tarium s, for
example, turning with th e sun.

The architecture of Frank Ll oyd Wright, especiall y the strongly can til e\rered Kaufmann house at Bear Run, near Pittsburgh , shows more sim ilarity to an airplane
than to traditional buildings, To live in such a house crea tes the sensation of being
in an airplane. giving an emotionally freer relationship to the surroundings. Such
The house 0/ the future should hat'e mOl'able eaves which. by power, would protrude
or mot'e back according to the sland of the sun in lhe dIfferent seaso'is. This would
1)e a new type of horizontally mOl'i ng. solid au'ning.

257

buildings rna) be disturbing to a few unimaginative people. \\ ho probably would

be e\'en more aghast at the plan of Professor

J. D,

Bernal of Cambridge, England.

to can trucl houses \\h ose walls are produced by compressed air, by rotating air

streams or opaque

gase~.

These walls would provide perfect insulation.

Arthur

Korn built a rubber facto r) in Berlin in 1930 \\ here he used a pressed air curtain
to preHnt bad odor penetrating adjoining rOOI11S. Such an air curtain may be used
in the fulure as a kit chen door.
The qu estion then Brises: why should o ne live bet\\een stone walls when one could
live und er th e blue sk) bel\\ een green trees with a ll the advantages of perfect insulati on ?
Some con tempo rar y huildings \\ ith the ir undivided. gigantic \\ indows already allow
tran sparen c~

and thu s th e unhindered \'iew of everchanging surroundings, since the

seaso nal shi ft s at least, isually en ter the rooms as in the house Gropius, Lincoln.
:\lassachuse tts. Another house des igned by Richard Neutra (Ca li fornia ) makes nature
a part of th e "estibule b) mea ns of a garden growing simultaneously "inside and
ou tside" di, iclrd

o nl ~

b~

a large glass wall. A restaurant in Berlin, a cinema in

Zurich and a night club- of all things

just outside of New York have movable

roofs so that the starl it sky ca n become the ceiling. By interpenetrating nature and
manmade stru cture. th e old id ea of synthesis has bee n at least approximated .
Th e drirf'r's cabin in fI Diesf'l loco ntolit'e is aeroilYl1am ically designed so lhal a
t'octLwn crf'cti ed by lhe II iglt speed around it aels as a strollg insulation for the window
shields against /lying dirt . rain and snow.
Tn 1927 in ZUTich J suggested fo r cinema publicity to the architects Moser and Steiger
a gas curtain Ollto v:hich motion pictures could be projPeled throu.Qh which the public
could pass. This .'}flsrous curtain could also. chameleon-liJ.e. change colors.
Fig. 363. Walter Gropius and Marcel
Breuer, 1938
The Gropius house in Linc:oln, Massac:husetts

Fig . 362. Richard 1. Neutro, 1941

Residence of John Nesbitt, Brentwood,
California
The entrance with lily pond, continues
through a gloss wall into the interior, accomplishing a delightful unity 01 manmade
structure and nature. The mirror set at
90 degrees to the transparent wall en
hances the vIsual richness

exposition architecture, disillay, theater, dance

]n Paris in 1925 Le Corbusier built an exp'Osition building for his "L'Espril
l\"ouvea u'. The trees on the site had to remain, thus he incorporated one of the
largest trees into his pavilion fusing :'the inside and outside" into a new unity.
Fra nk Lloyd Wri ght allowed a tree to grow through the balcony of the Kaufman
hou se at Bear Run. The grea test attraction of the Edinborough (1938) exposition
was a restaurant '\ here guests on th e seco nd noor could sit under blooming treel
\\hich penetrated the ceiling oC the first noor.
Fig. 364. Le Corbusier, 1925
A housing unit executed as the exhibition pavilion of the magazine, "L'Esprit
Nouveau", at the Paris Exposition 01
Decorative Arts
The conservallve exposition committee, not
very enthusiastic about the participation of
Le Corbusier, assigned to him a site full
o f trees, stipulating that none could be
cut down. He turned this shortcoming into
a virtue, ereo;;ling his building around a
tree, demons trating the idea that architeo;;lure and noture could be more thoroughly bsed

I n expos iti ons, stru ctural and practi cal limitation s can be dismissed more easily
tha n in a permanent type of architecture. Indeed, starting with the London Crystal
Palace: through th e P a ri s expos ition of 1889 \\ ith its Eiffel Tower, to the expositions
of our day in Berlin. Paris. Moscow. Barcelona, Stockholm, Milan, Chicago, San
Francisco. New York. a more or less imagi native wo rld did co me true-the embodi
ment of projects which were co nceived by th e grea t " dreamers" of mankind, the
crea ti ve architects. a rti sts a nd designers who dared to use the potentialities of the
new materials of a new age. Their temporary stru ctures can be understood more
in the way of laboratory ex perimen ts than as a panorama of dissociated units.
Such a rchit ect ural ex perim ents o n a large scale may signalize a spatial order in
\\ hi ch neit her single structures nor large spans of openings will play the 1110st
importa nt pa rt. but rather the relationships of neighborin g units, the harmonious
and fun ctiona l di st. ribu t.i on of bu ildings a nd free spaces. the ri ght proportion between
shelter. recreation. leisure and producti o n a reas. " \llo rld Fairs" co uld be in the
Cuture comm unit y affai rs from \\h ich the curse of tra shy sensa ti onalism will be

I' --

lifted : \\h ere it wi ll be understood th at nothin g more impo rtant ca n be done in

li f(> than search for the biologicall y " bett er ways".
Att em pts towa rd a neK type of space a rti culation are embedded in the most advanced
solut ions of the pioneering

Fig. 365. 0 Students of the Institute of

Design, Chicago, 1945
Exhibition of the facuity, "Form One"
In the new exhibition techniques, virtual
walls play a great role. They are often
made from siring, wire, and wire mesh

~o un g

architects in North Ameri ca , Brazil. Holland.

S,\ itzerland . Finland and S\\eden. They have already humanized the technol ogical
ad\'ances even th ough . for th e time bein g. they wo rk mainl y for a privileged
clien tele.
The fact that th ei r efforts a re not as yet generall y accepted and onl y hesitatingly
emplo yed for slum clearance and public ho using is more an indictment of tradi
ti onal-minded admin istra tion s. ignora nt of th e people's requirements, than a criticism
of th e ne\\" direction.
The public accepts techni cal processes and new inven ti ons mo re readil y when they
affect only deta ils of the living standard; the acceptance becomes more difficult if
th ey seem to cause radica l chan ges in habits. And yet many inventions, appearing
at first as casual improvements for a few, paved th e way to a complete tran sformat ion of everyone's life.

Examples are telephone, teleg raph, aut omobil e. airplane.

refrigerat ion and radio. They- of co urse- must be understood as the utili zation of
ne\\ ma teri als and new po tent ia lities. not for their techn ological sake but in the direc
tion of a more functi onal and biological use.

260

Fig. 366. 0 L. MoholyNogy and Marcel

Breuer. 1936
Model of on exhibition with offices and
stage for fashion shows cnd cinema per
formances
The maln requirement of on exhibition Is
activity flow, effective visual demonstra
tion and easy communication

Fig. 367. MARS (Modern Architectural

Research Group) Exposition in London.
1937

This detail shows a porch, syntheSizing

the elements of architecture and noture

.,
,

261

--.

./

Fig. 369. Herbert Bayer, 1937

Exhibition of the Bauhaus. in the Museum of Modern Art, New York

Fig. 370. Herbert Bayer, 1945

The exhibition of the Container Corpcration of America for modem advertising
The structure was designed as a knockdown solution lor easy packing, transpor
tatlon and assembly

"

Fig. 368. Aino and Alvar AcUa, 1939

The exposition pavilion of Finland at the
New York World's Fair
With high, undulated and inclined walls.
the Aaltos introduced the baroque richness
of a monumental pipe organ inlO the room,
a solemn framework for the manifold wood
products of their country

263

Ad\'ertising. as usual, quickly adopts ne\\ ideas. Ad\ertio;ers, ha\ing no inhibi

tions regarding classical rules, already use light, fo: example, as '"building material"'.
With light. architecture itself can be changed. With light one may pull together
walls and windo\\s or break th em down into small units. With neon or other lights
a completel y different building outline can be created o\ternight in place o the
actual struc ture. 1n th e future , light- monochrome and multi colored- \\ ill play an
essential part in architecture. The plan for a science museum in Paris by JourdainNelson already foreshadows th e use of such elemen ts. These \\ ill ca rry in their wake
also the solution of the old prob lem of relating painting, sculpture and architecture.
But on ly a new insight into th is problem can promise a full integration of all visual
expression (including television ) with the stru ctural demands.
Step by step th e necessa ry changes are coming. But even th e most modern archiFig. 371. L. Mies van cler Rohe. 1929
Pavilion of the German Reich of the
Worlds Fair in Barcelona, Spain

tecture of the stali c I ) pe is onl y a transitory step toward the future architecture of
kinetic chara cter. Spacetime is now the new basis on which the edifice of future

Corridor 01 lhe fronl composed of green

marble and cryslal plale glass walls; Ihe
ceiling was supporled by chromium-plaled
cross-shaped sleel beams.
Marble was for a long lime rUled OUI by
Ihe mode m archilecls as an element 01
obsolete architecture. The same w as the
case with wood. Today these materials
are reconsidered. One of the !;rsl among
modem architects to toke up marble has
been Mles van der Rohe

th oughts and \\ork \\ ill be built.

Fig. 372. Maxwell Fry. 1937

Exhibition room for electrical appliances
The railing of Ihe circular stairway is used
as a dIsplay case. An impreSSIVe use of
transparent matenal in a limited space

It wou ld be logica l to aSS li me th aL th ese ideas. particularl y the powerful de\'elop

men ts o [ modern archi tec ture. ha\ e influenced th e co ncept of sta ge design. But
stran gely enough. neither theater nor movie settin gs yet show the slightest inclina
ti on toward a reall y new space co ncep ti on. although the new ways of handling
space are so full of \ iSlial excitemen t and emot iona l tensio n that th eir use would
mean not on ly an adaptati on to co ntempora ry spirit but also box office success.
The reaso n for th e lack of a 'contemporary' stage design is that the present theater
is a remnant of th e renaissa nce- a box in \\ hich to create an illusion of realit y!
There is little hope for a new space concept on the stage as long as thi s "box"wi th only the front side open- is maintained. Revoluti onaries of th e sta ge- Meyerho ld _ Kiesler. Pisca tor - have been fighting for a long tim e for an open-space
th eater like an arena.
The openspace stages o f Greece and the Middle Ages. on whi ch the actors' relation
ship to each other and to their audience could be observed tra nspa ren tl y, showed

fig. 373. Banli, Belgioloso, Rogers and

Peressutu. 1934
Aeronaulical exhibition in Milano
In lhe foreground is on early Capron! and
Gabardmi seaplane

a foretaste of the tendencies prevailing in the space articulation of modern architecture_ The new trend s. originatin g mainl y in new ma terials and constructions
which \\ ere introduced by the industrial revolution will also brin g to the thea ter
greater A ex ibilil~. A combi nation of the existing mechanical devices and future
light technique wi ll make a revolution of the stage inevitable. TIlis revolution will
create the new settin g for \erbal art iculat ion as well as for th e dance \\hi ch is spacetime visualization through th e human body.

264

Fig. 374. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1928

Scene from "Modame Butterfly"
One of the most Important means 01 expression for the s tage designer is light.
The tradItional theater designer generally
worked with dispersed light, without any
shadow. But light without shadow is lifeless
In order to achieve the richest play of
shadows. in all my theater work I have
tried to dissolve the straight and plain
surfaces into curved planes, and have
used skeleton walls which cast open, not
solid shadows. This "Butterfly" was desu;ned for a stage which allowed a quick
change of scenery by moving it at the
end 01 the act to one 01 the SIde-stages
flhe "wings") and rolling in a new set
from the other side. This facility made
possible the building of a double-set, com
prising the middle slage Clnd one wing.
This allowed a change 01 scene belore the
eyes 01 the public. During the "garden
aria," lor instance, while Ihe middle s tage
was rolled away into Ihe left wing the
singers moved right in the garden. This
ceated the illusion of a long walk since
the set previously in the right "wing" was
brought to the center
As a backdrop, a gigantic photomontage
(a composite picture of Japanese landscape,
WIth a large cutout fOT the bay) was used.
Behind it. on the cyclorama colored lightlng effects, from dawn to sunset, were
;:lfojected

Fig. 375. Xanli Schawinski, 1936

Paper costumes for dancers used as
kinetic "light modulators"
Fig. 376, Xanti Schawinski, 1936
Costumes for slilt-dancers
An amplification of spatial relationships
the dancp.T produces, An anthropomorphic
ul:t:zaiion of the "virtual volume"

-')6 ;,-

8pace~lime ?

Since "space-time') may be a misleading term, il especially has to be emphasized

that space-lime problems in the arts are not necessarily based upon Einstein's
theory of relativity. This is not mean t to discount the relevance of his theory to
the arts. But artists and la ymen seld om ha\e the mathematical knowledge to visual~
ize in scientifi c formulae the analogies to their own work. Einstein's terminology
of "space-t ime" and "relati vity" has been absorbed by our daily language. Whether
we use th e terms "space-tim e", "motion and speed", or "vision in motion", rightly
or wrongly, they designate a Ilew dynamic and kin etic existence freed from the
static, fixed framework of the past. Space-time is not only a matter of natural science
or of esthetic and emotional interest. It deeply modifies th e character of social
ends, even beyond the sense that pure science may lead to a better application of
our resources.
History furnishes us H.ith a good example of thi s. \Vhen the European cities con
solidated into political and economic unit s and dethroned to a certain extent the
regime of the feudal lord s, the space concept was sudd enly invaded and challenged
by a new elemen t : ti me. \Vh ere heretofore only space, th e acreage of land owned,
had basically determined economic and social va lues, th e artisan and the merchant,
the two pillars of city life, built their wealth on the time they had to put into jobs,
the time they co uld buy from others to wo rk for them, the tim e it took to bridge
the distance in moving goods from th e place of production to th e place of con
sumption. Time (speed) became the most important competitive factor in producFig. 377. Yoshio Watanabe. 1938
Ginza Palace. Tokyo
This three-dimensional light advertising
forecasts a more conscious use of illumina
tion and its space articulating quolity in
the future

tion, transportation and sale. With th e introduction of accelerated time, a new

kinetic dimension was added to the static existen ce.
Space or space-time experience is not merely the privilege of exceptionally talented
persons. It is a biological function, as important and as co mmon as the experience
of color, shape a nd tone. Its con notations are numerous. There is, for example,
the hope that it will help in grasping future problems and vistas, enablin g us to
see everythi ng in relationship. th at it will furnish us with the right co ncept of

cocpera ti on and defense aga inst aggression. where again space and tune
are lI1separably intertwin ed.
The book by Dr. S . Giedion : aS pace , Time and ArchitectureU (Harvard University
Press, 19J,~) will help greatly in understanding this concept, though I am approaching
the problem not so much from the point of view of architectural structure a.s from
that of social implications .
The relativity theory slales: The speed of light is constant; it is the absolute speed
in the universe. H owever, motion of objects can only be mea.sured relative to another
motion. Time is a coordinate of space. It is the "fourth dimensionU-a physical
measurement. Electricity and gravity combined account for all solid matter and
matter and energy are interchangeable ter ms. This latter thesis led to the forecast
of Einstein lhal the alO1J1, can be split fh ereliY releasillU immense energies.
E ven the soapbox orat ors have already adopted the new term: uThe Japanese
changed P earl Harbor from a place to a dat e/' Another example: the submarine fi:n..d.3
its target by radio wave sent out and reflected back, indicating distance by time. The
"instantaneity" of this measurement of space with a time fa ctor makes it totally differ
ent from the way in which one used to measure, say, the distance front New York to
Chicago as "'len days".

266

Fig. 378. 0 L. Moholy-Nagy, 1936

Special effects for "Things 10 Come"
by H. G. Wells, London FUm
This same set with the revolvinfJ cones,
pholoc;Jraphed with mulliplyinfJ priam, produced so rich a visual result thai Ihe editor of the fUm did not dare to use 11

267

Il is enough to und erstand one exa mple of logistics to grasop its e,er gro\\ ing significa nce. The militar) strategist has to estimate th e "ind o f \\adare li"ely to be waged
in a particular area. His plans hal e to include the maintenance of a precise number of pieces of artillery in that particular thea ter of \\ar. For that it will be

hAmerica's greU I t'~t ncllielement so Jar

has been ill the fidel oj pure 'time
problems'. 'Time is mOlley. America
has sufficien t space. T he remll has bee"
a domillolillg apprecicllion 01 lime . . . .
"Eurol)e--oll the other halld-olKoys
laced the Opposile problem: space. Time
seemed elernal. The Europeun archi
leClllre is a clear indication 01 this
spacelee/lng, The architectural under
standing )Ou can find in Europe-the
appreC'ialiofi 01 lorm alld space-is un
Imolt:/I in America. 'fhat appeals to the
American in the Europeall monuments
is Ihe historic element- time. Form
mealls [ery /iltle. ''''/(/1 is going on in
Europe ut the present time-what is
behind th e interest lor America-Amer
icon production, American method ;s-I
beliele-ll new understa/lding 01 time as
an essential element ollile. Final aim:
Time- Space.
"America has ollly der;eloped the 'time
luclIlt)"'. The finest intelligence has
been /torki1lG Ii it" timeproblems. Com.
mUllications. Autos. Elewtors. Rail
wop. MOI;ingpictures. And first 01 aU:
Production.
EfficiellC)-: timesar;ing"
(K. Lonbergl/olm in "j 10" .\'0. 15,
Amsterdam , 1928)

necessary to organ ize and coo rdinate the production of factories and transportati on means to maintain th e pipeline (the normal nO\\ o f estimated need of full
units) including the anticipated damage by enemy a Ua ck upon shipping. as well
as to estimate norm al wea r and tear. Further, for these gun s there is a need of
special instruments "hich may wear out before th e gun s th emse l\ es. Then there is
the problem o f maintenance, and possible damage or loss by enemy acti on in actual
battle; plus the var) ing type of ammunition req uired. Also. the right perso nnel
must be availab le "hen and where needed, not onl y the co mbatants "ho se rve the
gu ns but also mechanics to provide necessary repair and replacement. An immense
amount of detail has to be visualized. This is a vast and co mpl ex man ipulation of
men, raw ma terial, clerical work. production aud tran sportati on o f which the peculiar
characteristic is that it is a process of constant change since th e absorbed material
continuall y has to be replaced. Though all thi s as a realit y fun cti ons more or less
perfectly, its exact rendering for the purpose of stud y and quick reading would
entail an imagination and inven tiveness yet missin g. In fact, no visual technique
exists yet "hich could convey to the public the complica ted nature o f these transacti ons in a simple, legible form. But thi s has to be found if planning for th e destruc
ti on. wh ich is wa r, shall yield a lesso n for th e planning o f peace and th e co mm on
good.
The more people understand and master this lype of " thinkin g in re-lationships" the
easier it "ill be to realize socia l planning and a beller li ving. "V isio n in motion"
is a tool to render the complexity of these processes as si mpl y as th e economist
attempts in his field when he speaks about all this as a matter of mall hours, that
is. operations measured by time.
We are heading toward a kinetic. timespatial existence; towa rd an awa reness of
the forces plus their relationships which define all li fe a nd of \\ hi ch we had no
previous knowledge and for which we have as yet no exact term inology. The af
firmation of a ll these space-time forces involves a reorientation of all ou r faculties.
Spaceti me stands for many thin gs: relativity of motion and its measurement, integration, simultaneous grasp of the inside and outside, revelat ion of the stru cture instead
of the facade. 11 also stands fOT a new vis ion concern in g materials. energies, ten
sions~

and their social implications.

This concepti on is still unpredi ctable in its consequences for the improvement of
the affairs of mankind though th e artist as well

a~

the

de~igner

already ex peri

JaCh- Pr itrhnrd ( London ) indicated the use of lhr. "mall-holtr" lUI an effeciire "ren-

derill{/'

268

0/ lhis type of io.qislic plannillg.

In order to read m ltlti-rrlatiomhips Sl'

mlllUllleolu/y, scientists IISC 1I0mographs_
.1 1I0mograph is a (/iogram 0/ scientific
or mathematical la/lS 1/ hie" afC c,-cpreJ.~~(1 by equations u;ith any ,wmber
of I ariables.
In (I nomograph the lille.~ or curtes are
so arranlulJ that all} straight /inc (/rawn
across Ihe diagram in t ersrus thc fines
or runes at poinls which .~alish the
equation lor It hicll the diagram Ulas
made.
I ffilC nO/llOl!flIl,h ""HI be read b\'
meatls 01 a straight edge, a compa.s.~, tUlO
.~i(le~ 0/ a triangle. or an)" cOllccitable
ClIne or /inc uhieh snIt's as the ke~
to the diagram. F. T. Hads, in "The
(onslruaion 01 .\ omograIJllic Charts",
calh the nomograph "a grapho.mecl!anjcal compu ting del'ice:'
The nomograph maj,:cs ;1 possible to
read simply, rapidly and aCClIrately in
aile (/iagram any II/lmber 01 mriables
1/ hich II.:ould otherll ise hare to be expressed bv man), graphs.
7 he nomograph is also called all alignment chart or a nomogram.
The main principles 0/ nomography
lure det'eloped by Philbert 11. rfOcagne
in France abou t 1890. D'Ocagne tvas
the first to lise the terms "nomography"
and "nomogram".

Th e designer ha s to think in
me nt \\ ith it on a
co
nSC
iousness.
of
term s o f int eg rated processes o f ma terial s and producti on, sales, di stribution ,

fina nc ing and ad\te rtis in g; th e con temporary a rtist co nsciously o r intuitively tries
to express the substance of hi,; spec iali zed field as the result of forces in space and
ti me and to int eg ra te it \, ith th e soc ial realit y.

He prepares a new a nd c reati ve

vis ion fo r the masses, and "ith it a new ori entati on fo r a healthier life plan. But
in o rd er to bencfit society, the nrtist's " o rk mu st penetrat e cver yo ne's da il y exi stence.

As a remmder of the atomic o~e, here i!l

the model 01 the chemical structure 01 a
matenal.

Fig. 3780. Power puzzle

This is a chemist's model of the hydrogen
and carbon atoms in one type of hydro-carbon molecule. Gasoline is a mixtu re of
hundreds of different kinds of hydrocarbo ns
--each with its own molecular structure
and eoch with Its own speclol way of
behaving inside a gasoline engine

Fig. 379. Kasimir Malevich. 1917

Suprematist drawing
The supremahsts and the COnstructivists
can be understood as invesliqotinq th. 81.
ments of motion which Qchieves its great
est visual importonce in the animated cartoons of the mohon picture

motion pic luIV'8

Amongst tIle media thus far developed , motion pictures could fulfill more powerfully than any other the requirement of a space-time acce ntuated visual art. Viking
Eggeling, the Swedish painter, recog nized around 1919, the inherent emotional power

,
.....

of articu lated mot ion witho ut na lura l islic render ing or even theme-li ke connotations.
The Mi ckey Mo use and Popeye fdms, the "animated" cartoon s, are well liked by the
public beca use of their popular stories; but only a small g roup of connoisseurs know

that their technique was developed by experimental trail blazers, by the abstract cartoon s of Eggeling, Richter and Rullman .

Fig'. 380. Viking Eggeling, 1920

Synopsis of the film. "Diagonal Sym-

phony"

Ih e situa lio n

Eqqelinq was the first abstract artist in-

terested in the motion picture as a medium

of artistic expression. He is the great
pIoneer 01 the animated cartoon

Any artistic creation m ust invo lve a consideration of th e specific potentialities of its
medjum if it is to achieve an intrinsic, "organi c" qualit y. In spite of thi s law, the
film toda r is still go,'erned by the antiquated esthetics of easel painting and th e stage
of the ren aissa nce. There is littl e in the current practi ce of official film production
to show that th e esse ntial mea ns of th e film is light, not pigment. Moreover, the film
gene rall y is co nfined to the proj ec tion of a sequence of "stills" on a sc reen, instead
of utilizin g th e unique poss ibilities of a mobile spatial projection. Th e sa me con
servative altitude is found in the use of th e aco usti ca Jl ) .amplified film , the talki e, in
which th e old dialogue of th e thea ter is meticulously co pied.

the problem
In order to grasp the problem of motion pictures in their compl exity, it is necessary
to exami ne the most important compo nent s of th e film:
the opt ical (v ision)
the acoustic (so und )
th e kinetic {motionJ

the \isua'
Painting, photograph), film and television are parts of One single problem although
their techniq ues may be ent irely different. They belong to the same realm; that is,
to yisual expression, "here cross-fertilizati ons are possible.
The development of the suprematist painter, Malevich, may serve as an example for
this process of cross fertilization . His last picture showed a white square on a
white canvas which is clea rl y symboli c of the film screen. While it has its significance
as a painting, it is ext remely revealing as a symbol of th e transition from painting
in terms of pigment to painting in ter ms of li ght. The white surface se rved as a
"theoretica !"' screen for direct projection of light, that is, light in motion, a spacetime realit y. It anticipated the new outlook. 1t might be regarded as intuitive victory ove r the mi sguided efforts of the present.day film which imitates more or Jess
successfully the pictorial co mposition of the old easel painting, its monocular vision
and its picturesque settings.
Fig. 380a. Kasimlr Malevich. 1919
While on white

Suprematism has superseded manual craftsmanship in painting, although easel painting, as an exclusi vely manual craft , may continue to exist for some decades to come,
retain ed for pedagogic reaso ns and as a means of preparing the way for a new culture of ('o lor and I ight. But thi s preparatory phase can well be shortened if the
probl ems of visual needs are co rrectl y postulated and systematic optical research
organized. The motion picture can play its role by making a start, takin g the new

In 1932 I IHote "A n open letter" to

the film industry, publislll'd in "Sight
and SOUTl{[' ' "ot. 3 i\ O. 10, 1932, the
officiaL maga:!ine 0/ the British Film
Institute. Because the main burden 0/
ilS arguments seem to be still talid 10day, it is reprinted here:
I.
"Shall we look on II-hile the film, this
u;onder/ul instrument, is being deSlrOled be/ore ou r eyes by stupidity and
dull-witt ed amatellrism?
Th e unbiased obsener cannot fail to
see, to his great distress, that the (iLm
production 0/ the 1l,'Qrld is grou;wg
more and more (rhia! every year. To
the trained ele alld mind the present
day fiLm can give no pleasure.
Th is criticism ;s not confined to the
artistic side 0/ film.making. Th e ,thole
film industry is in danger. This is
shol("n by its increasing incapacity to
produce a sound financial return. Gigantic sums are swalloued up by desperate experiments, exlra/;agance in superficiaL molters not striclly proper to
the film; monster decarations, piling up
0/ stars, paying huge salaries to secure

mediulll and its specifi c possibilities as the basis of departure. Its indispensable
elements will be the con trolled solar li ght effects of the spectrum, artifIcial 1ights of
variable intensity, renectors, projectors, instruments for polarization, inter ference
and refracti on of light as well as a new chemistr y of emulsion, developing and printing. The successful accomplishm ent of photograph y in total darkness by means of
infrared rays is already a grea t advancement. Technicolor 35 mm and kodachrome
16 mm films are producin g direct color continuit y. America n, French and Russian
expe riments with three-dimensional films give promise of interesting de,'elopments
in th e stereoscopic sphere. But these advances mean only the improvemen t of the
techni cal tools. The impact of th e new film on th e public has to come from a new
"content" adequate to th e advan ced tool s used for its realization.

light
Film production must stop being im itati ve. The ambition must no lon ger be to
tran sform papier.mache into forests or spotli ghts into sunshi ne. Li ght must be used
according to its basic chara cteri sti c and the film architect will have to conform to its
new ori entati on . The film stage of the future will be co nceived as a structure for the
production of moti on, light and shadow effects either with skeleton co nstructions or
walls, planes, sur faces and textures for absorption and refl ection, for the organized
Suprematism is a R ussian type of abstract painting which has been et:olt:ed by
Kasimir Malet:ich. Tn his 1L'ords uSuprematism is the sup remacy of the pure feeling
in the plastic arts."

272

performers u:ho turn out unsuitable lor

jilming. This expendilure u.:ill net'er
bring it, its relllfrl, so that Ihe film is
slipping back Itith increasing cerla;/lty
into the hands 0/ Ihe adt'enturers. from
Ilhom it had been rescued alur is initial period 01 being a purely speculatite
blHiness.
II
The root 01 all nil is the exc/usion 01
the e\perimelltal creator, 01 the Iree i'l'
dependent producer.
III.
restuda), there It'en:' sli/l crOlt'ds 01
piO/leers in all coun tries; today the
uhole field is made a desert, moun
bare. But art can knoll.: no further de
t"elopment Idthout the artist, and art
reQllires lull sovereignlY OIer 'he means
to be emp/o,red.
Elen Itork 01 art attains its achievement onh through the responsible ac
til ill 0/ the artist, driven to his objectire b,) his ("ision 0/ the l4;hole. Th is is
tme 01 archilecture, oj painting, 01
drama. It is equally trlle oj the film.

distribution of ligh t. Such a scenic concept- not "background" -will be a tool for
vision in motion ra th er than a setting for sentiment al naturalism.
~lbstracl

fi 1m

Like a ll olher means of exp ression, th e fi lm with its characterb,tic visual, perceptional
elements appea l~ directly to the se nses. This is the basic departure of abstract mot ion
pictures. The de"elopmellt of thi s ra tego ry of film will increase in import ance if th e
means a re found to conscio usly control the " photoc rea tive" conditi ons necessary for
its appeal. The sa me is tru e of th e direct psychoph ys ica l res ponse lo co lor without
any nat uralisti c th eme. It is safe to predict for the film an increas in g use of pure
colors as in non-o bj ecti ve paintings. The recognition of th is trend and its possibilities
is essentia l if we are to fi nd a health y escape from the present deluge of trashy co lored moti on pictures.
Camera less photograph y, the " photog ram" is the key to a n improved performance
of film art. " Li ght texture", th e wid e scale of gra y between th e black and white poles
a nd th e wide range of color va lues in the color film are of profound signifi ca nce for
abstract experiments. In addition, investigation of th e supe rimposition of different
images and of other photographic manipulati ons, including the op tical printing machines and the different systems of color organs, have to be undertaken.
Abstract visual effects and investigation of the form of light morphosis a re not, how-

)\""

From the nafllre oj the film arises the

difficulty oj experimentation, the nllrs
e'lgarden oj good film lI:ork; lor to
the film there is attached a machinery
0/ prodllclion and distribution, th e or
gani:ation oj which stretches from the
lcenario through aCling, photography,
iOund recording, direction, and film Cllt
ting up to press propaganda, distribu'ion and theater. Only thus could what
"'as once a sideshOIl: at a Jair be can
~erted into a It"Orlduide bllsi/len.
Amongst the economic complications 0/
this enormous machine th e artistic
aspect is treated so incidentally, judged
so entirely from the mercantile standpoint, that lhe significance 0/ the cre
athe artist 0/ the film is completely
eliminated. One might almost say that
the director is forced through lear 0/
penalties to do without the cinematoGraphic art. By becoming par' 0/ the
pre wiling system 0/ production, el.en
the best pioneers have, to the bitler
disappointment 0/ all those interested
in films, sunk to the ler;el 0/ the average
director.
The independent producers were an embarrassment to the industry. The exist.
ence 01 the pioneers implied a destruc.

eve r, the sole problem of th e fil m. Prob lems of motion a nd sound demand new so lutio ns of eq ual magni tud e. Nor is th at a ll. Other aspects of the fi lm are its documentary
a nd educati onal func ti ons. ]n these fi elds, the film is generall y superior to th e manual
performarce of the painter.

documenlary film
In our epoch of political and economica l stru gg le, the fi lm as a record of facts, as
reportage, has become an ed uca ti ona l and propaganda med ium of firs t impor ta nce.
In preHitler Germany, progressive educa ti onal films were made by commercial fil m
companies as well as by ama teurs like Victor Albrecht Blum, SYen Noelde and myselr.
England's Ceneral Post Office. under the direction of J ohn Grierson, produced excellent documentary films by Cavalcanti, Rol ha, Jennings and a group of other en thu si
astic yo un g men. The Ru ssians Vertov, Turin, Dovzenk ho, the Dutch J oris Ivens with
J ohn Ferno, the Ameri cans Pare Lorentz, Paul Strand and oth er film directors, enlarged th e scope of documentary fdms in social reportage and planning.

pIOneers

All types of films- but especially the abstract ones- need an avant-garde, as in the

days of the silent film , a group of expe rimental film producers not working for profit
- men like Picabia, Ren e Clair, rernand Leger, Count Beaumont, Man Ray , Bunuel,
Dali , Coctea u and others. Their attempts were directed mainl y toward th e potentialities

2i3

tir'~

critici.Jm 01 officiaL production. The

ritolily 01 th~ small It'ork~rs, their laith
in the cintmalogrophic art, while hardly
moting mounlains, did box th~ ears oj
the industry soundly. It slwng out. lor
a count~r-blou' il'ilhout realizing the
soundn~ss 01 these pioneer mOL'ements,
their efforts to press lomard on the or
tistic side. So the industry carelully
stamped out an)'lhing which Ras ete"
suggestive 01 pioneer effort_ Their
crowning victory was 101lnd in the ne
cessity 01 specially constructed studios
lor sound-film production and theaters
lor showing, and consequently the final
business monopolhation 01 the 'art 01
the fiLm'_

in the vast arsena l of the moti on p ictures with out literary or commercial compromise.
e nfo rtun ately th e so un d fi lm increased th e ex pense of film production so much that

ama teur work today is si mpl )" stamped out. However, this need not be. The amateur
who is not fazed by the Holl ywood faca de an d its ga rga ntu an a pparatus, could per
form mi racles by just being since re and bold,

V.
The way '~'as Ireed once more Jor
mechanized business. The industry was
victorious all along Ihe line,
Everything con tributed to help them ;
legislalive regulations concerning QUo,
las and import restrictions, censorship,
distribution, theater olwers and shortsighted critics. But the lictory 01 th e
industry has been a costly one. Art was
to be destroyed in the interests 01 busi
ness, but the boomerang has whizzed
back atlll struck the business side.
People do not go to boring films, in
spite 01 the calculation 01 returns made
by the film magnate on the theory that
eten' adult must l'isit the cinema tldce
Reekl, at an aterage price of so mam
cen ts, pennies, plenlll'gs or sous, per
ticket.

Fig. 381. Bunuel ond Doli, 1925

A scene from "The ondolusion dog"
This film, though somewhat dated today.
was one of the great milestones of the
avant garde efforts to create a genuine
mohon picture art
This illustration Is one of the grotesque
scenes from the film: a young man frightens a girl. He pulls with terrific effort a
great weight. First. one sees two ropes
jerking, then slowly there appears what is
being hauled along: two grand pianos on
which two dead asses are lying, Finally,
Into vie w come two monks, who are being
draqged along behind the pianos

\'J.
Shall the artist now, alter all the kicks
he has receiLed, turn round and help
business? Shall he take a hand again
and beg tdth economic arGuments lor
the weapons of the spirit that /tere
struck Irom his hands?
VII.
Good, ILe II ill do so.
Now Ite sLOrt estimating profits.
\ ' 111.
Th,. CIt/ture 01 the film grew tdth the
onlf)oker, History records no similar
process 01 general passiL"e participation.
extending to all nations and continents.
in any arl tthich could be compared
tdth the cinema. Through lhe quantitatively enormou" par' pia),td by attendance at cinemas, nen the most

274

plimitil.:e member 0/ the audien ce is in

II position to exercise criticism 0/ the
film and regi-ster the slackening 0/ creatit'e per/ormollce. This means the necessity 0/ straining erery nene i,l creatil:e ,,ork. But where is that 1l:ork to
come /Iom, i/ the artist is to be exclud
ed from the Cleath'e process?

IX.
II pioneer sroup is thus not only an
artistic bllt an economic necessity.

X.
AU baffiers against pioneer efforts must
be remol:ed. Encouragement, pril'ate,
industtial and official, mlLst be extended
to the independent cinema artist.

XI.
This means that we demaml lor him:
(1) from the state
a ) lemol:al 0/ censorship restriclions
b) no taxation on his creations
c) poJment 0/ aliolLances;
(2) /Iom the industry, in accordance
with output:
a) studio
b) sound
c) material
d) obligatory performances by dis
tributors and theaters;
(3) education in artistic film work to
begin long be/ore the practical
side. The antiquated art school
cU fficulum must be replaced by the
establishment 0/
a) studios lor lighting (artificial
light)
b ) photo and film studios (camera
technique )
c) J,amatic classes
d) theoretical, physical and ex
perimental departments.

Fig. 382. Iean Cocteau. 1930

A scene from "Le sang d'un peete" (The blood of a poet)

XII.
Formulating and fighting lor these de
mands is terribly necessary at the pres
ent time. lor our generation is begin
ning to fl'aste the magnificent technical
heritage 0/ the past century. It l emain s
to be hoped that these statements 0/
opinion Itill remind a lew people, at
least, 0/ the intellectual ploblem s /thich
the conscience 0/ the thinking malt bids
him solr;e."

275

sound film
The sound film is one of th e most important inventions of our time capable of en.
larging not merely \ isual a nd acoustic pos~ibi1ities but also social co nsciousness.
But the new sound film has been little more than a reproduction of dramatic dialogue
and sound sequences. its sole function being to provide a documentary record of a
visual and acoustic reality. Only the interrelated use of both sight and so und as
mutually interdependent components of a purposeful en tit y can result in a qualitative
f" nrichment or lead to an entirely new vehicle of expression. So und scarcely enriches
the scope of a film if it is confined to underlinin g or emphasizing the vis ual part.
already complete in itself. \Ve must refine and expand our aco u ~t i c receptivity if
we want to make real progress. The sound film ought to enrich our aco ustic experi.
ence by gi\ing us new auditory values, just as the si lent film has already begun to
enrich our \ision. But contemporary composers of music have so far barely attempted
to deHlop the potential resources of the phonograph record, let alone the radio and
other electronic devices. They ha\e to remold their work to conform with these
developments.
The talking film need not embody an uninterrupted sound ~eqllence. The acoustic
impression can be doubled in intensity if sound i.;; arrangf"C) in phrases of varying

276

lell gth. comme nci ng or ceasin g ab ruptl ). In th e same \\ay as it is possible to arrest
an object \ isua ll ) und see it from a bo\ e or below, profll e or rull race, in norma l
perspec ti \e or roreshort ened, s imil a r possib iliti es ex ist in rega rd to sound. There
must be d iffe rent sou nd a ngles, just as there a re angles or sight, various ly gra ded
combina tio ns of music. speec h a nd noise. The new throa t mic rophone will be one
or the basic tools to rea li ze such effects. In addition th ere are nu merous possibilities
ro r aco ustic closeups, slow motion ( the slowin g down of so un d), accelera ti on (sound
con trac ti on ) , d istort ion. dupli ca ti on a nd oth er ma ni pu lat ions in sound cutt ing. Optical
simult a neit y must fl nd its co unte rp a rt in the rea lm or aco ustics. It must be possibl e,
for exa mpl e. to am plify th e now or music or speec h with simultaneo us so und " tex_
tures" or to inte rrupt the ori gina l line by other sound patte rn s; to slow dow n, mix,
distor t or co ntract. Accelerati on or retardin g of norm a l sequences ca n p roduce
ex trao rdi na ry mut a ti ons of th e indi vidual so und cha racteri stics into hi gher or lower
octaves. Such di stort io ns can be comb ined fo r co mi c effects.
To develop creative possibilities of the so und film , the aco usti c alph abet of so und
writ ing will have to be mastered ; in oth er words, we must learn to write aco ustic
seq uences on the so und track with out having to reco rd rea l sound. - The so und film
comp oser must be a ble to com pose music from a co unterpoint of unhea rd or even
nonexistent sou nd va lues, mere ly by mea ns of opto-aco ustic notati on. The sy nthetic
sound sc ri pts by Humphries, Pfenniger, Avramov, l anovski , Vojnov, Scolpo a re the
most important projects so far rea li zed. Other suggesti ons for sound tricks have
been used in Ha rold Lloyd a nd \Valt Disney films; e.g., accelerati on of speech and
reversed sou nd sequ ences to underl ine comic situa tio ns. But the idea has not yet
FigS. 383-384. R. Pfenn iger. 1930
"Handmade" music
By drawing sound curves and photograph
ing them on a fIlm, visual signs con be
translated into acouhc phenomena. With
this method new possibilities have been
opened for the production of new types of
sounds no t existmg m any of the known
instruments. Also, there is the possibility
of performing a composer's work without
arbitrary mterpretatlon by a conductor

been empl oyed on a broad sca le in commercia l fil m p roducti on.

The first so und fi lm worth y of the na me will be made by the a rtist who succeeds in
discoveri ng new types of acoustic ex pression whi ch a re convinci ngly appropriate both
to the objects and th e events, selected fo r th e co mpositi on beca use of their relati on
ships to one a noth er.

_ I n "De Styl" July, 1922 and "Der Sturn,," Rou m ber 1922, I publ'ished articles about
the possibility of synthetic music production through records and films. I suggested
sound trad's as original c01npositions made by hand or machine without rep roducing
any existing 'nltlsic. I n the bool; "~llalerei, Photographie, F ilm" in 19ftS, I propounded
lhe idea again. i n an experiment , " Th e Sound ABO,>' I used all types of si,qns, symbols,
eren th e leiters of the alphabet, a11d my own fi'nger pl'i'nts. Each t,isual pattern on
lhe sound ttack ptoduced a sound which had the character of whistling and other
110iscs. 1 had especially good results with profiles 0/ persons. SimUar expe rim ents
were also made by Fishillqer Brothers in B erlin, and P fenniger in ~illunich who used
exact ocometrical shapes on lhe sound track. To Pfenniger go the laurels for subse(IUent lhorotloh research cOl1cerninq an exact nolatum system. In the thirties he made
his first motion pictures with synthetic sound tracks drawn by hand. One featured
IIaendel's "Largo ."
. l quick application of the synthelic "tanie" was made by a B ritish film com,pany which
had produced a comedy. A t the first showing it turned out that the name of one of the
less fat'orable characters was by chance that of one of the oldest aristocratic families.
1' hey threatened to bring a damage suit against the company. The film was quickly
withdrawn and the sound track rclouched by erasing the apprehended name and Uwrit i110" by hflnrl a new one where Ihe sacrosanct name had been mentioned.

277

"

film cutting (montage)

\~'hil e in photography not th e ca mera but the li gh t sensi tive emulsion is the key to

genuin e work, in the Illotion pictures not the em ul sion, but the possibility to produce
moti on is the key to film production. And yet th ere is no theory for the use and con.
trol of moti on. In the majori ty of fdms: moti on is still so primitively handled that
even its basic principles remain to be evolved. Practical experience has been con.
fined to a few decades and th e eyes apparently are as yet untrained to receive
sequen ces in si multan eous motion. In th e majority of cases the multiplicity of move.
ments. even if well controlled . still cOllvey the impression of chaos rath er th an organic

unity.
Motion pictures are the assembl age of num erous shots. A film scene is sp liced, glued
togeth er frolll different parts. Thi s is call ed film "cuttin g" (montage). Any film
sequ ence ma y serve as a n examp le. r o r instance:

L A person enters Rocke/eller Cel/ter

2. He speaks to an audien ce
3. A hand thro ws a bottle (close up)
4. Boule flies through the air and misses speaker (long shot)
5. Ha nci slaps Jace (close up)
6. Fist pounds Jace (close up)
111is sce ne suggests tJlat a person goes to the Rockefeller Center and while speaking
to an a udi ence there is atta cked by a ma n throwin g a bottl e. This man is then slapped
an d bea ten.
The peculi arity of this particular film scene is th at all the six shots belonging to it
might ha ve been photographed at seve ral places, in New York, Chi cago, San Francisco. some even in Europe. In s pite of that, the power of assemb lage, the quick
fluidit y of th e action stru ctu re logica ll y report this in cident and create out of the scene
a coherent space- ti me reali ty which never existed. It takes co nsidera ble time to grasp
th is miracle of illusion a lthou gh it exemplifi es the most normal of all possible film
cuts. In fact everyo ne experiences it dail y in the ci nema. It produces a straight,
logical narrative of a strai ght, logica l "one dimensio nal" series of even ts and by it
the begin ni ng of a new philosophy of po ten t but previously hidden relationships_
There are other types of film cuts, more co mpl ex, showing movements on different
levels; e.g., train A is moving from th e station and meets train B slowly moving from
the opposi te direction. Through the window of train A one is watching train B
movi ng away and when occasionally th e windows of the two passin g trai ns are in
direct line, one can gl impse beyond a street with ca rs and pedes trian s moving in
diO'erent directions. Although this fi lm may have been shot "straight" and not even
a sin gle spl icin g made in it, we have here a record of a " more dimensional" event.
And if we would cut between the si ngle scenes closeups of faces and fragments, a
girl with a ve il , runnin g policemen, watches, precious stones, pistols, speeding wheels,
one could quickly associate these thin gs wi th a detec ti ve stor y of stolen diamonds,
escape and ma nh unt. Th is wou ld demonstrate a dramatic, associative cut of the type
which Holl ywood often employs to create tension.

278

The Russians " ere particular!) successful in evokin g associati\e connotations. Instead
of merely cu ttin g th e film in a onedimensional linea r con tent fl ow, they created
strong links between individual si tu ati ons and th e "hole film by rapid cutting of
spa tiall y and temporall y different shots. They also used th e associathe cut lyrically
by introducing seasonal symbols, showing spring, summe r, fall and winter; rivers
packed with ice, storm y clouds, thunderou s sea
ful \\ith thi s type of symbolic cut.

W3HS.

PudO\kin wa s es pecially skill.

In sustainin g the tension of th e drama, for

exampl e. he used the closeup of a dizzil y whirlin g, tin y cogwh eel of a broken
clock- as a visual metaphor- to express the wild tem per of his hero {"Mother" },

In another fi lm "End of 51. P etersburg" he photographed th e rapidl y cha ngin g li ght

and shadow on the face of a mea n but successful facto r y emplo yee risi ng ( in a fast
moving ele\a tor) to directorship. Thus he visualized two la yers of experience, (1)
the rise to an eleva ted position (2) th e grotesq ue psychological co ntrast of rulin g and
crin ging expres:o,ed by the distortion of th e face through the quick change of the
black and white pattern produced by th e gri llwork of the e leva tor.
Film cu ts can be conceived in numero us ways within the perceptional, conceptual
and emotional realm. Today they obvio usly tend toward "more dimensional" solutions which must be de\'elop ed further to co nquer psychological and physical space

tlln e.
The montage of th e future mu st co nsider not so mu ch strikin g visual details but rath er
the total ity of the film , its perceptional message, li ght, space, mOLi on and so und interrelations. Eisenstein's " P otemkin ", Vertov's "The Camera Eye" (the 1\lal1 with the
~IO\'i e

Plow

Camera), Turin's " Turksib" (Ru ssia ), Griffith's " Birth of a Nation", " The

\~ 7 hi c h

Broke the Pla ins" and "The Ri\Ter", both by Pare Lorentz ( U.S.A.) have

a lready made concrete advances in this direction.

Figs. 385 a , b .. Theo van Doesburg, 1929

Diagram of a three-dimensional space
projection

,,
,

,,

Left centric, ri gh t peri pheric movement.

The b la ck field represents the projection
screen u sed so for . The d iagram sho w the
screen "shake n " (exte nde d) simultaneously
in all d irectio ns. Doesb u rg called this the
new c rys talloid fIlmcontlnuum

,,

,
,

,,

.,

.........
,

,,

,
,

.......

,
,

.......... \ ... 1

..

.-

."

\,
\,
\ . .. ____ ___ . _. __ .. _. _ _ _____ ._.l

279

,,
,,

,,

'

"

,,

,,
,,

.... -.......

,
I,
,

,,

,........ _... ..
I
....,

,,

,,

.,

,........... _.

One of the most remarkable film-cuts was made by th e Ru ssia n director. Dziga
Vertov. in his film, "The Camera Eye_" There the interchangeability of persons and
e,enls. the stretching and co ndensing of space and ti me, were demonstrated with
spectacular skill. The sce ne shm\ ed a group of film men arriv ing at a railway sta.
tion. Ther mount a troika harnessed with three racing horses and depart. They are
photographed from a motorcar which run s beside the troika. This car is photographed
from another auto "'hi ch drives parallel to the ga ll op ing hOfl;es. The aulo is seen
th en from the troika and again from th e oth er auto. The negative of thi s film is
th en seen in a film printing laboratory where the positive prinl. made from the nega
tive. run s through th e fingers of the ed itor. and again through th e editing machine.
After thi s another sce ne sho,\s a theater with the audi ence looking at a large sc reen
on which the troi ka scene is being projected. Among the spectators are th e tra"ellers
th emsehes. They see themselves on the screen racin g in the two au tos and in the
troika with th e ga ll oping horses. It ca n be assumed th at Vertov and his associates saw
the whole film in an actual thea te r performance~increa s ing the degree of interchange
ability of space and tim e.
In spite of the simplici ty of thi s event it reveals a new exciting space, time and motion
arti culati on. The back and forth shoo ting of the raci ng vehicles; the tran si tion of
reality to th e celluloid strip, first into a negative, th en the negative into the positive;
th en the tran sfer of thi s strip to th e projecti on screen whi ch does not show the
original shots, on ly an illusion, th at is, the illusion of the illusion. The combination
of a ll th ese element s in th eir as tonishin g interchangeab ility revolutionizes the customary visual as well as conce ptual process. 11 produces a com pletely new timing of
percepti on based upon the translation of ph ys ical motion into pictorial motion also
the trans lation of the initia l action into an objectively observable process viewed by
the acting persons themselves. Though thi s may appear at first bewildering, one must
acknowledge that a new code of space time perception is in the making.
With the film cutti ng (especia ll y if one day so und mon tage will also adopt the same
inventiveness ) , th e motion picture has found its form and substan ce, independent of
th e renai ssa nce thea ter.

genuine technique for the sound filnt

The receptive capacit y of the human ea r is far less rapid than that of the eye. This
physiological fact a lone prescribes a di stinct techn ique for th e sound fi lm. The right
principles of work may take it fa r beyond th e best achi eveme nts o f its sil ent fore
run ner.
Because of the inertia of the ear, the sound film is forced to use shots of greater
length. Thus, if a gil'en scene consists of five sepa rate shots in a silent picture, the
sound film probably would not use more than two or three shots for the sa me scene .

T hat j-ertor did

of his subtlety_

280

110t

Bhoot this scene in its possible pe rpetual succession is a marl...

This is the main cause of the optical dullness of most sound films. And )et there is
no inherent reason \\ hy the necessity for a slower acoustic rhythm should lead to
dlllJne~s in the, isual sphere. The silent fdm, in order to gi,-e a precise three-dimen-

sional rendering of objects. combined, by splicing togeth er short shots, views from
different angles and positions
"as similar

10

from th e front, side, back and above. The method

that of cubism '\ ith the exception that the simultaneity of ,ie":. which

cubism achic,ed by superimposition of s ingle "shots" was exchanged in the film for
a succession of ,ic\\ s in time. A few directors of current pictures have instinctively
emplo)ed a smoother method of taking shots for the three-dimensIOnal definition
of the scenes, namel y shooting with a mobile camera- a cam era mounted On a crane,
able to mo\e at will diagonally, horizontally. verti cally, in a circle or in a co mbination of these direction s- ,-ision in motion. With such a travelling camera it is possible to take continuous shots of any gi,'en scene from innumerable angles and
constantly changing points of vi ew ran gi ng from long shot - to c lose ups. This secures
a fluid solution of three-dimensional rendering and illustrat es th e point that pictorial
dullness is not a necessary sequel to the ullayoidable slowness of the sound film .
Instead of 1ll00ing the ca mera. it is

po~sibl e

to Illo'e th e o bject itself on a revolving

stage, escalator o r com ero r belt. In addition it is possi bl e to mo,e the object and the
ca mera. Both may move at the

~ame

speeds and in different direction::-.

speed and in the sa me direc ti on. or at varying

))1"0'

iding the poss ibilit y for an infinite number of

variations. Shots from a swing. me n") -go round , moving: ship a nd airplane ma y enrich the field even more. At pre:.ent, a ce rtain co mpli cation still ex ists, that is, the
difficulty of sharpl y focussing th e near and th e far with a moving came ra. The human
eye can automati ca ll y fo cus upon objects e'en if in motion . The camera man of the
future
"rubber

most

proba bl y~will

l en se~" -whi ch

haye at hi s di sposal optical systems si milar to the eye,

will automatically hold th e "isual de finition at pin point

sharpness as the camera approaches, mo,'es awa y from, or encircles the object,
wheth er it be a whole scene in lon g-shot or a fragment in close- up. (The whole problem
co uld be solved by emplo) in g a photoelectri c cell to focus automatically.)

color film and long-shol monlage

The slower rl1)thl11 of sou nd film mon tage is an advantage frolll a physiological
point of "iew sin ce it tires th e c)e far less than th e ~ tacca to cuttin g of th e silent film.
That does not Illean that the old " machin egu ncut \\ ill be e ntirely abandoned in th e
future. 1t will be retained as one meth od among Illan y others avai lable to th e film
cu tter, but rapid cuttin g will no longer be th e cu tt ing principle par excellence as in
the ea rl y Ru s~ian films. The same considerations app l ~ "ith e\en greater force to
the color film. If the montage rh)thm of th e si len t fi lm to that of the so und film has
a rati o fi,e to three, th e ratio of sile nt to co lor montage is f"e to two. In other words,
th e co lor film ,\ill use an even slower rhythm than the present black and white
sou nd film since rapid motion produces g realer \ isual uneasiness and more pronounced flickering in color. An excep ti on ca n be made b} carefu l co lor composition,
in troduced for quick ,;isual grasp of short scenes.

281

the visual axis

Color brings th e film director, editor and cutter face to fa ce with many problema,
since up to the present tim e we have had but few opportunities for experiencing the
kineti c potentialities of color. \Vhil e dynamic cuttin g in black-white-gray values was
relatively easy. cuttin g in co lor entails far grea ter responsibilities. Apart from the
fact th at co lor in itself gives g rea ter emotional emphasis to every single scene, it is
necessary to articulate it in its psychophysica l effectiveness by introducing a definite
link for a ll successi ve parts of a color film . Overlaps (s uperimpo sitions) for example,
facilitate the smoo th transiti on from one SCene to another without visual shock .
There must also be a co nsciously planned sequ ence of certain colors red, yellow,
blue, etc.- in relation to each other. Such a relation can be ca lled the "visual axis."
It would, howe\ter, be disastrous if this visual axis were to be sought for in the
"gallery tone." th e yellow-brown varnish coa ting of old paintings or in any single
color fi lter tinge. Anyone versed in the techniqu e of the painter will readily under.
stand the problem raised here. TIle postulate of a single predominant co lor value,
implied in th e co nception of a visual axis. does not mean th at a one-fi lter tin ge should
be used in every color shot. There is a definite temptati on for the technician to submerge a ll color va lues in a monochrone filtering, drawn like a veil ove r the whole
image, because such a " ti nge" acts as an au toma tic, th ough boreso me, " ha rmonizing"
agen t. A rea l vis ual axis is built up on color co ntrasts a nd merely indica tes a pre
dominating co lor or color combination. This co uld be easil y achieved if the idea of

the "light box" (pp. 172, 173, 198-200) would be accepted also by th e producers 01

motion
pictures.
The principle of a visua l axis ca n be and has been already ap plied in black and

white films, as for instance in "The Passion of Joa n of Arc," by the consistent use
of long foca l lenses, or by the use of soft focussing devices as in "Vampire," both
pictures directed by Carl Theodo r Dreyer and excellentl y photographed by Mate.
In " La Pet ite Lil y," Cavalcanti supe rimposed rough ca nvas screening which was
used all over the fi lm as a pseudo visual axis, as a " tex ture linge."

color economy
A co mmon belief of th e professional as we ll as the layman is that color films must
exaggera te color. Exactl y th e opposi te sho ul d be the case. Fi lms overcharged with
color look cheap and ove rdone. The secret of a good color film is th e subtl e mixture
The shock involved in quick succession of disparate scenes-both psychological 011d
physiological-can be eliminated by a number of montage techniques. One 0/ the best
is the orcrlap which tends to reduce the shock iwrolved in juxtaposition of two opposing
emotions; or the shock of di3jointed color change which is a basic physiological react ion.
I n the technique of fadingout the last scene and UequallyU fading-in the next in the
Uot'erlap," the unit 1'alue of color intensity is maintained at one level throughout the
change. I f the ol'erlap is sixteen frames long the fade-out has sixteen diminishing
and lhe fade-ill sixteen increasing values .
At lhe 1l1sliiltie of Design. ('xpPrimetifs in colo r moli01l pictu res showed surprising
psydoiogical ('fleets of shols with the 4" lens.

282

of color with "colored" blacks and grays. Surprise a nd perman ent emoti onal interest
will be secured by th e econom ical use of primary colors. A co nvincin g color film
would be based upon '\ hit e alone with occasional flashes of primary colors.

projectIon

Projec ti on itself is still an unso lved problem. The rectan gul a r screen of our cinema
th eaters is nothin g more than a substitut e for easel or flat mural pa inting. Our con.
ception of space and of the re lations of space and light are still absurdl y primitive,
bein g res tri cted to th e ever yda y phenomenon of light ra ys enterin g a room through
an aperture. It would alread y be possible to enrich our spatial ex peri ence by pro.
jectin g li ght on semitranspa rent screens, planes, nets, trellis- work, suspend ed behind
each other. It is a lso possi bl e to replace the prese nt sin gle fl at sc ree n by concave
or convex secti ons of differin g sizes and shapes which would produ ce innumerabl e
patterns by con tinu all y changin g positions like th e facets of a prism in motion. Dif.
ferent film s could be projected si multa neo usly on th e walls of th e cinema and
fig . 386. 0 L. MohoIy-Na gy, 1924
Scheme of a simultaneous or polY-cinema
Since the projectio n screen in the cinema
is o nly a n imitatio n of the easel painting , 11
is time to malee a sugges tion for a s patial
projection . He re the screen is composed
of a concave segment of a sphere-where
three hl ms (a , b and c) can be simultane.
ous ly shown

astonishin g effects m ight be obta ined by simultaneously foc ussing a number of projectors on gaseo us formati ons, such as smoke cloud s, or by the inter-play of multiform
lumin ous co nes. Fina ll y, the morph ology of light and fi lm will gain by the general
installation of threedimensional projection.
the tasks of film production
The creative use of the three main elements of the film- light, moti on and souncldepend s on th e coo perati on of a whole bod y of specia lists and techni cians. It requires
the active collaborati on of the photogra pher, th e ph ysicist and chemist, the architect,
lightin g expert a nd operator, tile director of th e film a nd th e auth or of the scenario.
Natura ll y, th e creat ive use of fdm is dependent up on th e equipment, the techni cal
possibilities of visual reco rdin g; th e degree to which the recordin g medium is sen
siti ve to light a nd sound ; th e use of ultrav iolet and infra red rays; supersensitization,
etc. Ju st as we can tra in our eyes to see in bad light ing, we shall one day ha ve
cameras abl e to rea ct at hi gh speeds in co mpl ete darkness.
The improvemen t of the fdm depends on th e perfecti on of color, threedimensional
projec ti on. a nd sou nd; upo n simultaneous projecti on ; success ions of screens arranged
in space and smoke, duplicate a nd multiple screens j Ilew a utomatic superimp ositions
and mas kin gs ; fi na ll y- an d mostl y- on spacetime phil osoph y.
It seems th at a sati sfactory solution of such a program ca n be accompl ished onl y
through exhaust ive investi gati on. In th e p relimina ry work, the sca tt ered experiments
of th e constructivists and non -objective pai nters and the authors of abstract fi lms

shou ld be co mbin ed with the elementa l conclus ions of physical sciences. Further
experimentati on and practice woul d th en make for a radical change of tasks in
motion picture producti on .
I tried th is in ihe sce nic experiments for ihe play, uK aufmann of Be rlin," by W alter
Jl ehrin g, performed at lhe P iscator Theat er in 1929 .
See uJlale rei, Ph oto,qraphie, Film," ( A lbert Langen Vertag~ 19125)

283

institute of Ught
1L is astonishing that after a hundred )ears of photograph) and lift) )ears of films,
after the building up of great industrial concerns in which billions have been in\tes ted, th ere does not yet ex ist an institute of light. The new forms of commercial
appeal to th e public, such as press photography, book illustration, ad,fe rtising, fairs,
illumination, festival s, fashion, Ul eater, film, television, would alone justify the existence of such a laborator y_ This should lead to a re-valuation of creative as well as
pedagogical tasks sin ce th e esth etic rul es derived from th e past cannot be exclusively
used in the education of the new artist-designer_
P oten tially, the fi eld of visual ex pression has immensely ex panded through science
and tech nology but practi ca l application ha s remained fundamentally un changed.
The new possibilities of ex press ion are dependent for th eir realization upon a high
standard of kn owledge of light and electri city_ 1t is th erefore imperative that there
be an institute of li ght and color o r institute of electronics-and not in a technological sense alone but in integra tion with th e arts. The objective is to educate
th e student by way of systemati c elementa r y training in a syllabus of the new values
of light and color, including experi mentati on with th e function and property range
of telev ision which also has to be explored in its possibilities without imitation of
theater, moti on picture or radio_ The found ation of such a light workshop which
leads to adva nced experi menta tion- on the basis of an a rti stic and economically pro
ductive conscio usness- is a vital task that awaits accomplishment.

film script
The film script is tIl e media tor between intellectual co ncep t and visual presentation.
a kind of "photo cell" wh ich t rans lates '-brain waves" into images. So far, only the
now exti nct avant-garde has prod uced manusc ripts which were independent or the
dramati c tradi ti on going back to the Greek formula of "unity of lime, location, and
action." On ly a manuscript is film-genuine that cannot be fully und erstood either
in bookf orm or on the stage but exclusively through camera, so und and color.
The following fi lm script "Once a Chicken, always a Chi cken" is an attempt I made:
in this direction. It was wr itten as an a fterth ought to an exist in g photomontage. The
photomon tage was a visual synops is of a number of events: a mu ltipl e Ima ge con-

densa tion fixed in a single frame.

284

Fig. 387. 0 L. Moholy-Nogy , 1924

"Once 0 chicken, olwoys 0 chicken"
(photomontoge)
Visual manuscript for a film so that all
of ils scenes can be visualized at once

on ce a chick e n , always a chick en-

1
a netr(;ork a/lines callers the screen (on irregular spiderweb?)
a number 0/ eggs roll down an inclined plane-toward the spec
tator; those in front are lIery large, those following diminish in
size; single eggs jump into the air.
a hand catches the jumping eggs.
a masked man juggles with eggs.
the man catches eggs out 0/ the air, throu:s th em ortay again, they
l'oni.sh.
more and more eggs in ever more rapid sequence.
(he underestimated the con.sequence.s!)
the man can no longer .save himself from the deluge 0/ egg.s that
rains down upon him.
Ire run .~ away, the eggs run alter him .
(is the "man" a cinema actor? are the eggs girls?)
the eggs are at first small, then increase in si;;e; .some jump, fall,
jump again. some break. the inclined plane is tran.sformed into
the side of a roof. down which the eggs are rolling and leaping.
another egg. it jumps high into the air and runs with lightning
speed dOf(:n the front of the house onto the street.
dou;n in lhe street the egg make.s a few more leaps.
more and more eggs join it, some break, but the majority roll and
leap on.

a street crOIL'ded with walking people.

legs in rapid walking malian, eggs rolling and leaping on the
ground between them.
the legs move rapidly, but the eggs ellen faster.
the eggs roll between the wheels of cars and trams, across tram
lines, leap over fL'ater courses.
drops of water and eggs leap into the air. their whiteness is
offset against a dark background.
th e man is walking along the street. he is mOl'illg in the
opposite (/irecrion to that of the eggs. (tlrus if tire eggs are
m.oving frolll the right to tire left , the man is ItOlking from the
left to the right 0/ th e screen.
in order to draw lhe audience's attention to the fact that they
change tlreir cou rse and follow the man , some eggs begin to
leap in the opposite direction.)
many egg.s roll after the man: small ones, large ones, along a
fairly crowded street.
flOW

shops u:ilh peramblliators. the eggs leap tlrrough the open doors
of shops.
they jI~mp into proms.

- A motif 0/ Kurt Schwilters' short novel "Auguste B olte" is included in the script.

285

ten u.'omen, one after the other, pwh perambulators throu&h the
door of II shop.
again. walking peopl~, egBs rolling be/luen their legs.
in the foreGround the man is running. he turns a corner.
ten pupils of a girls' finishing school, uilh eggs rolling between
their leIs.
at the corner e&gs leap about in distress-they hal-'e lost trace
of the man l4:ith the mask.
ant egg rolls away from the others and rolls on and on.
it finally reaches the door of a house.
s/ou/y the door closes behind it.
th e porter's lodge. the staring face of a fat woman doorkeeper.
mouth gaping in. surprise.
the door again opens-very sloltiy; a young woman, fre~h and
bright, steps alit 01 the doorway. in rhythmic motion she fli cks
the broken shells of an egg from her dress. the /at door
keeper runs aller the girl, hands her an enormous baby's milk
bottle.
u:ith an ironic and superior smile the girl refuses the bottle.
she enters a cafe.

2
short montage sequence showing the interior 0/ the cafe: a 'I-'aiter
balancing a tray; a man. 'I-ho has aCCllm ulated all the al:ailable
newspapers; dogs under th e tables.
the young II-oman en ters the garden in /rollt 01 the cole. she
takes a seat and looks abolLt attentively Idtlt a bright expression.
outside idlers, hurrying, though th l!}' ha/;e nothing to do.
the girl looks at her cu p.
she raises it to her mouth-it con tains chocolate with cream.
small white powers- myrtles-Iorm a taeath .
the head 01 the girl tdth bridal ,;eil and wreath.
shortly afteT/Lard th e man with the mask appears.
Ihe girl puts dOltn the Cli p, looks lip.
at this moment ten men ,dth similar masks pass ou tside.
nine 0/ them are relatively blurred.
th e girl jumps /rom her seat.
she rims 10"(.'(Ird and looks after the men, oblir:ious 10 her sur
roundings
hesitatingly she returns, looks around in a disturbed manner, sits
down.

agam
Jumps
up;
runs a l ew paces, then slows dOIl-n, thinking.
slowly she returns.
h(Ilfu ay she resolutely turns and rushes along betl(.een the ro lVS
01 tables.
th e waiter carrying vast quantities 01 trays O/Id crockery rush e~
alter her uildly shouting and gesticulating in spite 01 his heavy
load.
the man with the newspapers appears I(.itlt an annoyed expression
Irom behind moulltains 0/ newspapers and furiollsly looks alter
the disappearing girl.
Ihe Kajter uith his trays bumps into the man's table.
the man is buried under a deluge 0/ newspapers, lchich com
pletely engulf him.
the u:aiter stum.bles, bllt manages to retain his looting.
trays, crockery, lood-he balances all 0/ it, not a drop of coffee
is spilt from the cups. eggs leap in their gla_u es.

286

the girl is standin& outside, looks to the r;&hl and left.

then she u:alks to Ihe left, where Ihe ten men tire strolling 1Ilo,..
the street.

the girl rushes after the men.

breathless she approaches them, she stops abruptly, in order
SIOlL'ly to overtake themIbul)
the men have just reached a street corner. five turn to the let'.
fice to the right. the girl now also reaches the corner.
lor a long tim.e she remains standing in despair u:ithoul knowi",
what to do.
(1I..,hich way shall she take?)
.
she decides fa follow the group 0/ five men at the right.
she stops halfway, hesitates.
(shall she not follow the other five?)
she runs back and follows the group at the left.
hal/uays she is again beset II-ith doubts. at top speed she rwhes
after the right group.
the /i,:e men increase their pace.
breathless, the girl again approaches them, stops abruptly, (in
order to pass them slowly, but)
th e fice men haL'e reached another corner, three turn to the righI,
lito to th e left.
(which !toy shall she take ?)
the girl has also reached the corner, she stops, thinks, and de
cides to take the righthand course.
hal/rwy she stops and tllrns to the left, stops, thinks and turns
to the righl again.
the girl quickly lollows the righthand group 01 men.
three men 14:alk alollg the street.
(s hall she not /ollow the others ?)
openmouthed, breathing heavily, hatless alld with dishevelled hair
the girl rushes alter them.
close 10 the men she stops abruptly. brushes her hair back,
quickly puts on her hat, prepares to overtake the men(whe n)
she decides 10 follow the group of three.
( bllt)
the men hace again reached the corner, two turning to llle
left, one to the right.
th e girl reaches th e corner. Rithout stopping to think she me
chanically turns to the left.
but th e men hace again reached the corner, Rhen the girl ap
proaches them.
th ey separate: one turns to the right, the other to the lelt.
(It.hich man is th e " righ t" one?)
lor a Iraction 01 a second the mask 01 the man walking to the
right is sharply defined.
exhausted, the girl reaches th e corner.
in a stupor she runs a lew paces to the right.
the girl suddenly stops and turns to look alter the man who
went to the left.
(is th is "the" man?)
but th e man has already vanished.
the girl then turns to the right again.
for down the street the man is just entering a house.
the girl rushes alter him.
completely out 0/ breath the girl is standing ir.. a gateu.'ay. it is
0/ an immense size. th e girl in Iront 0/ it very small. in the
background th ere are many oth er gatell-'ays, bearing dOI(.n upon

the girl as in a nightmare. with a tired gesture the girl wipes

her forehead.
she is climbing steps. halfu:ay up the stairs a charwoman wash.
ing the steps empties her bucket, and a deluge of water
SfL'UpS the girl Jown the Ichole flight of stairs again. in vain
she struggles against the floods .
she rings a doorbell.
(this scene is repeated several times.)
erery time the girl is thrown out of a housedoor, her clothes are
more damaged:
first her hat is missing.
then she appears without her coat.
at last her handbag is snatched by some one from in side a door
1m)'.

the bag opens with. a sudden jerk: coins and noles fall out, but
onto the floor inside the door. the dooor is banged, the money
gone. in t'ain the girl belabors the Joor with both /ists. thor
oughly ,,;orn out she turns aILay.
she knock5 at the door of a flat .
a I('oman opens it-sh akes her head.
inside, a shadow appears.
(the man with the mask?)
the girl pushes the woman aside and rushes toward the "man":
a dre ssmaker's dummy!
the woman occupying the /lot runs after the girl who has begun
to demolish the lamp, chairs, table, elc., in a blind rage.
the It'omen fight.
finally a mighty blow sends the girl /lying through the door.
after adjusting her clothes as best she can, the girl continues her
search.
completely at the end of her strength she meets a postman.
frantically she commences to search the contents of his enormous
bag.
the postman lifts up the girl and /lings her aside.
the girl is thrown against a notice board posting marriage banns.
struggling dolently she at once attempts to escape from behind
the fence.
in the bacl..ground fencing superimposed upon the nindow of a
landing. the girl is standing at the bottom of the topmo st flight
01 stairs.
half a story higher is the last door.
summoning all her courage the girl climbs the few steps.
she rings the bell.
the door is opened by the masked young man.
the girl uants to rush in at once, but the door is slammed in
her face.
dumbfounded she rings again.
in vain: she tvoits for a long time.
slowly she descends a few steps.
she stops on the landing,
hesitates,
returns to th e door and rings again.
again she waits in vain.
she returns to the landing.
she stops in thollght, looks at the door and finally returns to it
hesitatingly and u;ithout hope.
she rings,
waits,
(no result.)

287

slowly the girl descends two flights oj stairs

and three steps more.
she turns abrllptly, dashes upstairs and throu.!s herself with all her
strength against the door, which is shattered by the impact.

3
inside is Ihe man u:ith the mflsk. he takes no notice whatever
of the girl.
he is catching eggs Ollt of the air and throwing them away again.
the eggs leap and dance all around him, some break.
the girl who has just entered the roorn tvilh a mighty bounce
afler having smashed the door, stops and greets him.
entirely unconcemed the man continues his game Idth the eggs.
the girl hesitates then bows again.
the man still ignores her.
the girl then resolutely approaches and grabs his arm.
the man turns his back on the girl and continues his game.
the girl takes hold of both his shoulders and shakes him furi.
ously.
suddenly the gigantic figure of the marriage registrar looms up
in the room; he is wearing a top hat and morning coat. his
hand clasps a flaming sword.
(is it a "shot-gun" marriage?)
the man and girl in frora 0/ him click their heels in military
Jashion and join hands. the registrar's sword is transformed
into a sash .
he It'Olks around thern in a circle and encloses them in a flaming

rwg.
the registrar vanishes as suddenly as he appeared, by walking
through the wall.
the man and the girl sit down at two tables facing each other.
the)' talk, each listening in a detached manner to the other.
they almost soliloquize. they make grimaces at each other.
suddenly the girl jumps frorn her seat.
the man takes his hat, kisses the woman on her forehead and
leaves the room.
the IL'oman goes to the window.
outside children are playing with balls in a park and digging in
th e sand oj a buildingplot; laughing Jaces oj children.
(s pringtim e.)
the man is going to th e registry office.
the registry officer enters the birth of a chiU, just reported by
the mall, in a large book.
the household oj the young couple is povertystriden: dirty
children . tiny ones and larger ones. among them the woman,
in despair.
the man is standing at the windOI/J and looking Ollt at the street
below.
trees in full blossom, young girls, cars dashing along bright roads.
the man takes his hat.
he goes to the registry office.
the registrar enters another birth in his book.
the woman is standing at the tdndow.
be/ow children: they play with. snowballs in the park and with
sledges on the buildingplot. laughing faces of ch ildren.
the man again goes to the registry office, etc.

n'ne mask~d men pass the house.

the ":oman runs aUla/ the door 0/ the fiat onto Ihe staircase, as
i/ intending to /ollow the men.
but doubts beset her, she sloll'S dOlm her poce and fin all)" returns
to the roam.
again th~ poor household, the neglected children.
the man returns. ldtho/lt a word 0/ greeting he thrOIl;S his hat
/uriously onto the bed.
the smaflest children cry.
the law'COllrt in I(;hich the dit'orce is being pleaded.
the j/ldge; the two, very small. in front of him, are encircled by
a ring and make desperate attempts to get away from one
another. after a number of unsuccessful efforts they turn
against each other and commence to fight.
the judge places his hands between them and separates them.
the ring is broken.
the girl hastily retreats, carrying one hal/ 0/ the broken ring.
holding hal/the ring. the girl quickly passes dOlin a street.
a masked man turns and looks alter the girl.
he fol/of(;s her.
(does the game reierse itself?)

the corner th e girl meets another man. also masked.

he joins the first man.
the girl accelerates her steps.
more and more men are /oliou;ing her.
finally the girl th rows al(;ay her hal/ 0/ lhe ring. it is trans/armed in to eggshells.
the eggshells roll alter the girl, overtake her.
the eggshells enclose the girl.
(II

the egg rolls on tdth er:er increasing speed.

many masked men are running and running.
the egg rolls down a hill.
it comes to rest under a china hen.
(aLliance and sa/ety?)
the men also roll down Ihe hill. they tllm somersaults and sturn
ble, some remain lying on the gro/lnd, others rise again.
lhe men stand round the china hen.
the head 0/ the hen.
its plaster eyelids tldnkle.

1925 1930

Here is a sy nopsis of a nother motion p ictu re wh ere a new drama turgy grows out of
pure fi lmic elemen ts.
The fi lm demo nstrates th e refined va lues of th e bl ackwhit e-gray gradati ons of the
pho togram (the ca meraless photogra ph y) in continu ous moti on. At the same time
it uses all possi bl e mea ns of the film techniq ue such as superimpositions-at places
seve n tim es-prisms. mirrorin gs and moving light. Through systemati c use of light
and shadow in motion it tries to co nquer the peculi ar dimension of the fi lm . the
dimension of space-ti me.
The film is composed of six parts. (The six th part of the fil m was executed in 1930. )
I used a kineti c sculpture ca lled "Licht requisi(' (ligh t prop) as the subject.
li s ht dis i/lay, bl ack a nd "",hil e and gray

Large quantities of matches are thrown on a metal sheet, glow.

ing at u,'hite heat. They light nearly at once Idth little expla

swns.
Lightning.
Pyre.
Scenes tdth candle light; with kerosene light; with gas light;
with electric light; carbide; incandescent light; magnesium
larch.
The manufacture 0/ au electric light bulb.
Spotlights. Fresnel lens distortions.
Light crosses sky. Lightning.
Light in motion. Iris diaphragm closing-opening; spiral moving;
large apertures, closingopening; masks moving, snapping.

Lights at night. Clouds, modng, dissollJing, reappearing.

Playa/ searchlight beams.
Lighted boats at night, fishinG with carbitle lan terns, fastened
to their bows.
Airplanes in the night.
Tra cer builets.
C(lr drilJes along a hig/lIw) ill deep sn oll. The road is lit up
by headlights; relief eOects 0/ light and shadow; textures.
Snowdrift.
Moonlight, shadow of twigs on hills and mounds.
Street at night u:ith neon signs. Light spots receding find adwnc
ing, articulating space. Wet (lJphalt surfaces; puddles with
reflections and mirror eOects.

This light prop originally ser1:ed as an experimental apparatus for "painting with
light." My idea u:as that such mobiles could serve as stage properties (p rops) , there/orB
the name. The "light prop" was exhibited at the exposition of the W erkbund in Paris,
in 1930. It was drit'en by motor and equipped with 128 electric bulbs in different colors
operated by a dr11m switrh. (See pp. 238. 239.)

288

.1/

Smeltins mill. GlolI;ing moiletl steel.

Casting; m i,t of sparks.
Firell orks (1/ (I lair. , IJ agll e.~illl/l balls. I/ err),-gorollnd at nighl.
A lighthouse.
Th e uings oj a tdndmill lighted up. Gyration .
Wat er/ails by night, illuminated. Grands eaux, Versailles.
Virtllal t'o/Ilmes. Luminous sticks in different color mal'ing and
rotatin g on various planes producing glowing arabesques.
Prisllls mllirip') ami n mirror doubles 'he scelles. The same
,'('f'f1('S di.,'orted by COII('(we mirrors, reflected in motion by
convex-concave (ferrotype) mirror upon a It'hile twit.
11/

Th eater, Opera. The light equipment.

backstage.
Th e bridge.
Film studio. An artist's studio.
Th e making

0/

Rehearsal; details

0/

a ph ologram.

IV

A metal workshop 1/.-here th e diDerent parts 0/ th e Light Prop

are made.
Vise; lathe; sandpaper bell; disk revoh-ing.
Glass blowing 1/,orkshop. The glass parts 0/ th e Light Prop.
A glass spiral is twisted. Glass grinder grinds segments.
Th e production 0/ parts made 0/ plastic and of wire mesh.
A ssembling 0/ the LIGH T PROP.
Mo tor; electrical contact ; cogwheel transmission ; colored bulb.f.
Flashes.

figs. 388 a, b, c. 0 L. MoholyNO'gy.

1922
Synopsis of on abstract film
The

photogroOIS

stand

for

various

se

quences

"

A play 0/ stencils for the Li ght Prop ; per/orated metal sheets.

grills, srates, etc.
Play of balls (sorting machine). Small ball bearings are thrown
on a nickel sheet, from there they fall throllgh a small hole
(Irilled in the center of a vertical partition.
Mechallical toys with great variety 0/ the mechanism ill motion.
VI

The shadow 0/ the rotating Light Prop.

The superimposition oj metal details l4;ith the shadolts. The
shadow ret'ohing; slowLy the shallow 0/ a ball SlirrOl/fl(Jell by
strong light, modng up and down over the original shadow.
The Light Prop turns; it is seen from abo/e, belOit,. frolltwords,
backwards; in normal, accelerated, retarricll, ((,1('(sc(1 motion.
Close'lIp 0/ details.
A big black shillY ball rolls from left to righ,. From right to
left. Ol-er again.
Pas/the, negalive pictures, fades, prisms; dissohillg.
MOI-'emen ts, queerly shifting grills.
' Drunken" screens, lattices.
II iel4.s throllgh small openings; throllgh automatically changing
diaphragms.
Distortion of reflections. P enduLum.
Blillding moving light flashes. Revol ving spiral, reappearinG.
aGain alld again. Rotation increases; all concrete shapes dissolre in light.

289

And here is a fi lm script " Do Not Disturb" for a color movie written and executed
under my direct ion by the moti on pictu re class.

mathematics books.
They are bored.
Filip pou rs sherry into a glass.
Nick is taking a photo out 01 his It:ailet: Pat.
Nick fills his glass, too; both 01 them drink .
Joanne's picture appears in glassCombing her hair; mou th, /ipslickcharming-

Boys become more tiredColor display (indicating a dreamlike state).

The boys sleep.

Pat in dooru:ay multiplied with prism.

The boys sleep .
Their bodies remain in the chair but, ghostlike, they move au:ay
and leave the room.
Pat again in doorway surrounded Itith miraculous light effects.
She smiles, mOt'es around Itilh promising gestures.
The boys nert'ously walk towards her but Nick is upside dow n.
Pat u:inks wilh her eyes, her lips move with inviting smile; lips
multiplied.
Boys hurry restlessly, their heads severed Irom lhe body are
moving lorward quicker than their legs.
They try to catch each other, rlln last. Jealollsy?

Fig. 389. 0 L. MoholyNaqy. 1925

"Jealousy" (photomontage)
This is the theme of the film

d o n o t dis turb
( a film p oem o n th e th e m e " j eaJou sy")

The Pl aye rs:

Joann e
Nick

F il ip

Pat in dOOr/my.
Close-up 01 Filip with sharp-llnsharp pulsations-dream-dream
-dream .
Joanne looks out 01 a Itindow. iIIany Joannes look out 01 many
tdndolt's. They all smile, laugh.
Two leet running ( Nick) .
Suddenly a city landscape appears Itilh lampposts and bridge.
Filip walks around a lamppost; he is in locus, sometime.s
unsharp, the scene dizzyly revolving.
Is he Imiling lor Pat ?
Filip speeding up on an endless fire escape-

P at

Hand hangs lip sign " Do Not Disturb."

Filip looking through magazines lor color illustrations. Pin-up
girls.
Tears out .sheels; one girl alter the other.
Conlerence on photo montage, at a table- Pat, Filip, Nick.
Pat and Filip laughing.
Studio; still camera . Th e iris shutler opens.
Cut out screen 01 tracing poper: a man's silhouette. Filip comes,
nearly filling the cu tout. Pat measures light.
(The photo will be used lor a photomontage "jealousy".)
Picture taking uith {la.sh light.
More pictflres are taken as parts 01 the photomontage.
Pasting single figures on board. Drawing lines.
Thumbta cking the ready montage "jealousy" OT! the wail.
Judging.

Hand opens a door:

Girl's mouth behind a black maskA terrific mouth!
Door is closing.
Hand opens another door:
Big fingers move, pia)" and lorm a lunny birdi.sh lace 01 a u..'oman.
( Repulsive encounter when one is looking lor a nice girl!)

Pat, Nick and Filip leave school. Happily, jokingl)'. 011 Ihe
street Nick elbolu accidentally a passing girl, Joanne. Both
laugh, embarrassed. Nick winks at Joann e, Pol is o/Jendeci.
Isn't .she his sweeth eart?
Nick turns back to glance at Joanne again.
Pat leat'es abruptly.

"Do Not Disturb" is hung on doorknob.

Light display--dream atmosphere.
Other door is opened:
A girl's lace in halls-yellow-purple-big eyes(terrible! )
The fingers play-more distorted now.
Door closes again.
Light display, door opens:

Nick and Filip sellie down to u:ork studying anatomy and

Richard Ji'ilipou:sl.:i. Robert Graham. Stanley Kazdailis Patricia Parker, Joanne

Reed. Nick Sat'age, Walter Schwartz, Beatrice Tal~euch1..
J

290

.4 no,Se !liggling (up,Side down). It loo/.:'s like a pig's lace.

(A nightmare!)
Door clo,Se.s.
Light Ji.spJay.
Door. Door knob Jodges hand, tning to awid being gripped
and opened-but the hand, at lasl, grabs the handle. Door
opens:
The cul'OIlI screen Irom the begimling. Pal's shadow- whirling
.shadolts- Filip's shatfow- fight- kiss-Pat throfl).s Filip back.
Sign appf'Ors in lIam(;'s:
"The maT/ageme,,' wishes to inlorm you that the waiters already
receit.'ed their gratllities."
Head. a large black silhouette, opens Irighteningly up in the
middle u:ith a u:ondering large ele.
Door c1ose.s.
Light di.sp/ar.
Another door open,S:
Flames fly throllgh space. From the flames the pictures 01 the
pinup girf,S emerge; Nick standing on ladder. catches them.
Nick lills a hammer, nails the pictures on a wail alld tear,S
them dOILn. Pat',S lace pulsates through thi's 'scene. (/,S 'she
jealou's? )
Tran's/llant ,Screen ,dlh the man's ,Silhouette again. Behind it
the ladder.
Filip jumps jrom ladder, with violenl motioll he come,S through
screen which begins to burn .
(/s he jealous?)
Filip ,S,u'ngs the hammer-distorted eyes and mouth; rubber.
like. tlL'iste{/ fingers gesticulate. Where is Pat ?
The finger's elongated, playa piano.
Phonograph ,Set in motion.
I\'ick and Joanne dance.
(Sick and Joanne? Is it not Nick and Pat? No! Nick and
Joanne.)
Only the leet-quick-qllicker.
Piano QllickerDisc ja.sterDance Quicku.
Piano.
Feel.
Disc running Idldly-red and black spirals emerge, growing
lorwards, diminishing bac/mard.
Dancing wildly.
Joanne's happy head IIIrning, u;hirling like a top.
Ecstasy.
Nick touches Joanne too intimately.
Sh e , h ove, him at(l OY.
Joanne and Nick .sland in jront 01 each other.
Joanne taps the floor nervou.sly.
Nick is angrr . fie looks at an apparition :
Joanne's young jace combined Kith the lace 01 a wrinkled, aged
woman.
Light display. Pot's laugh ing jace.
Gratuities,Sign burns.
Nick',S head, angry, eyes Iroll'1I.Water rwhe's Idth great power.
Joanne and N ick go together; stand still again.
From rich loam soap bubble's srow into each other.
( Anger! anger I anger!)

291

Girl nen'ously taps loot.

Gigantic mouth gossiping, scolding.
/lllId, lat'a---cooking, steaming, heavy bubbles 10's'sing up a,S little
J;olcanoes.
Boy lets cigarette loll in rage, kicks it ,dth loot.
Colored /lame,S.
Nick spins his keys la'si on a chain , a ball rushes near and lar.
Steam; ice cubes emerge lrom it 'slowly.
Nick is calmer.
River smoothly /lowing- slln reflects on l41ater as manysided

pnsm.
Fingering a red rase; casually dropped in to 'he water.
Bluish colors dissolve in water-cooling {lawn 01 emotions~
"Do Not Di,Slllrb" hanging on door.
Bare landscape.
"Do Not Disturb" hanging on tree blown by wind.
Sign /lies through airSign on asphalt, moving, /lying, restillg, flying.
A utos run over it.
Pat's head revolves like a top.
Filip s head-lallghing. whirling- superimposed.
Scissors cut the film.
Fig. 390. 0 Niko Geane, 1942
Shadow of the future (d ouble exposure)

liter. flirt!

An analysis of exprcl3sion in different media sho \\s that behind all types of work
there is a unifying experience, namely. the conl3ciously absorbed or passively endured

reality common to all people Ih ing in the sa me period. Thus literature expressing
this reality must be considered an integral part of the student's training, in addition
to the visua l arts. This is one more step in the process of becoming conscio us of
the new directions and the new concept of lifc.

first steps
In order to experience and participate actively in a ll the aspects of co ntemporary
lit erature the studen t must be acquainted through records and co nce rts with

(1) the tendencies of contemporary composers such as Stravin sky, Bartok, Schoenberg, Hindemith, Krenek, lVIilhau d. Copeland. Varese and others. Their works offer
an enlightening ana logy to modern literature as well as to con tem porary painting.
Like cubism and constructivism the modern polyphonic music with its interwoven,
intricate traits, the experiments of the bruitists ("noise-ists" pioneered by the futurist
Luigi Russolo, 1913), will lead to an analysis of literary equivalents; to the

(2) simultaneists, Iuturists. as they appear in the work of Gu illaume Apollinaire,

F. T. l\iarinelti, Vladimir l\ layako\ski and from there to the

292

(3) e).pression ists and proto-surrealists: August Stramm, Lajos Kassak, Franz
Kafka, Yvan Go lI, Ezra Pound , Gertrude Stein, J ean Cocleau, Blaise Cendra rs, Berl
Brecht, etc. to th e

(4) dadaists: Tristan Tzara, Jean Arp, Hugo Ball. Richard I-Iuelsenbeck, Kurt
Schwi tters, Ribemont-Dessaignes. etc., to th e
(5) surrealists and

(6) James Joyce

Besides these more or less modern trend s the stud en t may study :
(7) th e historic background of world literature;
(8) poems by children;
(9) poetry of the psychotic.
"erbalized communication
Literature can be defined as the verbalized form of communicat ion generated by
psychological and biological forces.
Literature in the same way as the other arts- has its inherent laws through the
structural use of its own medium: language. Language is derivative, is the product
of a historic development. The words. beside their intellectual historic meaning,
a lso carry subco nscio us, emoti onal co nnotations. Literary evaluati on begins at this
leYeI. beyond th e purely logica l con tent of co mmuni ca ti on.
" The onl y peculiar characteristic of literary ex periences is that they are evoked
by lingu isti c symbols rather than by other stimuli. . . . But the symbolic process
here is not a crude one. The words themselves in a poem or play or novel tell a
story. to be sure, but the pattern that the story takes, the even ts within the story and
their relationship to each other, are th emselves a complex s),mbol. And the meaning
of this complex symbol is the origina l experience. The judgment of a work of
literature, then, is a judgment of its value as an exper ience: but the task is delicate
and sensitive. and great harm may be done by a crude or naive or legalistic approach.
'''Chat is to be evaluated is the evoked experience as a whole, and the details are to be
judged not as facts but as evocative symbols."

Poe once $aid that "cellardoor" is the

loveliest $ounding and most pleasing
combination oj English words. Every.
one ha$ jrom time to time a little pri
t'ate musical delight tdth one word or
another which suddenly take$ on a
quality entirdy unbecoming to its nor
mal. pede$trian junction. Suddenly. it
"tintinnabulates." There should be I;ery
lillIe poetry ij tl.ords had not this
jaculty.

One has to add to this that " literary experience" must be en larged upon by the inclusion of sound and rhythm, functionall y simil ar to music in their psychophysical
effect. In the new literature these elements are included as essent ia l components and
they would appear nonsensica l if one would no t accept th em on th eir own levelas "music." Through these elements the new litera ture a ttempted to rejuvenate language so that its emotional, expressive sound qualities co uld become as much differen tiated as the colors or textures in the contem porar y visual arts. '111e inclusion of
argot. scien tifi c and artistic Idioms and grammatical analogies deri\'ed from different
languages helped to accomplish thi s on a broad scale.

T he quota tion is f rom a review by S . I. llayaJ..awa, UPo elry," ..llay 191,2, on T. C.

P ollock, A'en lldh H" ,./'-e a"d Allan Tale.

293

The elusiveness of such complex relationships does not allow much more than the
description of their isolated emotional qualities, just as Goethe or Kandinsky described
the "psychophysical" effects of single colors or color pairs. And if the language of
both Goethe and Kandinsky was insufficient to define even the meaning of multiple
color combinations when they appeared in complex relationships, as for example,
in a painting, it is rather doubtful whether- at this moment- we could with greater
success interpret th e co mpl exity of a literary form. Another possible approach would
be to see literature as it is embedded in its time, conditioned by society; as the emotional mirroring of personality and group problems. Literature as any other artby the unco nscious logic of relationships and b y their implied consequences can
exp ress and forecast trends. Thus literature may become the vehicle for an emotional
orientation toward social and cultural tasks. However, this dependence upon timebound forces does not necessaril y mean photographic reporting of reality, the portra yal of happeni ngs .

Visualizat ion, verbalization, music and dance are tools we have to express a concept
and to master the new conditions in and around us. Visualization is th e task of the
visual artist. Verbalization is the domain of the writer and the poet. But "you cannot
express unless yo u have a system of ex press ion; and you ca nn ot have a system of
expression unl ess you have a prior sys tem of thinkin g and feeling; and you cannot
have a system of th inking and feelin g unless you have a basic system of living. . . .
These views may not be expressed categorically and literally as in a catechism, but
they are of the essence of all such works, and indeed a great art work is inconceivable which is not the ex pression of the philosophy of life held by its creator."
There is, however, not only a personal dynamic "philosophy of life"; every political
and economic system also has its often obsolete philoso phy of a decaying status-quo.
And through the various channels of communication, its literar y representatives
expound that philosophy or camou Aage it-as the case may be. Ninety percent of
the average literature co ntains cliches, mealy-mouthed homil etics, intentionally or
unintentionally misdirecting and wasting human energies. An old Hun ga rian quip
at a politician's empty declamation, has it: " Here is nothing, but hold it fast!"
Writers produci ng thi s kind of material drug the gullibl e and enervate the healthy.
This is not the stra ight counterrevolutionary, fascist propaganda also contained in
much of popular literature and th erefore palatable to most peo ple. Rather it is a
more insidious element of pseudo-problems wrapped in sweet love stories, hairraising adventure, moonlit hocus-pocus and the like, replaci ng solid structures by
gilded facades in the effort to maintain an outm oded form of living. The result is indifference to the ungilded truth concernin g the social fabric and indifference to the
use of language with its revolutionizing, perceptional values and new rhythm. People

"On Poetry/' by Louis Sullivan in uKindergarten Ohats/' S carab Frat ernity Press,
1984.

294

fall easy victims to demagogues wh o conve rt this indifference into a phlegm and

brutality. Seri ous authors in eve ry period tri ed to co unteract this tendency. Such
writers as Walt Whilman, Rimbaud , Lautream ont, etc., had deepl y satiri zed this
process.

Whitman and Laulreamonl

By 1849 most of the civil wars had end ed in Europe. They were fought as holy
wars of liberati on of the workin g man. Most of the partici pants were inspired by

id ealism and humanitaria n h opes. Th ey saw the dawn of a new era coming-a
g reater huma nity-th e end of all hypoc ri sy. Their hopes turn ed to tragic d is illusio nment. After the civi1 wa rs, co rrupti on rolled over the world. The nouveaux riches
came to the forefront. Th e snobbism of Napoleo n Third overtook th e globe. In the
mudd y waters sha rks swam, devo urin g the small fi sh . Whitman was in a holy fur y:

"R esponde::! R esponder.! - ( The war is completed-the price is

paid- the title is settled beyond recall;)
Let eLery one anJwer! let those who sleep be waked! let none
eL'Ode!
Must we still go on with ou r affectations and sneaking?
Let me bring this to a close-l pronounce openly fo r a new
distribu tion of roles;

Let that which stood in front go behind! and let that which
was behind advance to the front and speak;
Let mu rderers, bigots, fools, unclean persons, offer new proposi.
tions!
Let the old propositions be postponed!
Let faces and theories be tum'd inside out ! let meanings be
freely criminal, as well as results!" . . .

And \V11 itman goes on with imprecati ons as desperate and ac id as literature has
ever produced. H e who gave s wea t, blood, bod y and soul, ever ythin g, to the right
cause stand s helpl ess, the great betrayal sweeping over him and th e inn ocent mil
li ons. " Let insa nity still have charge of sanity!"

"Let the sun and moon go! let scenery take the applause 0/ the
audience! let there be apathy under the stars!
Let freedom prove no man's inalienable right! eL'cry one who
can tyrannize, let him tyrannize to his satisfaction!
Let none but infidels be countenanced!
Let the eminence of meanness, treachery, sarcasm, hate, greed.
indecency, impotence, lust be taken for granted above all!
let writers, judges, governments, hou.seholds, religions, philoso
phies, take such for granted above all!
Let the worst men beget children ou t of the lI;orst women!
Let the priest still play at immortality!
Let death be inaugurated!
Let nothing remain but the ashes of teachers, artists, moralists,
lawyers, and learn'd and polite persons!
Let him uho is without my poems be assassinated!
Let the cow, the horse, the camel, the gardenbee--let th e mud
fish. the lobster, the mu.ssel, eel, the stingray, and the grunt

ing pigfish--let these, and the like of these, be put on a

perfect eqlUllity with man and woman!
Let chllrches accommodate serpents, vermin, and the corpses of
those lI:ho have died 0/ the most fil thy 0/ diseases!
Let marriage slip down among fools, and be lor none but /oob!
Let men among themselves talk and think forever obscenely of
women! and let women among themselves talk and think
obscenely of men!
Let us all, without missing one, be exposed in public, naked,
monthly, at the peril of our lives! let Ollr bodies be freely
handled and examined by whoever chooses!
Let nothing bu.t copies at second hand be permitted to exist
upon the earth!
Let the earth desert God, nor let there eL'er hen ceforth be men
tion'd the name of God!
Let there be no God!
Let there be money, business, imports, exports, Cilstom, author

Published fiTst in 1856 but with significant lines added to it after the civil war.

295

iO. pr('n.(hII ' ,~, pal/or. (I).\pep.~ifl. slllul, ig norance. III/beliel!

l.d judges and criminals be transposed! let the prisonkeepers

be put in prison! Let those that were prisoners lake the keys!
(Say! why miRhl they not just as weLL be transposed?)
l.f!l the slat'es be masters! let the masters become sial.;es!
l.et the reformers descend from the stands where they are for.
evtr bau.;ling! let an idiot or insane person appear on each
oj the stands!
Let the Asiatic, the A/rican, the European , the Americall, alld
the Australian, go armed against the murderous stealth iness
oj each other! let them sleep arm ed! let nOlle believe in good
will!
( Walt

Whilman: "Respondez" from "Leaves

What

Let there be no un/ashionable wisdom! let such be scorn'J and

derided 08 from the earth!
Let a floating cloud in jhe sky-let a u:ar.;e 0/ the sea-ld
grorLing mint, spinach, onions, tomatoes-let these be exhibited
as shows, at a .great price /or admission!
Let all the men 0/ The se States stand aside lor a lew smouchers!
let the lew sei:.e on l4;hat they choose! let the rest gauk,
giggle. starve, obey!
Let shadows be jurnish'd ,Lilh genitals! Let substances be de
prived 0/ th eir gellilals! . . ."

0/ Crass," The Heritage Press, N.Y.;

PO\\

er of despair! At the same time

clad in "nonsense"-\\ hat daring clarity

about the co ndition into which the ruling class was sliding.
Whitman \\as the grand old popular revolutionary of poetry in the 19th century.
He was a part of the new philosophy, the prophets of \\hich were Dan\in with his
theory of e,'oluLi oll , the monists and pragmatists with the suddenl y acquired security
of their new scien tifi c and utilitarian values. Na tural science, th ey held , would
so h'e the wo rld 's problems. \VhiLman was also responsible for the ideolo gical change
\\ hi ch led to th e s) nchronization of science a nd democracy, a close-up naturalism
like a glorifi ed photog raph . His ta sk was to find the ade<luate objective lan guage
for thi s new co nt ent. He disca rded the aristocrati c. formal , rh) me-bound verse for
th e free rh ) Ihm of di cti on and word combinations of associa te d) namics.
Even Co unt Lautn!amont (Isidore Ducasse, 1846.1870) poet of the subconscious,
the most subj ecti" e writer of th e 19th century, turn ed against sentimentality and
declared his agreement with the objective trend of th e sciences: " You should not
weep in public .... We should take up again th e thread of the impersonal poetry."
Lautrea mont lived in France's dark period under Napoleon Third. ]n today's terminology, perhaps loosely, we co uld call the emperor a fa scist. By clumsy cheatin g
and lyi ng he eli minated human righ ts. The best French patri ots were taken to
priso n or \\ ere exiled without public clamor. The co rrupti on of co urt and law.
judges, lawyers and speculators had driven the co untry toward chaos. But the
farm ers. merchants and middleclass empl oyees were intoxicat ed with a propaganda
of prosperity a nd bogus reforms. \Vhat co uld a sensitive writer do about such
co nt emptible reality?

Go into ex ile as Victor Hugo. sitting homes ick on a Guern-

sey rock. thund ering his wrath against the Emperor like a prophet of the Old
Testament?
Tn his "Chants de Maldoror" (1868) Lautrearnont gave a magnificent satire of the
age by clo thin g seemingly senseless trash in th e appa rel of logical context.

296

". . The first and ani}" thing I SOIL IL'as a lightcoloured rod
compost'd 0/ cont's thru.5t into one another, This rOll IIUS mar"
ing about! It .ws u:alking around the room! Its Liolell ce I(;u S
such that the /loor shook beneath it. With its t Im ends it tore
huge gasht's in the I(.."olls. and resembled a bauering.rom bt'ating
against the "'alls 0/ a beseiged city. Its eDorts were useless lor
the rcalls lare built 0/ freestone . I saw this rod, Ithert it struck
against the IL"all, bend like a steeL blade and bound back like an
elastic ball" So it was not made 0/ wood! Theil I noticell it

coiled and IIn coiled ,dth ease, like 011 eel. Althollgh as tall as
a malt it did tlot hold itself erect. Somelimes il tried to do this
and e~hibited one 01 its ends at the 8m/ing. It bolttl(led about
impetuollsly, fell again to the ground, and could not stale in
the obstacle. I e:camined it more and more narronl), and /irllllly
I perceiL'ed that it was a hair! A/ter another I..io/ent strllggle
with the material that hemmed it in like a prison , it laid itsell
down on. a bed that was in that room, its root restillg on the
sheets olld its poillted end again st the bed's head. ... "

The qu otati on has an ex traordinary similarity to Poc"s diction, but th e lIloti\ cs are
differen t.

Whil e P oe's interest \\ as some \\ hat introvertedly conce ntrated on th e

betweenla)crs of exis tence, the intangibles of the subliminal vision, almost arllici
paling Freud's psychoanalysis, Lautream ont- notwithstandin g the magic of his ow n
insights into the subconscious- took a belligerent stand toward his lime and co n
tempora ri es. I f the social system were co rrupt and evil, he showed hi mself supere\"il. He \ ented his rage into blasphemy; he too k "nonsensical" s)ll1bols as an
instrum ent to stir his fell ow citi zens into co nsciousness of the moral chaos, usin g
these sy mbols as a kind of homeopa thic remedy.
S. 1. Ha )a kawa's review (q uoted above) commen ts on another aspect of thi s life
savi ng function of literature:
"The power to manipulate sym bols for one purpose or another is palt of man 's
survival mechanism. Burke's conce rn is how men manipulate sy mbols in ord er to
fulfill inner needs, to cope with distress or frustration, to resolve co nfli cts. . . . Art
is, to Mr. Burke, 'a remarkably co mpl ete kind of biologica l adaptati on. ' Even as
our bodil y organiza ti on heals itsel of injuries by means o f selfactive physiological
mechanisms, so our eva lu ati onal orga ni zati on (m ind, spirit ) heals itself by means
of the spo ntan eous opera ti on of symbolic mechanisms. 'P oetr y . .. is undertaken as

equipmenl for living, as a ritualistic way of arm in g us to co nfront perplexities an d

risks.' "
From "jJ1aldoror n ( Ohapter 3) translated by Guy lVernham . Tt is int erest ing to com.
pare this passage with the fo llowing from P oe's " Th e P it and the P endulum":
"]Iy ou tstretched hands at lentl l lt encoun t ered som e so lid obstruct ion. It was a wall,
seemingly of Sl otH' masonry-ver y smo olh . sl im y . and co ld. T f ollowed i t up; s t epping
with all the cnrefttl dis tr ust wit h which cert ain ant ique na )'rati l'es had itl s pired me.
'l'his process, },owHer. a fforded m e no m eans of asceriaininq t he dimensions of my
dun g eon ~' as 1 might make its circuil, (w d return to ihe point whence I set ou t, without be ing aware of Ihe fact. so perlectiN lilli/o)'m seented t hl' wall" I there/o re sought
th e knife which had been in my pochl when led i n to the inquis it or ial cham,ber, but
it was g0118: my clothes lIf1d 71efl1 e:rc lw lI ged f or a w rapper of coarse se rge. [had
thought of forcing the blade il1 so m r minute cret'ice of t he m asonry. so as to "iden tify
my point of departure. The di ffi culty, l1erertheless. was but trivial, although in t he
disorder of nI!J fancy. it seemed at /i rst insupe rable. T tore a part of thf hem f rom
the robe. and placed the fragment at full length. and at right ang[ps to the wall. I n
groping my tray around the prison, I could not fail to encountrr this rag upon completing the circuii. So . at least. I thollght. but T had not counted upon the exfent of
the dllngeon or upon my own weakness. T he g roH nd was moist and slippery. T staggered onu'ard for some time, u'hen I sluntbled and fell."

297

]n America after the Civil War, there came a long period of high-pressured ind. .
trial development. Achievements of production and distribution were consolidated;

the power of the industrial pioneers anchored in monopolies, supported by

legiala~

tion and press, used all means of persuasion to manufacture a make-believe CanaaD.
Over the clear voice of the democratic prophet, Whitman, the new generation placed
its muffling hand. The Franco-Prussian war left Europe in a similar condition.
Apollin3ire. Morgenstern. Stein.
But there was a storm brewing. Youth felt the growing unrest- felt everywhere
doubledealing, especially in the sly attempts to preserve obsolete institutions that
had had their day. "One can not carry everywhere the corpse of one's father," Guillaume Apollinaire sighed (1912). He and his friends were longing for the "immensity of space" as the intellectual antipode to the immensity of the "frontiers" and
The "calligrt:ms" of Apollinaire hal'e
their co unterparts in the baroque literature- text printed in certain shapes
such as a vase or a bird. But they are
reoccurring as an eternal problem also
in the work of th.e present generation.
Here is th e second part of a poem by
Herb ert R ead, the English poet:

the immensity of the potential markets of the steel, oil and beef barons: a world of

Beata I'alma

Mallarme (1874) demanded that "the initiative be given only to the word." The
poet should master the word instead of being its victim.

New childr('n mu~t be born of gods in

a deathless land, where the
unero<i('d rocks bound clear
from cool
gla.-,:;y tarns, and no flaw is in mind or flesh.
Sense and imsge they nl\l:;t refashion
the\- \\"111 not recreate
love: love ends in hate j they will
not use
words: word s lie. The structure of events
alone is
comprehensible and to Bingle
perceptions communi cation is not essential.
Art ends;
the indiddunl \\orld alone is valid
nnd that gives ease. The water is still;
the rocks ale hard and veined,
metalliferous, yielding
an ore
of lugh worth. 1n the sky the unsullied
Bun lake.

Read states that "The fo rm of th is poem

is a spatial structure-a repetition of a
pattern of syllables.
The rhythm of the poem runs coun ter
bO the spatial structure : it is a counter
point to the form.
Thu s the form (space) and rhythm
(time) 01 the poem, instead of runn ing
a parallel series, are held in tension
against each other."

plenty and privileges, and of famine and want. This was the world which stirred up
the thought and imagination of artists. How to change, how to overcome it? Where
to start? Would political upheavals help ? Social utopias? What is the duty of the
artist among the economists, philosophers, statisticians and revolutionaries who fight
against reaction? The artist and poet might have another way to turn the wheels!

One might look upon Mallarme's statement, which gives priority to the individual
unit of literary exp ression, as a reflection of 19th century individualism. It seems
to indicate that th e artist living in a certain period has to take up the attitude of
his milieu. It is much too true that the mechanics of creation strongly reflect the
dominating events and attitudes of a period. But there is a reciprocity. The end
effect is dependent upon the interpretation; upon conforming or opposing; being
burned or only singed. The revolutionary potentialities of the creative mind often
arrive at an unexpected terminal shootin g past the official stop signs. Mallarme in

his attempt to give the individual word a greater impact. transcend ed the atomlza-

tion of his age. The "word" was chosen by him as the basic element in order to
clarify its quality and potentiality, so that afterwards one could put it into effective
use- for the social purpose beyond "the pathos of the individual." The same is
true of Guillaume Apollinaire. His ideogram "Aussi bien que les cigales" shows his
ferocious co ntempt for the bourgeois and implicit in it is an attempt to build up a
more biological approach to life. Apollinaire's poem throws light upon his situation and that of others of his contemporaries. The 19th cen tury artist was dependent
for his livelihood upon bourgeois patronage which quickly degraded him to lackey
service. To exercise criticism, Apollinaire had to use some kind of deception. So
he descended to the lowest creature, to the funny cricket, and elevated it to an
attractive symbol; the disguise as of the jester who declares the truth by turning
somersaults in an intellectual dimension. There the intensity of spiritual space, "the
adorable joy of the solar peace," became a substitute for the lost independence.

298

Auui bieD que les Ci... les -

.4. JJ1ell A. the Cricket.

People 0/ the Sou th , people 0/ th e South , lOll. haL'e nol then
uarched the crickets tt.hich ) oU do not know how 10 dig that
you do not know how to enlighten you nor to see. What do
you need to see as It'ell as the crickets. But )'OU still know how
to drink like the crickets. Oh, people 0/ the South, people 0/
th e sun, people It'ho ought to know how to dig and to see as
l4;ell at least as th e crickets. So what! lOll kflow how 10 drink
and no more Imow how to piss use/ully like the crickets the

day 0/ glory will be that when you !t ill know how to dig to go
oul well to Ihe sun .
Dig, see, drink, piss like the cricket s.

People 0/ the Sou th it is necessary 10 see to drink to pISS as

well as the crickets in order to sing like them.

THE ADORABLE JOY OF THE SOLA R PEA CE.

The poem about the cricket \\ as considered indecent in a society where even the
"stomach" was rega rded as too shocking a reality. But this was the same society
which tried 10 keep up the fi ction that babies are brought by storks; which punished
with con tem pt those ill with venereal disease; and which maintained a prim mask
behind whi ch co rruption and graft thrived. Whitman, Lautn'!a mont, Apollinaire
hurled pagan words in the face of thei r contemporaries, not in order to be indecent,
but to prove that one need not be ashamed of "calling a spade a spade."
For the burgher the emotional connotation of such poems was "terrible." Even
decades latcr society could not bea r their storm y, atmospherecleaning quality. James
Joyce's "Ulysses," for example, was literall y burned.

"The Funnels," an ideogram by Christian Morgenstern, Germany (1905 ), is

larl y but more innocently one of the starting points of the new " liberated literature."
It may seem unfair to compare it with the bitter irony of Apollinaire. Still, it is an
Fig. 391. Ch ristia n Morgenstern. 1905
Ideogram "The Funnels"
(from the book " Golgenlieder")

attempt to break the co nven ti ons of con tent and the customa ry form of typograph y,
and with it, sym bolically, the con tent and form of society which applied its great
rules of th e past only mechanicall y. lt is also an attem pt to render si multaneo usly
object, word and image, a short cut to coordinati on and interchan geability of the

new age.
values of a comlllg
The Funnels
T wo /unn els are roving through the night
Throllgh their bodies' narro wed shaft
POllrs white moonlight
Calmly and merrily
On their walk
Throllgh th e
Woods
e t
r.

from uA vollinaire" (pu blished by L'E spril N ouveau, Paris. 192-4)

I t took ten years of legal controversy un til the brilliantly writte n dec ision of J udge
Woolsey (1988) lif led th e han on the book denounced as uobscene."

299

The same "na ive" attitude appears in the work of Gertrude Steil!. Her seemingly
pri miti\ e stamm erin g, her repetitive childlike statements hide sharp criticism. It is
a can n) form of attack in the gui se of sancta simplicitas. Hiding in the skin of the
imlOcent and unso ph isticated, she often offers the most shocking of all statements,
the truth. The use of slang and th e cheap words of sill y conversation, signify a new
,\ay to int roduce totality of social structure into literature as Va nGogh did with
th e pain tin g of a pa ir of shoes, potatoes and stra w-covered chairs. The common.
place, pebbles worn smoo th by th e streams and waves of routin e talk. acquires in
Ge rtrud e Stein a polished, we llshaped qualit y. Through th e relationship \\ hi ch she
d iscovers beh\ een such fragment s she ex poses- like th e cubist collages a nd the
moti on pictures- all th eir di sc ree t con notat io ns a nd deepl y characteri zing values.
aCrea t style ? No thi ng is more bea utiful th an th e comm onpl ace," said Baudelaire.
Sherwood Anderson's introdu cti on to th e work of Ge rtrude Stein- has a passage
\\hi ch sho\\ s Stein 's grea t affinit y with the theo ry of the revolutiona ry French writers
of the 19th centu ry, especia ll y with Malla rm e. " .. . One wo rks with word s. and one
wou ld like wo rds th at have a taste on the lips, th at have per fum e to th e nostrils.
ra ttlin g wo rds one ca n th row int o a box an d shake, making a sha rp jingling sound,
words that. \\ hen seen on the printed page, have a distinct a rresting effect upon the
e}e, words th at ,\ hen they j um p out from un der the pen one may feel "ith the fin
ge rs. as one mi ght caress th e cheeks of his beloved . And what I thin k th at th ese
books of Ge rtrude Stei n do in a very rea l sense is rec reate life in wo rd s."
The ski ll of Ge lrude Stein in evoking life with wo rds is greall y due to her abilil Y
to \'e rba li ze images. Her writing ,'e ry ofte n reads li ke a shooli ng sc ri pt for a rnolio n
picture. includin g sound effects.

Fr o m "Geography a nd Plays"
by Gertrude Stein (1922)
" Ink of paper slightly mine breathes a shoulder able shine.
Vecessity.
Year glass.
Pul a stol;e pUl a slOl;e hoarser.
If I I(.OS su.rely if I u:os surely.
See girl says.
All the same brigh t.
Brightness.
When a churn say suddenly !4.hen a churn say suddenly.
Poor pOllr procenl.
Lillie branches.
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale

Pale
Pale
,Y ear sights
Please sort s.
Example.
Example.
Put someth ing down
PUl som ething down some (lay.
Pu t somethin g down some day in
Put somet hing dOfm some day i/l my
In my hand.
In my hand righ t.
In my hand luillng.
Pllt something dO/4.n some day in my hnndwrifill/<.
Needless less
Neve rtheless
Neuer the less

"GeogrtllJ"Y (lnd PInys," 1022. Thp Pour 8p(ls Co.

300

PeplWrness.
Netu the less ('TirO stress.
l\'et'u the less tenderness.
Old sight.
Pearls.
Real linl'.
Shouhiels.
Upper slates.
lIere colors.
R ecen t resign.
Search needless.
All a plain all a plain show.
Wh ile papers.
Slippers.
Slippers IlIfdcrt/COlh.
Little It'll.
I chance
I chance 10
I chance 10 do
I chance to.
What is a Il'inlu It cdtling a ,tinier Redding.
Fu ",i.~h sents.
Furnish seats nicel)'.
Please repeat
Please repeal jar.
Please repeal.
Th is is a nOllle jar Alina.
Cllshions anti pears.

R eason purses.
R eason purses to rela), to rela) ClIrf"'"
Marble is thorough jare.
Nuts are spittoons.
Th at is a It:ord.
That is a word careless.
Paper peaches.
Paper peaches are lears.
R est ift grapes.
Th oroughly needed.
Thoroughly needed signs.
All but.
R elining relieVIng.
Argonauts.
Th is is plenty.
Cunnillg saxon symbol
ymbol oj Beauty.
Thimble oj eterythin8.
Cunning eloter thimble.
Cunning oj elt'rJthing.
Cunning 0/ thimble.
Cunning cunning.
Place in pets.
Night to,,,,,.
Night tou;n a glass.
Color mahogany.
Color mahogany center
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rO.~e . .. : '

The idea of th e mot ion picture, nam ely, to reco rd a story in images, may also ha\t!
been the stimulus for the ideog rams of Apollinaire.

He ma y ha\-e started wilh a

personal aim- to create- as th e medi reva l troubadours- a co pyrighted, inimitable ex

pression for himself, a visual slang of the super-intellect. The real efTect of thi s
step, ho\\ c\'e r, "as to liberate literature from the disparateness of th e e}e and ear_
from the. monotony connected with the dulln ess of regular

-...

"

r "-

t~

pograph). Wh ile a

normall y printed te}.. t is usuall y read by th e eye, yet it has only been conceived of as

1:"

""

l:.

a sign language for the ea r. By exchangin g the visual appearance of the words, by
printing th em in unusual shapes, larger, small er, di ~torted , etc., a \i sual dimension
is add ed ; one perceives th e words with a combined sharpn ess of th e C} e and th e ea r.
These ideograms may appear as ha rmlessly decorative as the emb lems of th e 17th
century, bu t th ey actually d)na mited co nventi on.- Apollin a ire introduced the "annoyance-usc" of words with ph ys iological co nnotation . He also sco rred at no rmal
sy ntax ; discarded the conventio nal printing with th e hori zo nt a l\ert iral ax is : he

Fig. 392. Guillaume Apollinaire, 1916

Ideog ram
drom the book 'Cailqrammes. poemp.s de
Ie pau: el de la querre, 19131916")
Ideograms were used rather soon after the
lnventlon of tho:! lener press. especially in
the limes of the baroque. However, their
decorative meanmg was overshadowed by
the funcllonol purpose of expressIVe leqibil
::y 01 the nw ideograms by ApolhnOlre

sought an "eye-opener" \\ ilh which 10 startle the complacent citizen. The e~eear
sensa ti on (about 1913 ) is only one of the practices which Apollinaire in trod uced
int o literature. H is great inno\ation \\as the poetry of "simuhaneil\, ." Simu ltaneit\.

"The only genuine art cont ribution of any epoch is flot one thflt mirrors its epoch.
but one thal supplies what the epoch lacks." ( Jam es J ohllson Sweeney, "transition"
"So. 22)

301

meanin g synchronization- happenin gs at the same tim e

was a time coordination

of space and action, the beginning of "global thinking." It signalized potential events
at va rious geographical spots, emphasizing relationships of the single element in
va rious fields; in thi s wa y further developing Mallarme's start and the cubist technique
of "collage", the predecesso r of " photomontage" and the " montage" of the film.
futurism
Fig. 393. Posler for a futurist meeting in
Milan
The audience is represented by catcalls

Around 1900, times seemed to be rather uninspiring. Everything appeared to be

saturated, lethargic. America sallied forth in her war against Spain; the Boxer
Revoll had been suppressed and the Boers overcome. The Russian Revolution of 1905
had been lost, the czar triumph ant. Capital and labor had temporaril y made peace
and the uni ons, especiall y the social-democrati c, rested on their laurels. The world
' "
was de fi m'I eI y " bonng.
Then in February, 1909, F. T. Ma rinetti, an unkn own Italian writer, threw the
" Initial Manifesto of Futurism" like a bomb into th e pages of "Figaro," in Paris.
Dazzled- as most of th e intellectuals of his ti me

by Schopenhauer's pessimism,

Nietzsche's superm an romanti cism plus th e technical civili zati on and its master, the
engineer, he staked everythin g on one card: th e machine, its " vitality" and "speed."

"1. We shail sing the love 0/ danger, the habit 0/ energy and
boldness.
2. The essentiaL elements 0/ our poetry shall be courage, daring and rebellion.
3. Literature has hitherto glorijied thoughtful immobility, ecstasy and sleep; we shail extol agressive movemen t, feverish insomnia, the double quick step, the somersault, the
box on the ear. the jisticuff.
4. We declare that the world's splendor has been enriched by
a new beaull'; the beauty of speed. A racing motor-car,
its frame adorned with great pipes, like snakes with explosir'e breath . . . a roaring motorcar, which looks as
though running on shrapnel, is more beautiful than the
Victory of Samothrace.
5. We shall sing 0/ the man at the steering wheel, If:hose
ideal stem transjixes the Earth, rushing over the circuit
of her orbit.
6. The poet must give himself with frenzy, 1I:;!h splendor and
with lavishness, in order to increase the enthusiastic
fervor of the primordial elements.
7. There is no more beauty except in strife. No masterpiece
without aggressiveness. Poetry mu.st be a violent onslaught
upon the unknown forces, to command them to bow be
fore man.
8. We stand upon the extreme promontory of the centuries! ...

W hy should we look behind us, when we have to break

in the mysterious portals 01 the Impossible? Tim e and
Space died yesterday. Already we live in t he absolute,
since u'e have already created speed, eternal and ever
present.
9. We wish to glorify W ar-the only health giver 01 th e world
-militarism , patriotism, the destructive arm of the An.
archist. the beautiful Ideas that kill, the contem pt fo r
u.'oman.
10. We wish to destroy the museums, the libraries, to jigh t
against moraUsm , feminism, and all opportunistic an d
utilitarian meannesses.
11. We shall sing of the great crowds in the excitement 01 la bor,
pleasure or rebellion; of the multi-colored and poliph onic
surl of revolutions in modem capital cities; of the noc
turnal vibratl~on of arsenals and workshops beneath their
violent electric moons; of the greedy stations swallowing
smoking snakes; 0/ factories suspended from the clouds
by their strings 01 smoke; of bridges leaping like gymnasts over the diabolical cutlery of sunbathed rivers; of
adventurous liners scenting the horizon; of broad chested
locomotives prancing on rails; like huge steel horses
bridled with long tubes; and 0/ the gliding fligh t 0/ air
planes, the sound of whose propeller is like the flapping
0/ /fags and the applause 0/ an enthusiastic crowd ."

(A passage Irom the "Futuristic Manifesto" by F. T. Marinelli.)

Whi le this ma ni festo at first glance appea rs somewhat similar 10 the " Respondez"
of Whitman, nevertheless there is an un m istakable di fference. Behi nd Whitman's
poem there was the fi ghter for a good cause; fo r the exploited and betrayed. Behi nd
Marinetti's man ifesto stood a man, fed not on life bu t on literature. th e superman
{"Uebermensch"} ideal of Nietzsche.

302

Annoyed by the habitual, he tri ed to liberate himself from age-old co nventions. An

immature wa y of expressing this sense of depression has always been through exhibi
ti onism. Insolent, with no feeling of responsibility for the possible consequences,
he wished to see how far he could go in his plan "epater Ie bourgeois." The young
artists of Ital y and France were happy to fl y at thi s tangent, shoo tin g into rebelliousness. They felt the co ming storm , the violence qua violence, the co nvulsive reaction
lacking depth and directi on. But demagogs like Mussolini and Hitler, expl oiters of
the immaturity of youth, co nsciously incorporated such capers into their propaganda structure, aggravatin g the dan ger of such writers' irresp onsibility. Marinetti
threw about wild " words." A papery Jilerary man, he ended up in Mussolini's fascist
acad emy, as a show horse for the sawdust Cresar's meager intellectual circus-with
the seri ous writers either havin g left fascist Italy or havin g been put in jail, con
centration camps or bestiall y sla in.
But long before th at, before the first world war, Marinetti had built up the futurist
movement with young people, painters, sculptors, architects, musicians an d writers.
He was a first-clais showman with a mad ambition to leave his mark in literary history. A milliona ire with neither need nor desire to wait until reluctant publishers or
Fig. 394. F. T. Marinetti. 1919 as the a nnouncer of futurism

the peo ple accepted him, he published his own works. His formal achievements were
full of surprise; his imagina tive wit and fantasy were provocative. But the more
his ambiti on developed into a th eatri cal cresaromania similar to that of D'Annunzio,
the " liberator of Fiume," the less remain ed of the ori ginal fireworks of his th ought.
His vitalit y was transform ed into techni cal facility. This is the key to his contradictory ro]es : the literary rebel and th e political fascist-syntheti zed into a sup erbly
gifted clown.
It would be agreeable to believe that inventiveness is to be found onl y in the work
of men who ha ve a fund amental respect for the integ rity of each man, who have a
feeling of social res ponsibilit y. But Ma rinetti exemplifies the case th at a misinterpretati on, or a malicious interpretation, of the storm signs of an imminent social
cri sis can also instigate in ventions in literary techniques. Such techniqu es do not
necessaril y have a one-way tendency. The Russian futuri sts, for example, am ong the
best kn own, Mayakovsky, turn ed to Co mmunism, while James J oyce used " liberated
words" independent of a ny politica l affili ation or even connotati on.
Futurism-its litera ry form ma inl y deri ved from Apollin aire

acted as a mi ghty

stimulus through its num erous " techni cal manifestos" whi ch inci ted indi vidual rebels
everywhere to use th ei r own mea ns of ex pression with greater freedom. Its undigested poli tical ideas, however, whi ch aroun d 1910 had not yet been ma de repugnant
by the dismal reali ty of fascism, did not affect the arti sts who foll owed the literary
pattern of futurism.
Here is one of the technical mani festos on li tera ture by :Marinetti, p ublished in 1912,
and distr ibuted as a leaflet on street corners:

303

""'I!

geome.rical and mec hanical s ple ndor" -

"We have already behind us the grotesque burial 0/ 'paueist'

Beauty (romantic, symbolic, decadent) widell had as essential
elements the Femme Fatale and moonlight, sOlll'en;rs, nostalgia,
eternity, immortality, the mists 0/ legend produced by the vasl
ness 0/ time, th e exotic charm produced by the spatial distances,
the picturesque, the lin precise, love 0/ the counlryside. the soli
tude 0/ the wilderness, multicolored disorder, the light 0/ dusk,
corrosion, patina- the dregs 0/ time, the dilapidation 0/ ruins.
erudition, the smell 0/ mildew, the taste 0/ roUen pessim ism,
phthisis, suicide, the coquetteries 0/ agony, the eslhetics 0/
/ailure, the adoration 0/ death.
Iff e disengage ourselves today /rom the chaos

0/ new sensitivi-

ties 0/ a new beauty /or which II'e try at first 10 substitu te and
wJdch I called the geometrical and mechanical spLendor. It has
/or its elements the sun, relit by the will, health/ul /orget/ul"ess ,
hope, desire, the perishable, ephemerous, controlled /orce, speed,
light, tdll, order, discipline, method. the instinct 0/ man multiplied by the motor, th e [eding 0/ the great town , aggressive
optimism obtained by physical culture and sport, the intelligent
woman (pleasure, /ecundity. business), imaginalion //,,;th no
strings attached, ubiquity, conciseness and simultaneity 1/-,hich
characterize touring, big business and journalism, passion /or
success, the record, enthusiastic imitation 0/ electricity and mao
chine, the essential efficiency and the synthesis, the beneficial
precision of cog wheels and lubricated thoughts, the competi
tion 0/ converging energies into one sense 0/ action.
(l) We destroy systematically th e literary ego so that it scat
ters itselJ in the uniursal l'ibratioll; we express the infinitely

smaiL and molecular movements, The poetry 0/ cosmic /orct!$

lakes the place 0/ hllm.an poetry. We abolish, th ere/ore, the old
proportions (roman tic, sentimental, Christian) 0/ the story tU II'
co nsequence 0/ a wounded man in a baule had an importanct!
greatly exaggerated compared to th e destructive engines, strate
gic positions and atmospheric conditions.
(2) I have o/ten demonstrated that the substantive, worn oUl
by the multiple contrasts and by the weight 0/ classical and
decadent adjectives, can be brough t back to its absolute values
by stripping it 0/ all adjectives and by isolating it. I distinguish
Lwo Iypes 0/ stripped substan tives: the elementary substantive
and the substantive of synthesis-movement,
(3) SOL'e /or the necessity 0/ contrasts and change 0/ rhythms,
th e diDerent /orm.s 0/ the verb should be eliminated, the infini
tive is the very movement 0/ the new lyricism.
(4) Use 0/ isolated adjectives in parenthesis will give the
atmosphere 0/ the story. These adjectiveatmospheres or adjective
tones cannot be replaced by substantives,
(5) Syntax contained always a scientific and photographic
perspective absolutely contrary to the laws 0/ emotion. In tht
liberated words this photographic perspective disappears ; we
obtain emotional perspective which is multi/orm.
(6) If! the liberated words we /orm sometimes synoptique tables
0/ lyrical values which permit us to /ollow simultaneously sev
eral currents 0/ crossing or parallell sensation in reading.
(7) The /ree expressive orthography and typography are used
to express the /acial expressions and gestures 0/ the recitct.
(8) Use of onomaropeia (a) di rect onomat.opeia, imitative. ele
mentary, realistic."

Th e se nten ces of thi s man ifesto are a clever co mbinati on of th e demand s ex pressed
consciousl y and subconsciously since the middle of the 19th century. They consti

tute so meth ing like a super- realism ; realism of the macroscopic and nllcroscoplC
photography and the slow and quick motio n tech nique of th e cin ema.
One shou ld not be mi sled by the unusua l form or typograph y found in mu ch futuristi c literature. Th ere is nothin g obscure in it. It is bare of all mystery and me taphys ics. The futuristi c poem is an exact descripti on of
stenographic com pression.

"Zang.tumb -tu .uumb"

facts~

acti ons and events in

(a poem about a battle ), by

Marinetti (1912) is typical although- after the terrible experiences of two world
wars

it is rather depressing to see that someone can look at war so detached as from

a box seat.
"ELcry five seconds space is split by th e cann01!5 0/ assault teith
a chord, ZANG-TUMBTUVUMB, an uprising 0/ 500 echoes to
grasp it, chop it and shatter it in the infinite. Th e cen ter 0/ th is
ZANG TUMB TU UVAlB, fi/ty miles squa re, is cut by jagged
explosions, punches, balteries of firing guns, quick dolence,
/erocity, regularly descending to this shallow grave, the strange
cra:y agitation piercing sounds 0/ the baufe, /lIry, preoccupation,
open ears, eyes and nostrils.

Attention! A ssalllt! What joy to see, hear, smell everything,

everything taratatatata 0/ the machine guns, to lose your breath
screaming from bites, slaps, traaktraak, whippings, picpacpum
lumb, the shooting reaching bizarre heights 0/ 200 meters, down
dOll.:n at the bottom of the orchestra, splashing in pllddles, oxe",
buBalo, u'agons, pluD pLaD, stampeding 0/ horses, /lic flac zing
:ing sciaaack ilari nitriti iiiiii, trotting, linking, three Bulgarian
bat/alions marching croooccraaae {slow} Sciumi ,lIoritza 0 Karva

The somewhat changed 1'er.sioll 11sed here is from the book ;'Lps Jl o's
Futuristes." by F. T. iJlarinelli (~M'ilan, 1919) .

304

('II

Liberfe

nma ZA \ G TL liB Tl. l. L 118 toctoctoctoc (I'er\ rapid ) crooooc

craaac (sloul) commands 0/ oDicers, clattering like brass plales,
bread 0/ qua poak there buumb cing ciak (jast) ciaciafillcia
ciak up dOlln there around upstairs attention , OIl yo/u head
ciaak beautijul! 110:'1' ha:.e ha;.e ha.:.e ha:.e . . . ha:.r comes dOli II
jrom lhe jortreS5es up there behind the rher Sci,,/.-r; Pascia,
communicates by teLephone 1I.:lth 27 jortresses ill furJ,ish. in
German. Hello! Ibrahim! Rudolph! hello! hello! aclors' roLes,
echoes are prompters, sceneries oj s11l0};e, lI;oods gile applau~e .
smell oj hay, mud, I dOli" jeel III)' jro:.en jeet an) longer, smell
oj saltpetre. smeU oj deco) , timpani, {lutes, clarinets, everywhere
low and high. bir~!s chirpill{!. blessed shOt/oil'S cipcipd" f(fe{'"

breeze, herds dOlHlflll duIHli/l bee uhl,e~lrll . . . the ma./IIII.'I'

beal the conduclors 0/ the orchestra. the condll Clors are LeT)"
milch beaten- pia)" play do not cancel great noises, precise,
clipped, Lou:er the racket, Ler)" tin)" rebouncling 0/ echoes in 300
miles square theatre, r;I'ers Marltza Tungia, ('xunl/ed Rodop;
mountains, straight ranges, boxseats and stails, 2000 shrapnels
exploding, da:.:.ling ',hite handkerchiejs fuLL 0/ gold srrrrrrr
T{; ,118 Tl.J M IJ 2000 granades extent/ed, grabbing crashingly
Let)' black hair, ZANG- srrrrr TU M B ZANG TU.1/11 TUUMB
the orchesuo oj noises oj tL"Or hluttell ali t //Ia/er a 1I0te 0/ silence
helel in lIIe high sky by gildeel spheric balloolls /I hich Iwteh
the shooting."

F uturisl poet r), acco rdin g to its foll o\\ ers, is a n unin te rru pted spolltaneo us cur rent
of a nalogies. the substance of eac h in tu itively abb rev ia ted in il s essen ti a l form.
Marin ell i added a great nu mber of new elements to co ntempora ry poet I')

sou nd

effects; ve rbaliza ti on of so und and sight co rrespo ndences; so und coll age, etc. An
acousti c co llage (o noma topeia) adapti ng the visual technique of th e cubis t collages
and the si mult ane ity of Apolli na ire is shown best in his "Apres la i\ la rn e. Joff re Vis ite
La Front en Auto."

Fig, 395. Page from the book b y Moti

.netli, "Les mots en liberta", 191 9
Typographic render.nq of the lumultuous
speech by Marshal JoUre to his troops at
the front, as well a s the dynamic verboli :i:o,
tion of hts route through the bottle :i:one

305

the new typography

As in every field where technology and mass production killed the quality of craftsmanship, so in typography and book production the introduction of the typesetting
machines, the rotary press and other technologi cal improvements, destroyed the fine
quality of the illuminated manusc ript and handset lype. However, there were a few
men who, unlike Ruskin and Morris, did not believe that the new technology had to
be eliminated in order to save quality. They realized that with the machine age we
were also on the threshold of a new typography and a new art of bookmaking and
they were willing to expe riment with the new means.The new techn ology of visual comm uni cation, which inc1udes typog raphy, ilIustra
tion , photography, moti on pictures and telev ision, came with such rapidity that man
co uld not keep pace with it.
This discrepancy between techn ology and design development is appalling. We may
imagine for example that during the war some printing offices were eq uipped with
teletyp e machines whi ch, with out being touched by human hands, automatically refig. 396. f. T. Marinetli, 1919

co rded messages from every battlefield of th e globe. Within a few hours these reports

Page from the book "Les mots en liberle"

\\ ere then com piled into large printed volu mes and di spatched to ever y part of the

Adopting the ideogram, the "caIligrammes"

of Apollinaire, the futu ris ts used typography as a dynamic, expressive communication and as a means lor quick
perception
O n this page Marinelli attempts to show
typographically the sweetheart readmg a
letter from her soldier friend who describes
h is dangerous experiences in the trenches.
These experiences, though accumulated
o ver a period of time. can be seen here
Simultaneously

world. But th ere ex ists as yet no organizati onal standard to produce the adequate
form for a task of s uch speed and magnitud e; one which would allow the sorting of thi s material into a coherent whole, comprehensible at a glan ce. There
is as yet no balanced relati o nship of the elements invo lved, th at is, text. illustrations,
index, statistics, which would make possible the quickest and most profitable handling
of ma ny such volu mes simultaneously should com parisons_ stati stical data or com
putations be qui ckl y required.
Fortunately, th e trem endou s demand s of business adver ti sing have forced the typogra.

.
..
;.:;.
,

pher as well as the commercial artist to some imaginative solutions which can be

'. -. ,

0.".

.'.

. "."
~

understood as a successful preparation for the complex task of new communica tion .
The new book production, which has to be und erstood on the scale of a library
rath er than a sin gle vo lume, must and will utili ze the pertinent findings of publicity
and propaganda where the comm unication has to be measured in term s of eco nomical
effectiveness. Catalogs of merchandise, illustrated advertis in g, posters on bi1lboards,
front pages of tabloid newspapers, move towa rds inventive visual articulation. But
first the elemen ts of the new technolo gy of printing a nd graphic arts had to be understood , so that they could be used with c1arity and securit y. Apollinaire's ideogram s and Marinetti 's poems served, perhaps, not so much as models, but as tradition-breakers which freed experimenters to create a quick, simultaneous communication of several messages. The start ca used quite an ex plosion. a seemi ngly purposeless, wild typography. But th is "wildness" had a system in it- the system of
cont rasts .
llIany years ago I suggested "photoprinting" by x-ray, This would enable the production of lhousands of sheels at once on photo-sensilized paper with the help of a
well and carefully designed master-Unegalive."

306

Numb.

THE

xLin.

GAZETTE.
Colllai"i,,!, th, freJblflAdvim Foreign and Domeflick.
From TburfdaT, 000bc:r a6'.

to

Thurfday, OOobcr 2J.

H E 'I'ohNfoUl tf ,)i, 'I',/<' ".,,,i'l

with ((IIZjde,1h/6 1!.Jna'r(l&~mnrt, .re
Icurminc-Il t. (#III;". it ; lind I . tN t
Fed Hw ttdn ~nJ 1t1 fin k n le.,411 CorrypowJte, (I pr. re lIN bell end
INh!!I. I",dltg~!IC' frrr.n .U PUll. II{ Jb40

to
C~u'!'.l

fTDllt lIme to II :r4 }4W 40 ,1M ~ttd Puhlirc

Edda C o's

Fl"C'P11 Ihis T"ffl".t: /DI"UJ.Jrtl, ;,tfltild ofluhltfb-.

i.g II Whole Sheet (111ft a W~(k, til the frjl
UndtrjaJu, t"lag'a 10 f/' ;n hiJ Propofals, t:J(
jh.f/J ftfh1ifo d Half Sheet twice II Wuk,
;vhuh """'rlr.tJ 1(1 ,hi [aIM rrhing; 011" we
thinl:. il will be 1/:0Tl (lutllable 10 o!Jr RIIItNTS, ;,:ifmuch (JJ ,heir Enllrtainmm' wtll
", I hh }.kanJ /;U(li1I6 men !r69Itlfflf. Numb.
XLI V. WIU ((lu;e 011/ (In Monday ';iXf.

of
~~ 01 HorrOfS

-.-,

.-~

Ba'tboll

.... ,
,~

AlNilIC.mp
.'~
' .:-,.

.-

l.lOll Hen

., litA1kR30...Pd.
"'"_

--

.." -. ~.T_
c.

-.
SM.:I~ PfJ'~1

Bill 10 Uw Judu SIM

U.5 F"ndllo P~ Johlm s,.c.Jfrielti

, FOR E I GN A F FA I RS.

,.

""

'S~;~~;
t:..i
i
{lIppoai'd 10 be I Whirr: Wri=.
Admit.'llraion; ,lie iO'J"il b from
duot _ fouro(r1y Cllled A'i/',
TOf}' PI}'(T. When Ille Rn.Diftinll>ons. he will be belf((

, -~

. w,,,_

....... -

All&:. I'.
,..w' . G/'4- At lail,,, rpm. is ani-t hefe f.om
'.

'or

r.n~. Mlly ....lth tM 'rrnobfc Nc ...., III" on,~ l&lh

pi!: 1M Kin, ol5P'::n r.~ l1.li Orde. for ,lie D<:hvcry of

I'

ihe Eij,h 01 the Calleofll, die: IOOllho bein!; (cult<!

11 pe.Cont. and l!.ore of 1M AtfOR'l" 'il:ir" 11 J perOni.
Hit M. 1l1J hid j,kc"'uc ordC"l"t<! rwpom 10 be made OUI
(Of !he a..cLith SouthScI Company upcn Ihe ."cien!

..

'--.... _

Stdroo4:, Aulhot

Sn:tef We",;" Rrieekd:

_ "hili o..Iy I. AtOll! Somh

-. --.

. - ..

FoundOrH,s-NkSI-.I

F_ nd 10 pul nuy thinl In dv WcllJndi.. in the

'-

"

;;;<.,;;. the l!K,jr.

"-

.~.

I _~

... --

hd ..as"...,
md
aa: _='Ipc:n;

DIKe R",kd 8t'iIon TrIIs

Army Itlli
Plan 10 fm
lwt Mllho;

" ,,'\',.,.,.\',.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.

FlU! die I - ' F

... -

/10IIII

N6IUN.

THE CHICAGO
SUN
..
...
.. .'
'.. ..... ....

lPn_II (rOta Grat Britain,. New. England,

Ncw.'lorJc., MaryJand ."d J amaiC3, "'pin
~b.J1 Nr.JJs 11131 be {olJdJ,d froM I';v,:/, U/.
I"s fir-a LiflrtnlJ1iDnJ; IJM1W daubl r:o/ of
(DflJiuai" to &ivt OUT CNjhmll!Ts 011 the S.,tif/dum liN] tX~n [r(lM /I CP~rflrm:Jn(t of this

...

....

-~

Fig. 398. The Chicago Sun, 1945

Fig. 397. Newspaper. 1729

The modern newspaper, especially one

which depends upon street sale, tries to
organize the many events of the day similarly as the futUrists: the reader should
read all the news almost at once. For
his 31 messages shown on this page, the
editor tried to find an organized layout
form by using different foundry types,
sizes and characters. different lengths of
lines and columns, photographs and draw
ings

In the 3ame way as today many events

are reported. t:ut no great help Is given to
the reader for their quick grasp

307

The hi:.;toq of printing

5<1\\

a degeneration o f the ri ch co ntraslful inc unabula , \\ilh

co lored initials and large le tters. int o the flat g ra y page o f sma I I

t)

pes \\ ilhout an)

considerati on of ,isual fundamentals. The ideograms of Apollinaire ', cre a logical

anS\\Cr to this dull typo graphy, to the lc\'ciling e ffects of the gea) . inarticulate

Illac Iline

t) pe~ettll1g .

H
Iy prtnte
' d t he wo r d5, b ut Ilroug
I
h 11C
I cmp hasis 0 r
e not on

Fig. 401. Poul Rand. 1938

-ri'!e page of an advenisi:lg leaflet (mon

;cc;e)
The ad .... erlbunq artisl helps 10 populanze
the ianquoQ8 cf Ihe new viSIon. Here Ih.
principles of Ihe "colloqe" and the "photo-

montage" are utihzed with wit and skill

position and s ize differentiation of the letters, he tri ed to make them almost "'a udible: '
The futurists and dadaists continu ed these e ffo rts by gi\ in g up the rigid horizontal
orde r of t) pesetting and employing typogra phi ca l material as a flexible element in
pictorial co mposition.

In contrast, th e co nstructivi sts e mphas ized th e fun ctional

role of typography. In Li ssi tzky's book o n Mayakovsky's poetry, a tabindex of

sig ns. a kind of t} pog raphical sh orthand , symbo li zed title and con tent of the poems.
especially useful at mass meetings "hen the elocu ti onis t had to quickly thumb
through the \ olume for a poem ca ll ed for by the audience. Such forceful use of
the t) pographica l elements soon degenerated into deco rative patterns as th ey were
taken

0\

er more and more by thoughtless newspaper advertising where each littl e

ad tried to o \erpower th e others. The result was a visual chaos th at co uld be reme
died only by a return to the fundam e ntals of th e new typog raphy. th a t is. simpli c ity
and force fuln ess through the simuhan eo us organ iza ti on of the numerous messages
\\ hich have to be transmitt ed to the reader. Newspapers
tat ion of th e heterogen eous news o n the front pagee-

es pec ially in th e presen

Fig. 399. EI Lissitzki . 1924

Double page from the book. of poems by
Mayakovsky
The hllie signs (tabs) on the r ight indicate
the mdex lor the thirteen poems which
the elocutionist at mass meetings used
when the audIence demanded the recilal
of a popular poem

un co nsc iousl y achieved a

si multaneou s qualit y of type and illu strat ion. But co ngestion is th e enem y o f o rga ni .

za ti on. so simu lt a nei ty had to be brou ght to a g reat er refinemenl. H e re. magaz in es
and trade pape rs led the way.
With the furth er de \'e io pm en t of photoeng ravin g techniqu es, a g reat number of o th e r
vis ual manipula ti o ns. such as superimpositi o ns and photomontage. have bee n added
to th e dictionary of ,tisual communica tion s. the typog raphic counte rpart of vision

+
o
fI

--- ........ ...,_.. . ...

- . . ..__._"__.. _010.-.
..__-,..,,'.... ,-"...........
... _,_
......- .
_. _...
III

"

...
_

in motion. From such practices g rew th e attempts to chan ge typog raph y from type.
settin g to photo engraving by fusin g into a "coll age" a ll th e ele me nt s. th a t is, the

"'

,,'

.. _

. , . . . . . . _ , . , . , _ .. . . Sod ..

.. '

"

.~

.... _

... ,,_ ' ........ _ _

--: _En)

ing visual con tinuit y o f the successive pages thro ugh the whole book. Mai1 order
cata logs, children's books, lea flets, Christmas ca rd s. invitations. show thi s develop

Fig. 400. L. Sulnor. 1944

Advertising

ment and the re seems to be no limitati o n to th e variation o f mea ns . A !tho ugh most
of these de\ ices a re used main ly in adve rti sing la yo uts it can be sa fel y predicted that
soon they will form the normal ro utine of eve ry t ype of comm uni cati on fr o m sc ie n
tific to philosophi ca l discourse .

Already in ~Iarinelti's Joffre poem. mo\ement, space. time, visua l and a udibl e sen
sations were simu ltaneously ex pressed by the typography. (This typograph y was the

308

"~I

,' . . . _ _ ; ._

with c uto uts and foldi ngs, were late r added to the printed mailer to vita li ze th e
recepti on range o f the eye. Another attempt at inducing a qui ck g ra sp was establish

'

. . w,. . . .

...-.
_ _ .,
, ....." .....
... _ _ r.._ ...
.. _ ...........d',_... ... _... ._
L _

copy, dra\\ in gs. photographs. fa cs imile o f documents. sc ripts, etc. T ex tures. alon g

' ' ' ' - - ' ' - ..... _

"" . . . . . . . . . ~ ..... _

.-

Fig. 402. He rbert Boyer. 1939

Advertisinq

.. , ...

Fig. 403. Xantl Schawinski. 1932

Poster

J)

.
.

A,

'

Fig. 404. Paul Rand, 1941

Title page of a magazine
The rigid use 01 the traditional hOrll-onlal
and vertical typography has been now dIScarded in favor 01 an oblique composition
mixed With draWings, photographs, lacsimile handwriting, derived from the collage and photomontage, easily reproduced
by the pholo-enqravmg techniques

,-

.,

CONTAINER CORPORATION OF AMERICA

direct predecesso r of the newspaper front page.) One sees the curves which the
motor car followed, the " dynamic verbalizati on" Qf the route of J offre in the lower
right ha nd corner. The general's conventional speech to the soldiers is translated
into the typography. His words are torn 'to pieces by the accompan ying noise of
machine guns and ca nn ons. A la rge number of soldiers is represented by the logarithm colu mn in the upper left ; they echo the general's shoutin g " Vi ve la France !"
" Mort au Boches! "

Rimbaud
Arth ur Ri mbaud with his poem "Vowels" and in the "Alchemy of th e Verb" (1873) .
emphasized the "verbalization" of emo tional currents, basin g his wo rk on th e inter.
chan gea bili ty of different senso ry experiences .
" in vent ed th e color of vowelsf-A , black ; E, u:hite; I, red;
0 , blue; U, green-I control/ed the fo rm and movement of each
consonant, and pattered myself that, u:;t.h instin ctive rh yth m, 1
might invent some day or other, a poetic verb accessible to all
five senses. I reserved the ngh t. of translation. At first , it was
an experiment. 1 luote silences. Nights. 1 took notes of th e
inexpressible. I transfixed t;ertigos: '

The
(See the photograph of fragrance on page
182)

i nt erchangeabi lity~not

onl y co rrespondence

of the sensory ex perience is a

scient ific reality today. We can see odors since fr agra nces can be photographed. With
the ph oto cell one can change visibilit y into audi bility a nd vice versa, as in the so und
film. One may invent, for exam ple, an apparatus which registers the change of the
traffic lights in sound for the color blind, or an appa ratus with wh ich the blind can
hear what healt hy eyes can see.

dadai sm

The dadai sts influenced by the futurists, and the surrealists infl uenced by the dadaists,
bo th claimed Rimbaud as one of their ancesto rs. They opened up th e rout e for the
surprising, embarrassing and even the "nonsensical."

T he futurists were propa-

gandists of movement, speed, dynamism; rhapsodists of techn ology. ' Vi th infa ntile
enthusiasm they hai led war as a " hea lth giver" merely because it was dynamic, full
of movement and speed. Fortunately, not everywhe re did the yo uth believe in thi s
th esis. Some faint idea prevailed am ongst a great num ber of th em that the re was a
lag between the technol ogical acco mplislunents an d the social reali ty and th at the
grea test single need of the age was the bridging of the gap.
Indeed, man y achi evements of the industrial revolution coul d be praised emphaticall y
if peo ple had not had to pay so dearly for them. T he pr ice- a progressi\-e d imi nishing abi lit y to judge biological and social

n eeds~wa s

unreasonab le. The industrial

Shakespeare offers good examples of the rich compounding of visual expe rience with
the power of the word:
..... Uthe multitudinous seas incarnadine . tnal'in_Q the green one red'~ ( Lady J[acbeth
in ulJIacbeth")
..... uThis bank and shoal of time" ( H amlet)

310

re,oiution decisively chan ged public and private moral s, but thi s was not yet officially ackno,dedged. Peo ple acted according to the new necessities, but because their
actions often did not fit into th e old moral code they tri ed to dodge a full awareness
of the motivations. This resulted in hyprocri sy. No one kn ew any more what was
good for him and still less \,hat was damaging. The individual crippled or entirely
lost his sense of discrimination for human values which would have given purpose
and sense to life and coherence to society. These conditions deteriorated more and
more. In 1914 th e ex plos ion came.

"Dadaism was bom in the Cabaret I'o/loire in 1916.

Among

Hugo Ball's intimate collaborators, besides his wile, Emmy

Hennings, oud myself. I/;ere Hans Arp, and the Roumanian5,

Tristan T:.ora and Marcel Janco. OUT lI.:ork in the Cabaret Vol.
taire had, Irom Ihe very beginning, an antimilitaristic, ret'olutianary tendency. Friends came to t:isil Irom the various belligerent countries- from Ilah. the futurists; Irom Paris, Picabia;
Irom Germany. Rene Schickele and WeT/el. All 0/ them, even
the futurists, loathed the senseless, systematic massacre 0/ mod

ern tLar/are.
"rre ILeTe not politicians, but artists searching jar an expression
that would correspond to OUT demands for a ne R art. All oj
us u:ere enemies 0/ the old rationalistic, bourgeois art which

lIe regarcied as symptomatic 0/ a culture abollt to crumble with

the war . . .. Ollr art had to be young, it had to be new, it had
to integrate all the experimental tendencies of the futu rists and
cubists. Above ever),thing, our art had to be international, for
we believed in an Infernationale of the Spirit and not in difJerent national con cepts . . . .
"Dada is forever the enemy 0/ that comfortable Sunday Art
which is supposed to uplift man, by reminding him 0/ agreeable
moments. Dada hurts. Dada does not jest, lor the reason it
was experienced by revolutionary men and not by philistines
who demand that art be a decoration. lor the mendacity of their
oun emotions . . . ." .

In the "Cabaret Voltaire," Zurich (1916), so me yo un g em igrant s started out with

performances full of bittern ess aga inst the " imperialistic" war. They were refu gees
from Middle European co untries and wanted nothing but revenge, to slap the fa ce
of the bourgeoisie responsible for th e massacre. Huelsenbeck said, "~ I wanted to
make literat ure with a revolver in my pocket." The stat ement echoed in many a
you ng man's m ind everywhere condi ti oned by the violent langua ge of Marinetti.
There was a difference, however. Futurism glorifi ed the grow ing Itali an imperialism
while dadaism- visua lizing the social responsibility of everyone li ving- fought by
ridicule the same imperialistic trend of World War 1. Common to both was the taco
tics: "epater Ie bourgeois" (bluff th e burgher).
The dadaists were most irwentive in annoy ing their public. They tried to destroy
traditional beliefs, to ma ke a fa rce of everything which was considered worthy.
They spared their audience nei ther physical nor psychological pain. After si nging
chansons agains t the vices of the bourgeois, they formed choirs with noisy caco
Fig. 405. George G rosz, 1920
German "landscape"
This d rawmq is fr om his bitter dodaishc
period

phonies, imit ati ons of the abo ri ginal negro chants. They admired the acti on-sa tura ted
futurists who, with their contem pt for every code, did not shr ink from hand to hand
fights with their audience. Their a ttacks genera ll y took the form of futuristic poems.
Tzara wrot e a play, "The Gas Heart." In the foreword he explain ed that the play
did not contain an ythin g "extraordinary"; it followed the classical ru les. Further
readin g discl osed that the pla ye rs were Ear, Eye, Eyebrow, Nose, Mouth and Neck
around a gas heated Heart.
From uDada lives." by R ichard H uelsenbeck, A ugust.
Jolas. ulransilionu No. 25.

1 916~

translated by E ugene

311

. I remember the nI)sterious hasl('

a/ler the MusinG 0/ a train

Ithich

(JOt Ting up unseated gods to blind adolesctnces

and heaps 0/ children turned into locusts on Immense

posse5Sed you

desolate beaches
fetlocks Jel ping with a samge jo),
branches, babbling in th e fragile rills
I saw its body stret ched from end 10 end
alld I pLunged myself into ils light u;hich went irom
room to room
th e whipping tree lacinG tdth thin u:eals of gloom
the immensely tortu re(l body. ."

massiet chains mored blackly inside heads

cocks raised 'rugaL eroltS heluee" each poir 0/ looks
and the II inas u;iped th e all fresh barkings aD th e moist

muzdes
th ey u:ent and burst for auay where memory lt'OS no more
they burst in a crash 0/ light noiselessly . .. ,"
" . . . I hare seen its body and I have Ihed on ilS light
its body writhed in all th e rooms

by 7'ristian Tzara. from "The Approximate J[an" in Julien Ler,lJ's uSurrealislI1,"

( Bla ck Sun Press. N ew )"or". 1030 )

Dadaistic poems often appear "nonsensica r' but not all non se nse is Dada; as (or
example:

"Queslioll: J/ it takes a gallon 0/ molasses to make a bushel 0/

potatoes, how milch cheese cloth does it lake to make an ele
I)hant a shirt Iwist?
"An<.,wer: Remember all a dark and storm y night, lour mother is
}Ollr best friend," Or : "Whl' is a mouse Ithen it spillS?" All
sv.er: '; The higher the felter:'
" If' hat is it 'hat ),011, call put lip a dOIUl'SPOllt down or ciait'll a

dOlt'n-spout doun but I(.'hich you can put neither up nor dou:n
a downspout up?"
An~wer: "An umbrella!"

" West llind is blind-u;ind is :ephyr-Zeph)r is yarn-yarn is

tail-Iail's atta chmenl-A(lachmcnf is 101'c-/0I;e is blind-therefore West ni"d is blind."

This t) pe of folklore nonsense, produced (or am usemen t, is not co mparable to the

utteran ces of th e dadaists. This t) pe of joke is "deco rative;' a 4' Il o nsense \'arnished
\dth the cha r ms of sounds:'

But th e dadaists ' hum or is the ga llows humor of the

co ndemned. Their "4nonsense" designates a deep purpose. To be sure, lhey did not
\\ork "ith correct gramma r or formal lan gua ge. The now and co nlinuity of th eir
poems was built upon the perceptional effects of the words and th eir manirold socio
biological, ps)choph) sical conn otations. irrespective of co nventional reference or
struc tu re, To read s uch \\ riting is a rather aggravating task for th e no' ice but very
rewarding in th e long run. The com bination of verbs a nd nouns, wo rd s and sentences "itho ut th e customary persp icuity of the normal sy ntax in a poem. brings a
fresh breeze into the dull co nstru cti on of the lan g uage. Unexpectedly. one is all owed
to follow the word freely into a fresher g rammar of emotional communica tio n. Such
poems lead back simultan eo usly to the primordial elements o{ the lan g uage and in
some combinations to the utmost utili zati on of ed uca ti on through associative inter
preta tion, ingenuity and fantasy. It is in the power o{ the listener to weave this
multitude of connotati ons into a substantial pattern .

Charles Churchill.

312

The poetry o f Dada, perhaps for th e fir~ t time in literal') histof) , calls for Qcltve

participalio" instead of passi\ e apprec intion : not taking the \\ orld as th e best possible of a ll e;\ istin g " orlds but ha\ ing the co urage to chan ge it.

Jean Arp
Jean Arp, an Alsat ian painter, sc ulpt or and writer, reminds one of Christian Morge nstern , wh ose "'Songs of th e Callows," were published in 1905. ] II fact, Arp's
poetry is a deeper justificati on of Morge nstern 's importance and propheti c foresight
than th e ironic es timati on of Morgenstern 's contemporaries \\ ho put him in the
catego ry of witt y but pett y hum ori sts.
Arp is the least spectacular of th e dadaists but probabl y the dee pes t ; an earnest
craftsman, unruffied eve n in his most "scurrilous" antics. His poetry is alwa ys at
the edge of a precipice, between th e well kn own and th e never dream ed. His word
twi sti ngs are full of inferences th ough seemingly onl y th e details are of comprehensible
co ntent ; but the elusive " realit y" of th at dream world is worth y of being anal yzed
by a co ming genera ti on. Alread y with th e passing years his co ntemporari es see, hear
and und erstand h im better.

From the " Pyramid Frock" by Jeall A rp

(translated by S. O. Peech )
" That I as I
am one and tlto
Th at I as I
am. three and lour.
That I as I
how much shows it
Thatl as l
tick and lack it.
T hat I as I
/ice and six is
That I as I
sel'en and eighl is.

T hatl as l
standing lalls she
That I as I
1/ she goes she

That l as l
nine and len is
T hat I as I
nine and ten is
That I as I
eleven and tlt'eive is."

" The Skeleton '01 the Day" by Jean A rp

(transla ted by Eugene Jolas, " tran sition" No. 26, 1927)
1
the eyes talk together like fla mes on billows
the eyes ltant to walk out 0/ the days
the /lames hal-'e no nam es
each flame hILS five fin gers
the hands stroke th e lVings in the sky

313

the lips rise oul 0/ th e Icords

like beal/t) alit 0/ the billo/l:s o/t he sk)
beauty is shut in by light
as th e bell is by kisses

3
but uhat lI'ill /(Ike its place
from Ihe lOp o/the tabLe tum ble Ihe tu"e.~
like leOl 'es out of the carth
be/ort! the lips
in Ihe wings there is night
and helu'un them Itt! miss the singing chains
the skeleton of the light empties the Irllits
the body 0/ the kisses ftill never waken
it u as nCL'er real
the sea 0/ the wings rocks this tear
the bell talks u-ith th e h ead
and th e finger s lead us through the fields of the air
to Ihe nesls 0/ the eyes
rhue th e names PO.5S auay
but It:hol It ill lake their place
in the summit 0/ th e sky
neither sleep nor IL'oking
Jar Ihe grates art! lighter than the days

4
a slngwG sin arches orcr the heart
}'et we fIllut not bel/eLc Its sOllgs
hopelessly t"riLe the fruits
the ClCS look u;eeping
at lh e cl/ges 0/ the days
t he do)s arc onLy u;ounds
the /ips kiss into the L'oid
the Sun looses his leaves
th e l eaves cover the eyes
the light is hollow
the pasture 01 th e wings is cotered with ashes

10
the eyes are wreaths out of earth
the roices reach only from one leaf to th e other lea!
,then the eyes melt the light ripens
and falls like a bell into the beautiful season
and the nests also ring in the summit 01 the sky

Traditiona l poetry displayed the old con tent. Its form of expression- the one dimen
sio nal linear form- was adequate for the ideas formulat ed.

Today a profoundly

changed co ntent has to be expressed, precipitated by th e industrial revolution with

its new social structure and all its ramifi ca tion s. At prese nt there are no adequate
\\ ord s, sym bols, signs- the much needed stru cture of cOlllm uni cati o n.- One ha s to
be sa ti sfi ed today with the search.
Lautreamo nt , Rimbaud and th e sy mbo lists start ed to introdu ce new words. -- The
expressionists di scovered new dimen sions o f feelin g; Apollinaire and the futurists
interchanged senso r y ex periences in o rder to enlarge th e range of reception; and
th e dadaists proved that emotional traits are ne,'er describable. only recordable in
the making, like functions of th e orga ni sm, metabolism or brea thing. So they ca me
to a new devi ce of the literary ex press ion- to a crisscr ossin g, zigzagging thought
pulsation of as many curren ts and messages as co uld be transmitted at the same
time. We have an analogy in th e synchrono us multiplex teleg raph y and in the co
axial telephone cable system which handl es four hundred s imultaneous teleph one
"h
conversa ti"ons Wit
out"cross ta lks. "
The dadaist s produced a remarkable parad ox . Although they revolted against Lra
ditional valu es and their work was seemi ng ly destru ctive. their negation grew "Into a
new departu re for a fu ture literary development. For the first tim e in literature

group of indh iduals co nsciousl y agreed upon th e " nonsens ica r ' as th ei r leadin g
theme. But thi s nonsensical was only th e begin ni ng. Very soon a ge nuin ely indi vidual
- T . S. E liot

in his Fou r Qua rtets :

" For last ypar's wo rds bplong to las t year's langllage ~
A nd next year's words await another vo ice ."
- - A medrf Oze7l/ant made an intpresting sfudy of the m in his book "Foundat io ng o f
,\[ odl'rn Art." 1992. ( II aTCouTt, B race and Co.)
,
SflyS

314

II

Fig. 406 a, b. The constructivis t-dadaist

congress in Weimar, 1922
The constructivists Hving in Germany
(Thea van Doesburg (1), EI Llssltzki (7),
Max Burchartz (6), Cornelius van Eesteren
(8). Alfred Kemeny (9). Hans Ri chter (5) and
myself (11), called a congress In October 01
1922, In Weimar
Arrlvtnq there, to our great amazement we
found also the dadaists, Hans Arp (4) and
Tristan Tzara (3). This caused a rebellion
against the host. Doesburq, because at that
lime we lelt in dadaism a dest ructive and
obsolete force In ccmpanson With the new
outlook 01 the constructivists
Doesburq. a powerful personality. qUieted
the storm and the quests were accepted
to the d,smay of the younger. punst members who slowly withdrew and let the
congress turn into a dadalstic performance.
At that lime. we did not realize that Does
burg himself was both a constructivist and
dada ist writtng Dada poems under the pen
name 01 I. K. Bonset
(No. (2) Is M.rs Nelly van Doesburq. No.
00) LuCIa Moholy)

s} stem bega n to \\ ork in these \\ ritings; an ind esc ribable speed in ca tching emotionai flashes; the opening of the hidden doo rs of simultaneo us thinking and feeling;
a roamin g in a new landscape of th e psyche. In thi s literature ever ythin g wa s related
to a main motive whi ch was not em phasized but o nl y became evident thro ugh the
loose relationships of single stateme nt s. The~e stat ement s were like j uxtaposed thread s
not even di sclosing a faint tex ture. Quickl y. without one's having been able to
reg ister its exact mea ning, a mutation occurred : clear!) , a fabri c became co mprehensi ble to th e reader

in a ,'e r} suggesti\-e un co nscio us \\a~. through th e magic of the

wo rd s. th eir affinities and modulati o ns. Thi s was th e res ult of a new lyric exp ression,
like an xray reve lati on. making tran sparen L thaL whi ch was previously opaquej a new
stru cture and topograph y of th e psychological exis tence, th e ren dering of psychological space- time.

315

Tristan Tzara

Spea kin g about poetry, one ca nn ot fail to emphasize the de\elopment of literary
form \\ hi ch helps shape the organic co ntinuity o[ civili zation . Dadaism is not an
erra ti c outb urst but a part of literary history which co ntribut ed a ne\\ variety to the
ex istin g lyrical idiom. Tristan Tza ra 's poetry shows this very clearl y. He is amorphous and phosphorescent, very different from Arp who is like a solid, smooth crysta l. Co min g [rom Rouman ia which was proud to call Bucharest, " Ie petit Paris,"
Tzara had a nostalgia for France, and [or French literature, whi ch he knew better
than any Frenchman. He wrote a nd thought in French like Marinetti, the halian,
like Guill au me Apollinaire, th e Frenchman of Polish ancestry. All three admired
French as th e most crystallized of all languages. They mastered it impecca bly, but
their native idioms, with stronge r metaphors, more flower y co mbinati ons, still rang
in their ears. With these elements they- the " foreigners"- helped rejuvenate the
literary language of France.
Tzara's indefatigable energy pushed Dada to th e foreground . Supremely intelligent,
he recognized th e new weapon of thi s capitalisti c age: publicit y. This had helped
Marinelli to secure his place among the Montparnasse artists. Tzara wanted such
recognition for himself and was untiring in beating the dadai st drum . Starting a
correspo ndence with all Europe, he tried to con tact every co ntemporar y artist who
wo uld help him to spread his gospel. He \\'Io Le poems, acted in pla ys, recited, lectured, published reviews, opened an art ga ll ery. Slowly the success of Dada was
sec ured. But he and other dadaists were not sati sfi ed with their activi ti es in Zurich.
After the war a number of them left for Ge rmany. They spoke up wherever they
were allowed to talk. They held public meetin gs. Their performances were infuriating, the public was outraged. The performances of th e dadaists, like those of
the futurists in Ita ly, end ed in real battles, in throwing bottles and rotten eggs.

Today, after 25 years, it seems clear that their literary activi ti es pla yed an Important

ro le in the emergence of a more imaginative, revitalized language: inco rporating

such differen t elements as typographi cal vagaries, di alects and slang. Gradually this
approach, not a lwa ys with Dada label, gai ned force and many followers. It broke
through the Chi nese wall of co nven ti ons, as in the case of Joyce's " Finnegan s Wake,"
the genius of which is not denied by any earnest critic.

Hugo Ball. Richard Huelsenbeck

Among the Zurich dadaists there were a number of mteresllng figures, especiall y
Hugo Ball and Richard Huelsenbeck.
Hu go Ball, the most scho larl y of all the dadaists, had tri ed to a ir his di sgust with
the political tradition of Germany in a book: "Criticism of th e German Intelligence."
He blamed Martin Luther, the P rotesta nt, th e destroyer of rn edi reva l transcendentalism, for the regimentation of the German mi nd, for militarism and even the first
world war. But this acrid historica l analysis was not enough to sa ti sfy his hatred
which was born from a helpless love for the stifled riches o[ Germa n culture. To see

316

this wea lt h of religious a nd art istic creat iveness ex termilJa ted by the ho ll ow and
ambiguous ra tiona lit y of the state-mac hi ne. made H ugo Ball a dadaist, a preacher
of the "nonsensica1."
Sound P oem s ( Zuri('h . 19 15 )
by Hugo Ball.
" / i,wented a new species 0/ t:erse: 'Verse Without Words: or
sound poems, in which the balancing 0/ the t'oll'eis is gauged and
distributed only according to the value 0/ the initial line. The
first of these / recited tonight. / had had a special costume
designed for it, My legs J(:ere covered with a cothUTnOS of
luminous blue cardboard. which reached lip to my hips so that
/ looked like an obelisk, A bor;e that I wore a huge cardboard
collar that u'as scarlet inside and gold outside. This teas lastt'ned at the throat in such a manner that I was able to move it
/iI.:e tdngs by raising and dropping my elbows. In acillition /
leore a high top hat striped tdth white and blue_ I recited the
lollou'ing:

gadji beri bimbo

glandridi iauli lonni cadori
gadjama bim beri glassala
g(andridi glassala tuffm i zimbrabim
blassa glass(Jsa tuflm i zimbrambim.

The accents became heavier, the expression increased with an

intensification 0/ the con.~onants. I soon noticed that my means
0/ expression, (if / wanted to remain serious, which I did at
any cosO, teas not adequate to the pomp of my stage-setting.
I leared failllre and so concentrated intensely. Standing to the
right 01 the music, I recited "Laboda's Chant to the Clollds";
then to the left, "The Elephant Carallan." Now I tllTTled again
to the lectern in the centre, beating industriously with my 1vings.
The heavy vowel lines and slouching rhythm of the elephants
had jllst permitted me to attain an ultimate climax. But how

to end up? / now noticed that my vuice, which seemed to have

no other choice, had assumed the age-old cadence 0/ the sacerdotal lamentation, like the chanting 01 the mass that wails
throllgh the Catholic churches 0/ both the Occident arid the
Orient.
I don't know what inspired me to use this music, but. I began
to sing my vowel lines recitatillely, in the style of the chllrch,
and I tried to remain not only serious bllt also to lorce myself
to be grave. For a moment it seemed to me as ii, in my cubistic
mask, there emerged a pale, disturbed youth's face, that hal/frightened, hal/-curious lace 0/ the ten-year-old lad hanging
trembling and aLid on the lips of the priest in the funeral masses
and high masses 01 his parish. At that moment the electric light
went out, as / had intended, and I was carried, moist u;ith perspiration, like a magical bishop, into the abyss. Before the Ilerses,
I had read a few programmatic words:
With these sOllnd poems we should renollnce the langullg.
dellastated and made impossible by journalism.
We should tdthdraw into the innermost alchemy of the word,
and ellen surrender the word, in this way conserving for poetry
its most sacred domain. We should stop making poems secol/dhand; we should I/O lOl/ger take oller words (not ellen to speak
0/ sentences) which we did not jnllent absolutely anew, lor our
own Itse. We should no longer be content to achieve poetic
effects willi. means which , in the final analysis, are but the
echoes of inspiration, or simply surreptitiously proffered arrange
ments of all opulence in cerebral and imagistic values_"

(Translated from the German by Eugene Jo(os ) -

Fr n ~m e nl S

fro m a Dada Di llr y

"March 6, 1916-1ntroduce symmetries arid rhythms Lnstead of

principles. Contradict the existing world orders. _ ..
June 12, 19J6-What we call Dada is a harlequinade made of
nothingness in which all higher questions are inllollled, a gladiators gesture, a play with shabby debris, an execution 01 postured morality and plen titllde . . . .
The Dadaist loces the extraordinary. the absurd, even. He knol/;s
that life asserts itself in. contradictions, and that his age, more

than any preceding it, aims at the destruction of all generous

impulses. Ellery kind of mask is therefore welcome to him, every
play at hide and seek in which there is an inherent power oj
deception. The direct and the primitive appear to him in the
midst 01 this huge arlti-nature, as being the supernatural itsell . ...
The bankruptcy of ideas IWlling destroyed the con.cept of humanity to its very illnermost strata, lhe instillcts and hereditary
backgrourlds are now emerging pathologically. Since no art.

- From "Pluchl aus der Zeit," D uncl.:er and H umboldt , 11l 1tnich published in English
in "transition" .Yo. 25, Fall. 1936.

317

politics or religious laith seems adequate to dam this torrent,

there remain only Ihe blague and the bleeding pose . . . .
... The image diDerentiates us. Through the image we compre
hend. Whatever it may be-it is night-we hold the print of it
in our hands.
The u:ord and the image are one. Painting and composing poetry
belong t(lge/her. Christ is Image and word. The u;ord and the
image are crucified. ...
March 30. J917-The new art is sympathetic because in an age

of total disruption it has conserved the willtoth eimage; be caw~

it is inclined to lorce th.e image, even though th e means and
parts be an tagonistic. Convention triumphs in th e moralistic
evaluation 01 the parts and de tails; art cannot be con cerned
with this. It drives toward the in-dwelling, allconnecting lile
nerve; it is indiDerent to external resistance. One might also
say morals are I/;;thdrawn Irom convention, and utilized lor the
sole purpose 01 sharpening the senses of measu re and weight . . .."

(Irom " Flucht ailS der leit" translated by E/lgene lolas "transitioll," No. 23)

After a fe w yea rs of cooperati on, Hugo Ball, th e ascetic philosopher, disa pproved of
Tza ra"s stra tegy for litera ry glor y and broke with him. Huelsenbeck acted so mewhat
si milarl y. He felt tha t Dada was not a literary and art movement, but " life" itself;
life with a ll its contradicti o ns and tricks, pleasures and betra yal s. Leavin g Zurich
fo r Ge rma ny he for med a g roup of youn g arti sts around him self : J ohann es Baader,
Geo rge Gross, Raoul Hausma n, H ann ah Hoech and J ohn Heartfi eld. Th ey became
mo re and mo re fasci nated with the revolutionar y stru ggle which developed into a
domina nt li fe form in th e postwar Germ any. Th e mo re these people were thrown
into the revo luti ona ry movement of th e proletariat the more they lost their identity
as dadaists. But th is was th eir conscio us poli cy of "artless"' approach.
Huelsen beck's poems " Pha ntastische Gebete" (Fanta sti c Praye rs) a re good docu
ments of the time

somew hat simila r to Wh itman's " Respond ez." But Huelsenbeck's

bitter protests aga inst the Ka iser, Germ an militarism and bureau cracy we re shot
through wit h g rotesq ue streaks of foll y, an d with th e vul gar hu mor of a super Vill on,
H is pamphlet, "En Avan t Dada! The Histor y of Dadaism," (192 1) gives a sober
unsent iment al survey of th e movement. He shows there, better and more sin ce rely
th an is done in any o ther repo rt, the unco nscious inn ocent begi nnings of the move
ment. Howeve r, he neve r g rasped the real role of T za ra nor his poeti c ve in. He
saw in hi m only a literary da nd y, dru nken with hi s selfmade fame.
One of Hu elsenheck's best fr iends, Rao ul Hausman, had not been in Zurich when
Dada began its work. Neither were Kurt Schwitters no r Max Ernst. But a ll of them
opposed the obsolete se tu p which had been preser ved from the Imperial Reich and
was carried into the compromi sing German Republic. " In th e dismal gray of a
protestan t despa ir we will open all the vent s and let th e electri c fans furio usly revo lve
Fig, 407. Richard Huelsenbeck, 1922
The ti tle page of the brochure "En avant
dada" (history of the dadasm)
This page IS typical of the altitude of the
dadais ts in producing tension a la tablo!d
newspapers an::! magazmes. This page )s
full of sensational headlines, such as
"Startling disclosures", "Practices of the
childfarmers', "The abstract o.rt", "Dada
to be healed????", "The Kaiser, Hlnden
burg 6 Co.", "The feed,ng of the intel
lectuals at Pots1am Square", "Is Dada
insane?", "The syphilis of Plcabia", "How
about a little drmk?", and S::l on,

in order to crea te an atmosphere for our co ntemp orar y ideas .. . . What is art ? It
is a nonsense when it gives us only esth eti c r ul es to move wi th security betwee n the
geography of the metropo lis and agr iculture, the applepie and th e women's bosom ....
The new ma n should have the courage to be new," said Raoul Ha usman in hi s " Pre,
sentism" (February 1921). I mplicit in thi s "new" is th e new social wa y of livingso distant at this momen t yet so near if one will but realize the promi ses of th e revolution which followed the war of 1914-18. Wo rk ing at the peripher y of the dada ist
movement these three men a t ti mes expressed it better th an th e o rigin ators. This is
especially true of Kurt Schwitters, the Germa n painter and wr iter.

318

Kurt Schwitters
Opposi ti o n is needed in e\ ef ) soc i el ~. It s functions a re to c heck inj ustice a nd to in
ject fres h b loo d into anem ic a rt eries. But o pposi ti on g rows not o nl y in th e po liti cal
a ren a. Dissat is fa cti on o f va ri o us k inds mar be in strume nt al in foste rin g oppositi on
to the obsolete in a ny \\ a lk o f life. The a iri ng o f g ri eva nces is a pa rt o f th e soc ia l

process o f im prove ment \\ hich mar fl ow into refo fm s or revoluti o ns.

10

Schw itters published a poem "Anna Blosso m Has Wheels" (Allrla Blume) in 1919,
which in a short lime gain ed g reat popularit y. At first readin g th e poem seems to
be onl y doubletalk. 1n realit y, it is a pe ne tra tin g satire o f obsolete love poe ms,
exagge ra ting th eir s illin ess to fant ast ic dim ens ions. In " Ann a Bl osso m" as in man y
oth e r poe ms o f Sc h\\ iUe rs. the altitud e " I oppose" or " I don' t care" p reva il s. This

is th e first ste p o f th e di ssa ti s fi ed who d oes not wi sh to be leashed to co nfo rmit y a nd

ke pt to heel by th e threa t o f soc ial boycott .

MtrZJ'

5T uR n

dada

Fig. 4GB. Kurt Schwitters. 1922

Lithograph from the pamphlet "Die Kathedrale"
Published as Nos. 3940 of the series. " Ole
Silbergaule" , by Paul Steegmann Verlag .
Hannover.

Fig. 409. Double page from Kurt Schw it

ters' book: " Anna Blume"
(P ublished by Paul Steegmonn in 1922).
This poem became a popular ki nd of do uble toile in Ge rman y in the twenties quo ted
e ve n by people w ithout litera r y inte rest.

Psychological studi es hav e bro ught nearer to us th e biological mechanics of emotion

anti ex pressio n in permanentl y perso nal , interi o r sense largely independent of cuI
tural innuences j children, fo r instance, "ho have little consc iousness about the
mac hin ery o f soc iety, o r th e psychoti cs wh o are alread y bey ond its reach. The sub
conscio us des ire to see ho w th ese impulses work in practice, and a yearning for a
si mila r indepe nd ence fr om co nsc ious pattern s brought a grea t wave o f appreciation
of children's draw ings and paintings around the sa me tim e that " Anna Blossom"
\\as p ubli shed. H. Prin zhorn 's book- on th e art o f the mentall y ill , especiall y of
schizo phreni c patient s. a roused the same g reat in te rest, describin g th eir paintings,
ca lTi ngs. Ill odelin gs a nd writin gs. th eir ex pressive fertility and uninhibited use of
la nguage.
They haye given a sti mu latin g impetu s to th e all -searchin g poets, j ust as the study
o f th e Negro sc ulptu res gave stim ulu s to th e painters o f the " fauves" and the earl y
cub ists.

the p s:ychotics
As poems o f th e psychoti cs ca n not rea ll y be tran slated. it was importan t fo r this
stud y to locate materi al wr itten in English . This type of resea rch, however. is at its
beginning in thi s cou ntry. a nd T found b ut few references. - - S uch investi gations may
become va luabl e in therapy. They may also g ive some leads to a more constru ctive
and ba lanced edu cati on \\ hi ch wo uld p revent psychopa th ological di sturban ces.
H ere are some writ ings b y psychologica ll y di sturbed pati ents. Th e first two are by
a schizoph re ni c. collected by L. Kerschbau mer) l\!J. D.---

Bills E pit a ph

A regular pirrolin' caballero if there ever ILas aile.

The better ~I>ths and J saw him in Ziegfeld Follies
First lossin' a loop and chewin' quid of gum and soliloqui:in'
On Washingtoll cherries not George bu t D. C. Washington.
And the Itay he lalked abOl1t the D. C. Washington hocu m!
You got the lowdou;n on the higher-u ps.
Well, after abollt 80 of the suellest slickest sylphs
Y ou ever got an eyestrain over
Cut their capers and how?
You get the drift .' th at line of Kiplillg's "Nothing lUllch before
and rather less than half of that behin d !"

Only relation to (esture 'cause there sure was som e swell

Uph olstery stuffi n's if you know what I mean ?
The beller 1})6th s com ments inadvertently didn't you give me
Those opera glasses? Your eyes must be in awful
S hope sitting ill secon d row and Y OIL have to use
Bifocals the y don' t exray do th ey?
I came back with lam e ephorisin', no my dear
Wish 't {L'aS so, th e better 2%2nds. You paid t u;o
Boxcars fo r the squats so squeak you! But believe me
Xa ntippe your gelling your gappin's ! Then
Bill saL'ed from bitin' m yself by sasshoyin'

Die B ildnerei de r Geistes-K ranken" (J ulius Spr inger 1922, B erl in)
- - uA Sun:ey of the L iterature on A rtistic B eharior in the A bnormal," by Anne Anastasi and John P . F oley, Jr., in the J ournal of General Psycholo.QY, 1941 /25 and in

the Psychological lJ[ onographs, V olume 52/1940, published by the American P sy cho
logical A ssociation, Northwestern University, E ransion, Illinois
--- UJournal of .lYen;ous and Jlelltal Disease," l ol. 91/ N o. Z, (J940j.

320

-----------------------------.---

Fig. 410. Ferdinand Cheval. 1899

One of the facades of The Ideal Palace.
H:lUlerives (Drame. France)
Cheval, bom In 1836 at Channes (Drame)
was a rural mailman at Hautenves. where
he died in 1924. In his thirtieth year he
I.:IW in his dream a castie.
Unaided he
c:mstructed in his garden between 1879
crnd 1912--often during the night-"The
Ideal Palace", mainly from pebbles which
he collected on his route. This uninhabitable palace covers a surface o f approximately 44 by 82 feet and has numerous
inscriptions

This Illuslrallon shows th. sid. daled 1899

and inscnbed as "The Fairies of Ihe East
Come to. fraTermze with the West"

On with quid 0/ 811m Iwrl.in' orertime 'tearin'

Texas jilting's odrlin' a loop he hOI/Aloes Ihe
Folks toues the ten gallon sl.YJ)oke sixty
Feel" other side 0/ surge lind SflOP$ loop over croun
]U jt about lime she /anlh and
/lallis it bac/,: to him , uhile he'$ up to this
Git'en the politic-oilers the run'Mound (lml
Cheu'''''' gum. ,relllhllt's somethillg to see
Sez the beller :.r.~th. You ca"'1 er:en gct )our
}jJ..")piflhe uimi giles il toss Itithoul file
Xeu.'sies IlCo cops a"d IthileIl.i"gs to help )"OU. I am reduced!
bUl I set an)"lt.O)
Them chassis's /las Sit ell! Bam ! her elboll.
In mI' short ribs. If' ell Bill sor'elilhe
Do." again. A propRaddie saunters on stage
For side from Bill smokin' a quirt).
Bill git'es him stanco tosses loop at him siXly
Feel a/to) untl knocks o ~ h from cigarette,
A~ks for 'nother chance. This lime he gels quirl) olld Junks it

321

ill Ill/;es couple puUs to shOll.' its

Lit. I mean that's shootin' snips se:: t he better
1I'.!11"ths. If' ell Bill ,m/ked away Itith show. And
That's just ,that he does all through fife . Nit s
r our town the milk fund needs few gra"d
Or children, old folks or bunged liP folks need
Lift. Altta)s right there with he/pin' hand
f\'ot a bunch 0/ hooey. Ala) be yOIL perused th em
There billetdoux he ran in papers. 1/
Bill didn't top the nail on the noggin' who er:er (lid.
If'hen he's l/."Osh up those D. C. If'ashingloners ,
I meall they It'e re uashed and it !tas
Not It'hite /tash, If'ell all the Itay
Through top. bottom and in middle and
Both sides he Ras R ealy Guy a Celltleman
And Scholar I salute ,ou Bill Rodgere.

(J938 )

Sonja U('nie

Aphrodit~

0/

is Sonja H~nie
Trh ~n '"OU s~e her on glaciarums
Don', )'ou fly m~ntallr with her through air?
Sh~ makes a slti/t flash!
A fI)ing =eph)r oj airicle voluptuous telocity replete

Iris

~lh ~ri~llr

Encore
,\ ow the firing airicle toluptuous =eph) r
Cite the commonalty a tisual treat
"The Birth oj a Nation" tLas a great picture
But see Aphrodite Iris etherials next lumping til'l)pe.

The author of both pieces is a 47-year-old schizophrenic inmate of a State hospital.

Dr. Kerschbaumer calls this type of poetry "emotional catharsis."

The other poems o f psychiatric patients are from the collection of Miss Marion
Kalkmann. Direc tor of Nursing, the Neuropsychiatric Clinic, University of Illinois.
The follo\\ing ,\a5 writt en by a 3D-year-old woman five days before admission to
hospital. \\ hil e und er the care of a private phvsician.

The Raindrop Prelude

Dedicated to my Physician
( at 3:50 A.M., Nov. 26, 1932)
(Not Written by Chopin)
Poets say it's pitrer palter;
Why not tipper.tapper.tip
That the "mellow" raindrops "u;hisper"
As they scatter
Skitter, skip-fiust my u.'a} 0/ sa}ing Jrip).
Or it could be pOller-putter

That I hear IIpon my shutter

Just a splutter
A nd a mutter
Or stich lowbrow stufJ as gUller .'
Though I really think the u;ord I hear
Is just plain
Butter, butter.

One patient. a 21-year-old college girl: who incessan tl y chattered. was asked to write,
in order to quiet her down. Here are four of her answers to the order; all written
the same da).

322

1.

4.

lIoan if )OU lLili. you chu8sing flame and steel

groan and cry

cuntemplate
contemplate

soar and =oom

grind and roll

con ..
temp
plote ..

bring us closer, clost,. closer

but do men k,1011J \o\ hy
ft'hen you ask them?
They suy . . . It's streamlined
it shines
it goes like a bat out of
hell

music, I

out

of

Ollt

of

2.
W illiam Shakespeare

,uile?

each frame should be as bealltiflll

.
as mmt
each I'oiee shoultl ring as clear
bll t long and etil years
good and eL'il rea rs
evil and good rears
are pushing, uhirling, rolling, logging, toesing, erring.
ening. singing, singing, singing
p .s. lriLl this do lor my assignmen t ?

3.
Thanks lor tossing cr),stal brambles my Ito)"
They came in handy . . .
1/ lOU had analyzed . . .
and scrutiniud .. .
and criticized . . .
I f(;ollidn't be alive.
1/ this I(;ere music . . . real music
I could explain
but It-e must wail/or that- I mean
the music
II.'hen each note is weighed
/Chen emotions are expressed care/lilly
by contrapuntal
you and I It ill hate ollr noses to the
earth
Hou'e!;er in the meantime-jllst
an ordinary thanks-hate,
P.5.- By the

11.0)' ,

I like

~ollr

I hear your note-like loo/stells el er) lj;!Jere

beating beating beating
beating conversation lor sOfl/e to hear
while others lie mOllldering
and wait
Churn those jarring atoms
I tI.ant some music, mnestroplease!

hell

discordan tly

hell

'" simple thing

he ihell

ml lor }au

stealinG ..
so/tly
loudly
}'armonioll sly

heli

ILhy COllld

/I

mUSIC, you re comlllg lIellr

ou, of

and

SIr

nosf'.

323

chi Idren

verses

Verses, recitals, writings of young children before they arc o\crrun ,dth the con,"ention of mechanistic rh) thm and ch) me of the kindergarten such as, "Twinkle,
hdnkle, little star . .. " hav e a primordial aliveness, similar to the \\ritings of the
psychotics.
" I 10 Ie papa
little chicks go dolt fI his lacehe is IIII/ny looking though
but mammy is IUI/nier than him.
There is something I Imow about dad:
th ere is a lunny cock roosling in our barn

alld there ;s a paddle in the IW l er.

Gaggle, goggle, I lOI-'e )'OU lather
soan there will be lather's day
Bushi says hurrah all ah 0/'1"
( Poem 01 a louryearolll girl)

fig. 411. Child's pointing

For a child there is no difficulty In makmg
a painting, drawing or sculpture. His natural readiness to express hlmseH helps
him to handle every medium without em
barrassment. The grownup in the future
must regaIn this confidence and power,
usually lost or turned Into sell-conscious
ness by the tradillonal educational processes

"Skeleton
I bob apples
a cot
Cals are black.
Cots are pink.
Cats ore black.
Cats
While cals
Brown cats
Kittens
Yellow"

"Mary LambIe
Mary Lambie guy bib
Had a Italk lrith
Pie hib
Th ey both !tent crazy
Wh en th ey got lazy
Mary Lom bie
guy bib.
T o-da-ia-la-tat."
(written b)' an eigh tlear-old girl)

(by a six-year-old child)

A third grader at one of the Chicago public schools just before Christma s turned in
the follo\\ ing composition on the subject:
What I Want (or Christmas":
" I like a rifle because I can play guns because I like to play guns
it is lun to play guns )"0'" hide in bush I like to play guns )'0" hide
I It-ill find )'OU it Id1l be lun to play guns. GUTIS is Ifln to pla y
guns is a lunny game to play gUTIs is a game you have to hide
wI,en YOIl play guns."

(Chicago Sun, J anu ary I, 19.5.)

111 both cases. in that of th e child as well as that of the mental!) ill. since rity, strong
fan tasy and penetrating power of expression are predominant. Here "art" is not
a matter of professional performance nor the result of hi gh intellectual standard.
The measurement of <Iualit y is proportional to th e emoti onal intensity with which
the indi\ iduals express tilemsf'h'es. On thi s level \\'e may spea k of th e :'arl" of

324

children, primiti\c::., ps)chotics, catacomb d"ellers and the art of Milton, \l;'hitman
or other authors.

Poetic <lualit) then originates "here there exists an identity of

both the potelltialit) of the individual for expression and his \erbalitcd solution.
The expression of the child or ps)chotic person is mainly an emotional release
without ideological can notations: the ': prof~sional" \\ riter must go be) ond that by
sensing and e"pressing the social relationships around which, consciously or subeon
sciousl), his material coagulates. The one is verbalized ~'dood lin g," the oth er is organ ized con text.

sound and numher magic

Without trying to define Sehwitters' peculiar poetic quality, it ca n be said that most
of his writing is emotional purgation. an outburst of subconsc ious pandemoniulll. But
they are fused with ex ternal reality, with the existing social status. His verbal "collages" are good examples of this. There the current of his thoughts are mixed with
seemingly random quotations from newspapers, catalogs and advertising copy. With
this technique

like Gertrude Stein. but more acrid-he uncove rs symptoms of social

decay known to all, but neglected or dodged in a kind of self-defense. The scene is
Germany. Inflation after the war; corruption, waste. damage to material and man.
An aborti"e social revolution makes the situation even more hopeless. Schwitters'
writings of that period end with a desperate and at the same time challenging cry.
In one of his demonstrations he showed to the audience a poem containin~ only one
letter on a sheet:

fig. 412. Ku rt Schwil1e rs , 1924

Poem

Then he started to ':recite" it with slowly rising voice. The consonant varied from
a whisper to the sound of a wailing siren till at the end he barked with a shockingly
loud tone. This \\ as his answer not alone to the social situation but also to the de .ch erry.mout hed""
. d"- "b a bblmg broo k"'. - poetry.
gra d IIlg
- raven, haue

325

-, he onl ) possible solution seemed to be a return to the elements of poetry , to noise

<lnd a rti cula ted so und which are fundamental to , all languages. Sch\\ iuers realized
th e prophecy of Rimbaud , in venting words " accessible to all five senses." His "Ur
sonata" (l924) - Primordial Sonata- is a poem of thirty. five minutes duration, conta ining four move ments, a prelude, and a cadenza in the fourth movement. The
word s used do not ex ist, rather they might exist in an y language; they have no
logical onl y an emo ti onal con tex t j they a ffect the ear with th eir phoneti c vibration.
like music. Surpri se and pleas ure are deri ved from th e structure and the inventive
comb inati on of th e parts.
Fig. 413. Kur t Schwitters. 1924
Introduction to the " Primord ial Sona ta"
{"Ursonete")
In this poem Schwitters used only sounds
without ve rbal meamng. The impact o f the
poem came from its unusual strong musical
quality produced by high pitched vow els
ond the rumbling of consonants

Such sou nd rh ythms were preceded long ago by tongue tw isters. Their va lue lies
in th eir elemen tary phonetic power and thei r primitive di rectness as tongue and ear
tickl ers.
" If a Hottentot taught a Hotten tot lot to talk ere the lot coul d
totter, ought the Hottentot tot be taught t o soy ough t or naughl
or f,;hot ou/:ht to be taught 'er ?"

326

This is a Hunga rian tongue t"ister which 1 made up while a boy:

Te tetetett ten ek
fetetelt lettese
Ie telled e

tetetetl teltet.
( r ou, the maker
action.)

0/

simulated actions,

)OU

executed this simulated

Here is a so und so ng made up by Du tch children:

'Nay politay politessa
L'mba K wah umba Kwa y
Umba Kwu y umba Kway
Oh Nicodem us oh lJokra comba
o /\"icodemItS tjakra combo KII.. ah.'

Perhaps the best so undin g ones come from Cuba, derived from the Co ngo :
" Bucca, rebl~ cca y bucca, rebu cca,
Bu cca, rebllcca y rebll cca ma,
Bu cca, rebucca, y ma rebllcc(I."

Such acousti c experiences a re international.

Here is an African Negro twister

which, except for its rh ythmi c pleasantness, makes no attempt to be senseful. They
are nonsense syllables in Basa dialect :
" K oko umbale gogo
(enge kule milof/do
kokroko miyombroko
mbondo lOS."

magIc
played an important role. The magic words
In old tim es thi s type of word

of the conjuror co me from such a background.

Fig. 414. Christian Morgenstern, 1905
A page from the book "Songs from the
gallows"

"A brakadabra pama veseta!

"Das grosse lalula" is an early forerunner

of the sound poems recited by the dadaists
in the Cabaret Voltaire, Zurich, 1916

he describes the ecstati c and hymnic language of gnosis used during the mystic

Fig. 415. Another page from the same

book by Morgenstern
"The Night Song of the Fishes" is a visual
joke. The are and dash signs of the poetical foot are used here parlly to indlcote
the rhythmic structure of the mute poem
and partly 10 charactenze the opemng and
the closing of the fishes ' mouths when
swimming

T en tum tentrum paxpelantum!"

Eugene 10las quotes (transition 22/ 1933) Hu go Ball's magic invocation with which
rites of the Byza ntine Christians:
" AEAEIL'O l AO OIA PSINOTER TERNOPS NO PSITER
lAGURA
PAG URA NETMOMAOT H NEPSIOMA
OTH
MARACHACHTA TOBARABRA U TARNACHACHAU lOROK.
OTORA IEO U SABAOTH."

In printed literature such so und ex perim en ts appeared ten years before dadaism

(1905), not as magic but as rebellion in rhythmi c form, for instance, in Christian
Morgenstern's poem " Das Grosse Lalula" (quoted from his book "Songs from the
Gallows." "Calgenlieder") .

rereired from .John de Yong, Des Moin es, I owa

from Fernando Ortis uJitnnja/ores in Ouba," transition No. !5
collected by Frances SenSh-f

327

Gcdichl 25 ( Po('", 25)

Himbaud boa,led:

E/~m('ntory

.,/ urole silences . \ i811tS."

25

25,25,26
_u,
}'" _'6 ,_-'7
-I,
,- _'7,_"S
28,28,29
J 1, JJ, 35, 97, 99
42, ", 46, 48, 5
59
9, 9, 9

Before th e " Primord ial Sonata" Schwiners jolted do\\ n expressio nistic sound and
numbe r poems such as " \Vall" t \Vand ) and " P oem 2.5" (Gedicht 2.5) "here the
literar) tension is uch ie\ cd "ilh direct sensory impact but also usin g recognizable
Baudelaire said about numbers:

55
7, 7, 7
56

" In the theoler, (It (I ball, erer) indhidual enjoys all those present.
The pleasure 0/ being among th e mosses is the mysterious expres
sion 0/ the joy in the mllitiplicatioll 0/ the numbers. Et'eT)'tll ing
is numbers. "'limbers is et'ery thing. Th e nllmber is in the
indllidllof. Tile intoxicatioll is a number." .

6, 6, 6
56
6, 6, 6
3-1 6
57
5. 5, 5

.-.,
-. -

After the grea t reyolution in France. people changed their family names to figures
such a:, " 1789 '

J8

,/ - f .
I; .4

,/ -

But it was i\Jorgenstern "ho really "rote "silences" in his "Fish's i\ightsong.'

words and digits.

5.
,'i.

59

".1/)' nome is Francois ,1/il/eseptcelltqllufret"illgtn ell/."

f12.4

They also used cal en dar months fo r first names : " January," "February," etc. In

Europe. streets a nd places are na med after historic dates: " Rue de Quinze Sep.

124

lember:' In this cOllntry adve rti sin g gives an additi onal meaning to fi gures. Loco

1f!4

motives. motorca rs. airplan es are nu mbe red, The whole industr ial life is dependent

on numbers. producti on fi gures. statistics.

Printed lett ers (as in the cubi st pictures). as well as numbers, ha ve suggestive

}.

,/ .

po\\er. They signi fy on th e one hand abstract knowl edge, on the oth er, wealth,
po\\er. dates. actions. music a nd architec ture.

From
Kllrt Schnilters' " Die 8111111e A,,"e"
(Der Stltrm, Herlin, 1921)

For Europeans. America seems to be th e Eden of abstracti ons, for example: the
way in \\hich numbers ha\'e taken on an ex istence of their own.

Fig. 416. Title page of the fourth issue of

Allred Stieglitz's "291" (June. 1915)

USA numl)f'r collllgf'

with a two-color reproduction 01 a drawim.

by Marin
The collaborators 01 "291" were the artists
of the avant garde, Picasso, Apollinaire,
Picabia, etc.

Oll p'IIP -

291

J- 1

'( IIp

7.7,7,7,7,7. -----7 come 11 - 1,1,1.

.j fllld 1{J -? ill 0/l,.8 i11 onp -Q.' sl.idoo
66
606 - 606 - H mnble 9-.97
fifty-fiffy
jitle oil!
5 and 10

11ickel and a dime

10 - 20 mule team - 10 and 10
la-one A
behind tit e 8 ball - J, F'7,7,7,-----H einz !

57!
(ft- f ty-s e-e-e-ve-e-en ...)

In 1940 in a San Francisco night club a Negro jazzband was playing with magnificent vigor. laughing, shou tin g. singing. Suddenl y one of th e members chal

~.

'll

- ()~--

~ (/

./

328

LITTLE REVIEW

MU.IC

CD

,.OUIIY

::J

lenged th e band : "Oll e millio n ami three;' he teased th em sIn gin g loud l} . " ulle
million ami seven," ans\\ ered the saxophonist so me\\ hat hesitatltlgl}. '-':'even all d

a hall," th e first resumed j

,
~

..J "
<{

Z
_

,
THEATRE

CIIITlCI'.

" Ele ven," came quickly hom the vi olinist.

" 7'wentyone, " lllC plano

'
pI a}er shot bet\\ eell.
" Five million and a half'

IL

'"Seven ty-seven"

81.00

" Sixty- three"

" Olle and a quarter,"

Fig. 417. Tille page of "The Little Review". 1928

and with happy laughter and shrill Slll g lll g the "' numbers"

Edited by Jane Heap and Margaret Anderson. This was the lost issue of the maga-

the

tine

The futuri stdadai st poems, bare of all "sense"

new

Loo k ove r th e place.

poetry
in th e accepted wa ) s o [ one

dim ensional logical and declaratory communicati on, brought about a temporar y
saturation of the inventive spirit. The dynami c march end ed after the critics had
acknowl edged it either indirectl y (by their furiou s attacks) or directl y ( by their
back-patting attitude) .
Dadaist literature and all th e other art s attempt ed to co nsolidate th eir position.
The di ssidents of man y different co untries found each other quickl y. J n th e U. S. A.
they gath ered around publicati ons like 291 , LillIe Review, Seven Arts, 391, Dial,
Bro om" S n4, S ecession, Co ntact, transitioll.
Strength ened by the rich th ough diverse efforts of Poe. :Melville, Whitman and
others, the Ameri cans Alfred Stieglitz. Margaret And erson, Jan e Heap, Freytag.
Fig. 418. The seal of the avant gorde
review, "Broom", 1922

Loringhoven, Gertrude Stein , T . S. Eliot, Mathew Josephson, Eu ge ne Jolas, worked

Edited by Harold Loeb and Matthew Josephson, in collaboration with the A merIcans Malcolm Cowley and Man Roy, as
well as a great number 01 European artists
and writers

Stramm, Vasa ri , Picabia, Cendrars, Huelsenbeck, Tzara , Arp, Joyce, Schwitt ers,

Fig. 419. Title page of the "transition",

by Mira, 1937

Spend er, Read, Ad y, Ka ssak, Barta, Ma yako vsky, Pilniak, Nezval, P olianski , Micic,
Pasternak, etc., etc.

After "Broom" was discontinued, "transition"-published by Eugene Jolas~took up

lhe tradition of the ovant go rde and p rinted
from 1924 to 1939 the most advanced creative work in art and literature

surrealism

alon e or in collaboration with th eir European colleagues, Apollinaire, IMarinetti,

Be nset, RibemontDessaignes. Malespine, Dermee, Aragon , Breton: Soupault, Aud en,

In 1921 Tristan Tza ra, the leader of the dad a ists, left Swit ze rl a nd for Paris. He
tried to orga ni ze Dada a mong his French colleagues. From thi s ve ry active group ,
after several more or less unimporta nt co nfl icts, th e surrealist group emerged under
a new leader, Andre Breton . Breton, formerl y a psychi atri st, had been interested
fo r a long ti me in th e wo rk of Sigmund Freud , who- in h is psychoa nalyti cal
stud ies- showed how subco nscious repressions, es peciall y of sex ual nature, determine feelings and actions of the individua l. These emotio nal forces exp ressed
sometimes by automatic acti ons. such as misp ron un ciations, misspelli ngs, ommissiolls. lapses. doodl ings. became inspiration and so urce materia l fo r surrealistic
creat ion. They added a new species to the a rsenal of literary expression: "automa tic writing." Originall y it was a psychological experi men t made by Breton and
Soupau lt as emotional purga tio n in a kind of selfhypnoslo;;. the writ ing down of

329

tnougllis occuring \\ ithout conscious control. 1m ocation to inspiration. Magic arlo

\rrite immediatel) !" said Baudelaire, anticipating

~his

technique.

Later the surrealists tried to simulate all types of psychotic "rilings, It was the
first time lhat \\ rilers had not to go to foreign sources, to the \\ork of children,
primiti\'es or ps)chotics, \\hen the study of uT/i"hibited inspiration \\as desired.
The) produced the "uninhibited" expression themselves.
"Surrealism is at the crossroads 0/ sel;eral thought mOLements.
/T' e assume that it affirms the possibility 0/ a certain steady downu:ard readjustment 0/ the minas rational (and not simply c()n
scious) aC"lit'itr tOILard more absolutely coherent thought, irrespec
tive 0/ u:hatetN t/iree-tion that thought may take: that is, that it

proposes or would at least like to propose a new solution 0/ all

problems . .. . That is why one may express the essential char
acteristics 0/ surrealism by saying that it seeks to calculate lhe
quotient 0/ the unconscious by the conscious."
( Pierre Nedlle).

Breton. Soupault, Eluard all found that \\'ritings without logica l control were much
more \j"id and the use of lan guage much more "ital. They were fascinated by the
automatic \\ riting. by ils great explosi\'e power. a new TNT of the soul. TIley tried
to build up the lan guage of the subconscious as the truer expression of the indi\'idual
- freed from external pressure. escaping the censo rship of conven tion and conformist
obedience. They were eager to di5con:r stimuli which had been neglected in the past
because of an o\'erzealous interpretation of reality based only upon familiar external
experiences.
" One must be 14:illing to dream. and
one must know holl'." ( Baudelaire )

Surrea lism answered th e official reality of daytime logic with the

"omnipotence of th e dream." \",<l ith emphasis on the realm of the subconscious. And
with th e demand for a "pu re psychic automatism which is to ex press the real process
of thought. Th ought's dictation in the absence of all con trol exercised by reason . . ..
Livin g and ceasing to Jj,e are imaginary solutions, Existence is elsew here" ( Andre
Bretonl. The "don't care" of the dadaist attitude \\as here tran sfo nned into scientific
terms of a new therapy for a society. sick and ou t of balance. In this sense con
temporary literature a::o well
103

35 ab~lract

painting can be understood as stepping stones

new philosophy: a visual parable of a world which ha s to go th rough the same

disco\'ery of the complex interdependence of its functions as th e individual in his

ne\"y conquered relaliom:hips of conscious and subconscio us forces. If such a societ \.
- conscious of its forces and functions- should e\er be realized, all its members
Fig. 420. Oscar Schlemmer, 1923
Pa rty
The rendering of the subconscious storte d
long before surrealism. This is the re a son
tha t the 8urrealists moy claLm anyone from
the his to ry o f art as their com rade

must ha\e sufficient preparation to adapt themsehes to the changed circumstances.

Only then \\ ill they a\'oid interpreting the new forms of existe nce with old meanings.
Such preparations cannot be merely intellectual ones, the y have to be co mbined with
the emo ti o na l needs and capacities of the individual. 11lis process is more compli.
cated than simp ly following the political rules of a party platform.
The training of the mind can be accomplished by elemen tary exercises and exercises
of a higher order; by reading, thinking and ana lysis. The same is true for the emotional life. It must begin wilh basic "exercises" then ad\'ance to experiences of a
more complex and refilled nature.
The forms of the advanced process are unpredictable. They usually appear fir5-1 in
the creati\'e fields \\hich preconcei\'e results not yet intellectually defined but only
intuiti"el~'

330

felt . The e\ ents of a period. its disco\eries. the tendencies of the socio

fig. 421. Joan Mira, 1931

Stencil prinl

fig. 422. Max Ernst, 1928, "My seven

sisters dream" (montage)

Instead of photographs, Ernst employed
woodcuts lor his dadolst-and later, sur
realist-montages

., ,

" I

331

,I ,
,

rig. 424. Marc Chagoll. 1911

Bucolic Bliss

Fig. 423. Giorgio de Chirico. 1917

The Seer
The early Chi rico pictures are the most
forceful rendermgs 01 a nOstalgia for the
classics, combined with the bleakness 01
the mechanl:;:ed ind ustrial age

Fig. 425. Meret Oppenheim, 1936

Fur Cup, saucer and spoon
Among- all the surrealist objects ("objets")
Ihis fur cup is most revealing as to the
subconscious function of perception and
association

The y oung generation took up muc h 01

the dicllonary of the abstract, dadaist ond
surrealist pointers.

They are often v ery

dllf u;uil 10 classify, but all have one thing

In common- -they paraphrase the emotional. lubecmsdous flashes, Clod try to

organize the chaos of the unspeakable.
Many of the painters. however , who do
such wOrk (as KI_, Arp. Ernst, Man Ray,
Picasso Br'lque, and. astonishmgly, even
t.eqerl produ
often 115:> non-cbJect:ve
palntln-;s

332

Fig. 427. Herbert Bayer. 1941

"Torture chamber"

fig . 426. Femand Leger. 1942

Abstraction

Fig. 428. 0 Robert Erickson. 1944

Black Dream

333

eco nomic forces, forecast the trend for the se nsithe and sy nthetizing man of creatlve
abil ities. He \\ ill summa ri ze them in a form pecul i-o r to his medium.
There is always a phalanx of creative workers moving in that directi on. They are
the makers of the new intellectu al and emoti onal tools which- perhaps generation.
later- will be adop ted for mass use .

The ne\\ poets opened the sluices of subterran ean forces. Ashes, soo t and lava
streamed over the literary fi eld. It was a surrealist triumph to see a deeper sense
in the bubbling sent ences and unrela ted words of the aut omati c writin gs. Dreams.
children 's rh) mes, rhythmic jokes of ado lescen ts, " the ri ght of man to his own
madness" (Dali) became th e fo unda tion of enigmatic wri ti ngs, a scie ntifi call y justified source of mater ial.
1.

2.

(Eleren people were each asked to jot doun one line on a sheet
in a certain order of grammatical constructioll, but u:ithout a
knowledge of the others' uriting).

(Six people participated in WfltWg one sentence each on a sheet

tdthout knowing anything about the other participants' sentences.)

"This night
rurlS darkened
through parchment
Uiith horror.
gentlyThe cat lor:es, kisses tell
freshly
thru. the son of Uceus
against uhom?
Cautiously
a stone

"It may be height of low Uie got

in deepest depths
where men laid then lie ahout
from mediocrity to oblivion
would bring a rose
then I will go home"
(Institute of Design) August 3, 1914

..

Fig, 429, a

Emerson Woelffer. 1945

Figure objects

b) Paul Eluard

Simul a t io n o r Gen era l P a r a lvsis Essaved

. .. My hearl bleeds

thy mOllth and closes on thy mOllth 011

all the red chestnut trees of the avenue of thy mouth where we
are on Ollr lLO) throllgh the shining dust to lie us dOlC:1l amidst
tIle meteors 0/ thy beauty that I adore my great one uho art so
beautiful that I am happy to adorn my treasures with thy pres
ence u;ith thy thought and with thy name that multiplies the
facets of the ecstasy of my treasures ldth th y name that I adore
because it 1t.akes an echo in all the mirrors of beauty of my
splendour my original woman my scaffolding of rose- lI;ood thou
art the fault of my fault 0/ my !;ery creat fault as Jesus Christ
is the It'oman of my cross-tu;eh'e times tu'ehe thousand one
hundred and forty-nine times I hat'e loud th ee Kith passion
011

on the u:ay and I arn crucified to north east west and north for
this kiss of radium and I u;ant thee and in my mirror 0/ pearls
thou are the breath of him who shall not rise again to the su rface
and who loves thee in adoration my 11.0man lying upright when
thou art seated combing thyself.
Thou art coming thou. thinkest of me thou art coming on thy
thirteen full legs and on all thine empty legs that beat the air
with the swaying of thine arms a multitllde of arms that u'an t to
clasp me kneeling between thy legs and thine arms to clasp me
,dthoul fear lest my locomotil-'es should pretent thee from coming to me and I am thou and I am before thee to stop thee to
giLe thee all the stars of the sky in one kiss on thine eyes all the
kisses of the world in one star on thy mouth . . . .
From <fL' Immacule Conception" Translated by Samuel Beckett -

(rom "Surrealism" by Julien L'1:Y; published by Black Sun Press, }"-ew York. 1936.

334

-,
,
..-.... _....... -.-_.

- .... .. .. ..--' .-.........

.. .

"

..
[.,.;

0-

..

.'

"-,

",!1:

_ 0._. #'"
--.'M

.,_.... ....

The technique of the surreali st

revolution of literature

'Hite r~

ma) be co nsidered as a step in th e creath'e

like the re" oJution of abstrac t painting-aimin g at the re-

constru cti on of a new co nscio usness in man who had lost co nn ection with his pri.
mordi a l

pa~t.

In thi s li ght th e automatic writin gs of th e surrealists are pro\'ocath"e.

th ough in comp arison to the "rilin g of reall y uninhibited persons th eir results show
!lome rig idity. They ha, e not as smoo th a flo w of th e inner happenin gs. They are
a ppa rentl y interrupted fr om time to time when th e excommuni cated co nscious mind
tri es to cher k the autom ati c aclion.

From
liThe Whil e-Haircd Rc \,oh c r"
by A ndre Breton ( 1932)
.... He presides at the tuice nocturnal cerem onies u.'hose object
due aliOlmnce Jor fire haling been
made is the intenersion oj the hearts
oj the bird and the man
Conlll/sionary in ordinary I hal'e access to his side
The ralishing uomen !rho introduce me into the
rnsepndded compartment

" 'here a hammock that they ha"e been at pains to contriLe

u;ith their tresses Jor
M e is resert'ed Jor
,1fe Jor all eternity
Exhort me beJore laking their departure /lot to catch a chill in
the perusal oj the daily . ....
T ranslated by Samuel Beckett .

Nccc~s .ll y
by Paul EII/ard
With ollt great ceremony on earth
Near Ihose who keep their equilibrium
Upon this unhappiness uilholll risk
Very near the good rood
In th e dust oj serious people
I establish relations betll.:een man and rL'oman
Betu een Ih(' sme/lings oj the sun and the bot! of drones
BetReen the enchanted grottoes and the atalanche
Bellteen eJes surrounded by dark circles and th e laugh 0/ despera
tion
Be//('een the heraldic Jemale blackbird and the slar oj garlic

8etueen
Between
Betu:een
Betlteen
Between
Between
Between
Between
Between
Betlteen

the leaden thread and the noise oj the fl:ind

the Jountain oj ants and the wlth"ation oj strawberries
the horseshoe and the fingertips
the chalcedon y and Kinler in pin s
the tree oj eyeballs alld r:erified mimicry
the carotid artery and the ghost oj salt
the arau caria and the head oj a duar/
rails at a jUll ction and the russet dOle
man and uoman.
my solitude and thee.
from "La Vie Immediate", 1932

T he dadaisti c poe m shows mo re freshness th an th e surrea list literature. Dada is more

" poetic" and richer in ils exciting perceptive potency. In com pa ri so n to it an Eluard
poem is rationa li zed fan tasy. firewo rk s of images taken fr o III the di cti ona l). not the
eruption uf life encompassi ng intellect and emot io n. Except for hi s ex periments
in the si mulati on of psychoti c writings_ one is at a loss to see why Elu ard is call ed
su rrea li ~ t. H e is an amiable. melod ious poet but rather co nse r va ti ve when meas ured

From "Surrealism:' by Julien L ery, published by Black Sun Press. S . Y. 1936 .

From Partisan R eview 1f o. 5 1939, "The Poetry of Paul B luard" by Louise Bogan .

336

by the dadaists' ach icH ments of a mult idimensional language. All is no t fa nt as tic
wh ich is called SOi there a rc pse udofa nt astic writin gs behind ,\hich onl y a tra ditiona l
onedimensional thinkin g wo rks.
Scientifi c disco urse prod uces a clea r one-dimensional statement -language stri vin g for
photogra ph ic p rcdsioll. Th e poet has to give more. H e co mmuni ca tes more pro-

fo un d ly \\ ith his co ntempora ries by drop ping the logical con tex t, th e habi tu al syntax
and by return ing to U1 C roo ts o[ crea ti ve impulse. There is no need for the poet to
pose pedagogic or phil oso phic qu esti ons. If he concentrat es on the un ique task of
evoking r ich emoti ona l reacti ons by un coverin g th e savage depths o r tende r pass ions

of existellce. he " ill express a ph il oso ph y as a poet.

Excerpts from
)Ir. Kni(e l\liss Fork
by Rene Cree-'el (19001935)
{jseless to point out that there is a white race, a yellow, a bLack,
a red race, but none skyblue; useless to say that houses are built
0/ slone or brick and are hence II-'hite or rose, or that the grass
in the fields 8rOII-'S 8reen. A child reconstructs the world accord
ing 10 his OUin caprice, pre/erring above all the fabulolls animals,
making fun of the suans in the Bois de Boulogne, laughing in
the faces of the bears in the Jardin des Planles, despising lions,
camels, and elephan ts, and deigning to cast a glance UpOIl the
rhinoceros only because a/the horn that is planted there on hiln
where JOU Icoltid never e:tpect to find one. And how many questions u;ere asked about the 8n11. that the old cook used to chase
al/:ay at dusk last autumn in the country.
But at this moment the apocalyptic beast was death, and II-ith
eyes big enou8h to swallow the whole unit-erse the child once
more demanded: "What is death? What is a whore?
"The lesson is over darling."

"But rOll haL'en't answered."

"Run along and play. Tell your nurse to give you tea."
The child recogni;ed the /utility 0/ persisting. She went as she
fcas told but not to ask for bread and butter. She took a knife
and a /ork and, hiding away in a corner of her room, she began to
talk very softly to herself.
" The knife is Papa. The white part that cuts is his shirt and the
black part Y01 hold in your hand is his trousers. 1/ the white
part that Cllls was the same as the black parI, I could play he
was in pajamas, but it's too bad I can't do that.
"The /o rk is Cynthia. Beautiful Cynthia, the English lady. This
is Cynthia's hair, the part you stick into the food when you want
to take it off your plale. She has a pretty bosom that moves up
and down because she is out 0/ breath. Papa is very happy. He
caresses Cynthia and he laughs because he thinks it is tltO little
birds she has closed up in her dress." . . . .

Fig. 430. Man Ray. 1944

"Mr . KnUe and Miss Fork"
Dedicated to Rene C revel (from "Objec ts
c f my affection")

337

.,

.r

Fig. 431. Morcel Duchamp, 1936

"Book" (portfolio)

--

--

, -,

'. '--.

"

.'

--- . ".
'
-
-.
. -- - . ... .
,

"

"

.
,

-'

~~~-"

'-

_.:.,

--

:",;...-;;.,'
. ----.... .......-'!'

338

~
..
p

Duchamp was asked to publish his hfe

work. With a typical dadaist gesture, he
emptied the contents of his desk-notes,
drawings and photographs of the last
twenty-live years-into a cardboard box.
All Ihis was faithfully reproduced and pul
into a portfolio without chronological or
any other order, leaving the "mess" to be
disentangled by the reader

"You. desire a popular art? Begin by

har:ing a "people" whose minds are
liberated. a people not cmshed by misery and ceaseless toil, not brutalized by
every superstition and every fanaticism,
a people masler of itself, and victor in
the fight that is being waged today."
( Romain Rolland)

Hands off China

(A,itverse 1927).
by "/ad jmir Mayakovsky
Wardaughter 0/ imperialism.,
stalks
a speCire through the world.
Workers, roar.- Hands 00 China!
Hey, Macdonald,
don't meddle
in league alid muddle speeches.
Back, dreadnoughts!
Hands 00 China!In the embassy Quarters
kings metictdously
sit, wear:ing a web of intrigues.
We'll brush away the cobweb.
Hands 00 China!Coolie,
enough oj dragging them, cool in
rickshau's,
straighteTL your back,
Hands off China!
They want to pulverize
you with a colony,
400 millions, you're no drove
Louder, Chinese:
Han ds 00 China!Time you drot'e
these drivers out,
dropping them oD the wall of China.
Pirates oj the world,
Hands 00 ChinafWe're glad to help
all enslaved to fight
teaching
and prot'iding
We're ICith ")'ou , Chinamenf
Hands oU China!
Workers,
the robber
night, fire as a rocket
your fiery slogan :
Hands 00 China.'
rOllt

art and society

In contrast to their poetic works the th eo retical writings of the surrealists are very
logica l, intelligent and persuaSive, such as the book "What is Surealism?" (by Andre
Breton, 1937). This sharpness of analysis the surrealists had in common with the
futurists and the dadaists. Breton had understood that it is worth while to 10gically
articulate the aims of a group because collective success also brings a personal reward.
Like the dadaists, the surrealists had a deep belief in the revolutionary character of
their work. Consequently, at the beginning they declared their adherence to communism as the most revolutionary party of the world. Some of the party communists
were reluctant to accept this solidarity and attacked the new followers bitterly_ These
attacks were based upon the party principle which demanded absolute obedience from
the artist not only to the strategy of the proletarian revolution but for its tactics as
well ; in other words, the origin of the co nfli ct was group decision vs_ individual interpretation_
After the Bolshevik revolution in Russia (November 1917) at first only a small group
of intellectuals joined in the fight for consolidation_ Among them, most inAuential
were the symbolists under Alexander Block and the Russian futurists under Mayakovsky's leadership_ Lenin's government accepted their enthusiastic collaboration
as they were good allies carrying the torch of the revolution. But after the Soviet
governmental framework began to routinize itself and tried to bring the masses of
illiterate people into contact with the revolutionary machine, the demand was for a
popular art, a proletarian culture ("proletcult" ) _ Futurism was dismissed as " bourgeois decadence," as linguistic acrobatics playing with form without ideological
foundation , without "social significance_" Thi s objection was raised against not only
literature but against abstract painting and sculpture as well. Cubism, dadaism and
constructivism encountered the same hostility. Every experimental work, not showing

immediately applicable political tendencies, and not giving unequivocal clues to its
complete con formity to the "party line," was rejected.
The "prolelcull" was short lived. At the end of 1921 the N.E_P. ("new Economic
Policy"} - inaugurated by Lenin- restored greater tolerance, easing the dogmatic
severity of Russia's ideological life. This was the period of the '-feliow travelers_"

It was toward the end of this period and at the beginning of the first Five Year Plan
in 1925 that the surrealists showed their interest in the comm uni st party. The N_E.P.
attitude of concil iation had nol yet expi red and the Five Year Plan's conscious effort
- to utilize every source of persuasion for immediate projects- had not yet fully
developed. Until this happened the surrealists had, at least, the chan ce to discuss their
literary aims. But by giving up plans for world revolution, Stalin's victory over
Trotsky consolidated the national front in Russia. The demand of the communist
party was for one hundred per cent service in an all-out propaganda for more in-

Translation by Geor.qe R eavey and Marc Slonim , f rom "So viet L iterat ure" Covici.
Fr iede , I nc., Publishers, N ew Y ork. 1034.

339

dUHrial projects and production reo rganization . This required staundl (the socalled
"sociar ') realism. Surrealism as \\ ell as other experimen ts in th e fi eld of art (includ.
ing painting, sculpture and architecture ) were completely dropped (Kharkov Congress, 1931 ). The possibilit y that these artists mi ght be misused by co unterre\-oiution'
ary forces "ho would exploit th eir inexperience in tacticaimatters, is what party polio
ticians ge nera ll ) 5upp08ed. Howe \'e r the ferme nting power of the avant.garde, ale
though it acts slo\d y, is so important for prog ress that it would have been worthy
of official sponso rship. A \\ ise policy should have supported "experiments" even
if th ey seemed to be unpredi ctabl e in their co nsequ ences. Paradoxically, the less
predictabl e th e co nse{luences, the ri cher th ey may be in th eir potential usefulness for
a bette r future.
Again and again artis ts must sta te that revolution is indi\isible and that th e intel
lec tual a nd political strategy of the revolution must be accompa ni ed by a long. term
emo ti onal ed ucati on. Only co rrelation and integration can bring a change in habits
and attitud es of th e people rooled in and grown out of pre\iou s co nditions. "But this
is e\'olution, not revo lution"-may be answered. On the other hand, in the past th e
dynamic po\\{'r of e\'ery re\o lution has disintegrated \\hen it fell into th e hands of
politicians who did noL gra~p th e importan ce of a si multanrous program.

SigmullfJ Freud
\Ve ha\'e not ) et acquired suffi cient pers pective to see th e proper va lue and co nlrilJU'
lion of the futuri sts, dadai sLs, surrealists and other co ntemporary writ ers. But it is
safe to sa) that they were th e intuiti\'e beachcombers of th e subco nsc ious, sys temat
ically explored by Sigmund Freud in h is psychoanal)sis. Si nce th e philosophic blow
aga inst the dualism of body and so ul , cultural history has not often experienced such
a profound change. Freud- in his "depth ps)'cholog)." his sc ientifi c ex planations of

co
venng
our
the consc ious and subconscio us existence-pee led ofT one more laye r
psychophysical kernel.

In his doctrine of psychoanalysis two main strata are of Importance:

First, the ovendl elming innucnce of the su bco nscious upon th e co nscious life, the
"id" \dth its primordia l drives. The subco nsc ious is th e great wa rehouse of rep res
sion, of basic emotions as we ll as acqu ired feelin gs, the latter mainl y co ndition ed by
societ}', by its social and moral co nLradictions, by its hypoc ri sy. The sex ua l hysterias
of the Victor ia n era or the neuroses ca used by th e ruthl ess co mpeLit ive system of
capi ta lis m are buL tw o examples.
The second strata is lhe li mitless crea tive potenc}, of the subco nscious ex istence, an
emotional "vision in Illotion:' a new territo ry, richly ferti le if protected by efTecti\'e
therapies from erosion.
Freud's discovery of the crea ti\'c nature of these subconsc ious rorces would be justi.
flcation enough for a new literary form. Their recording can begin th e healing

340

pro('ess of d'lI11aging displl]('cll1ellts, gui lt complexe:o. and reprcs<:ion s. The new literary
language may lead one day to a regulation of th e powerful instincts and the seeming
irrationalities of th e suhco nscio us pattern and to a better kno\de(lge of genuine unity
of the conse- io ll s and subco nsc io us existence.

James Joyce
Although th e s urrea lists empha s ized such a goa ], th e new fo rm of commu ni ca ti on was
not accomplished by them, but morc by the dadaists and si multa neo us ly a nd even
mo rc by Jam es J oyce. (Thi s obse rvatio n is not on ly valid in lit e rature. It is s ig ni.
ficant that the revolutionary impulses, and aims cr ys ta lli zed during th e first quarter
of th e XXth century hale been dilut ed everywhere into an o ften inco nsequen tial
estheticism by the young generat io n.)
Joyce's HU lysses" was a n exce ll en t examp le of th e new literary constru cti on analogous
to the cubist collage where different elements, fragments of rea lit y, were fused into
a unit y or new meanings. Joyce showed that the seemingly inconsistent, ill ogical
elements of the subco nscio us ca n g ive a perfect account of man, th f" unknown, who
is always the sa me whether th e U lysses of ant iq uity or loday 's Leopold Bloom.
"Ulysses" was co nsidered for man y years a n incomprehensible book, e\en nonsensical. But viewi ng th e book in the li ght of th e later "Finn egans Wake," it appears as
a strai ght con tinu a ti on or th e 19th centur y psychol ogica l novel. It has a clearly
circumsc ribed con ten t- th e slory of a da y, Jun e 16th, ] 90 \.. It has its cha ra cters,
ils direct and symbo li c mean in gs, it s place and settin g.- The book has its own technique of rendering- at some places the techniqu e of the strea m of consc iousness, of
render in g a consta nt penetration of the subconscious forces a long with those of the
conscio us th ought s drawn from the scien tifi c discourses of Frcud and the therapeutic
app lica tion of psychoanalysis. In sp ite of its strange ri chn ess, "Ulysses" leads the
reader with clear logic to a vivid, naturalistic description of the life of an anachronistic city. of th e place, e\'ents and persons involved, th ough as tonishing elements
of the subconscious sometim es enter the field. The inundation of th e characters with
rude and exalted attribu tes may at first frighten the inexperienced reader. He may be
temporari ly misl ed because of th e frightfulness of the su bconscious landscape which
had not yet been exp lo it ed in pre-Joycean literature. H owever, Joyce handles the
subconscious man- a new '"ecce homo" with lu cid explic itn ess and one has to submit
to the unusual a nd th e shock in g without fear as one s ubmits

10

the knife of the

s urgeon if recovery is promised.

The peculiarity of Joyce's language is its multiple meaning, ac h ieved through Ule
fusion of th e ex ternal reality with the subconscious state in the form of the interior
monolog-"strea m of consc iouslless"-alld the day dreams of an introvert, centripetally condensed. In thi s way s ituations

old and new-words and se ntences are

- H is characters, though liL"iug in Dublin , are basically the same as the H omeric
figures. T his concevtion can be seen as eilhe r debunking lhe hero or elet'aling the
common m an. This bec01nes, in Joyce's treatmenl. a frameu'ork 0/ a wide range 0/
insight.

341

recast an d shi fted to unexpecled conn otati ons, cunnin g, intricate, pouri ng out humor
and sa tire. f lashing sparks from the subconscio!,ls, mixed with trivialities of routine
tal k. sha rp.tongued goss ip illuminate h idden mea ni ngs. Pu ns a re of deep significance,
touching ofT li be rating explosions. HU lysses" co mes as a breath of fresh a ir through
its ni mble. prec ise defi nitions of events an d pe rsons.
Quotation Irom
"U lysses" .

Pages 41 42
" ...... And at the same instant perhaps a priest around the
corner is elevating it. Dringdring! And tlW streets off another
locking it into a pyx. Dringadring! And in a lad)'chapel another
taking housel all to his own cheek. Dringdring! Down, up, lor.
Itard, back, Dan Occam thought of that. invincible doctor. A
misty English morning the imp hypostasis tickled his brain. Bring
ing his host down and kneeling he heard twine lelth his second
bell the first bell in the transept (he is lifting his) and, rising,
heard (now I am lifting) their two bells (he is kneeling) twang
in diphthong.
Cousin Stephen, you will nel:er be a saint. Isle of saints. You
were aw/l~lly holy, weren't you? You prayed to the Blessed
Virgin that YOIL might not have a red nose. You prayed to the
devil in Serpentine al:enue that the fubsy u;idou: in front might
lift her clothes still more from the ttet street. 0 si, certo! Sell
your soul for that, do, dyed rags pinned round a squaw. More
tell me, more still! On the top oj the H01dh tram alone crying
to the rain: naked women ! fflhat about that, eh?
What abollt what?

fflhat else Itere rhey invented for?

Reading tlt'D pages apiece of seven books eL'ery night, eh? I was
young. You bowed to you rself in the mirror, stepping fonf--ard

to applause earnestly, striking face. Hurry for the Godda mned

idiot! Hray! Noone saw: tell noone. Books you were going to
I"rile with letters lor titles. Have you read his F? 0 yes, but I
prefer Q. Yes but 117 is wonderful. 0 yes, W. Remember your
epiphanies on green oval leaves, deeply deep, copies to be sent
if yOIl, died to all the great libraries of the world, including
Alexandria? Someone 1vas to read them there after a few thousand years, a mahamanvantara. Pieo della l'tlirandola like. A y,
very like a whale. When one reads these strange pages of one
long gone one feels that one is at one with one who once . ...
The grainy sand had gone from under his feet . His boots trod
again in a damp crackling mast, ra:!orshells, squeaking pebbles,
that on the unnumbered pebbles beats, wood siel:ed by the ship
I(orm , lo st Armada. Unwholesome sandflats waited to suck his
treading soles, breathing upward sewage breath. He coasted
them , walking warily. A porterbottle stood up, stagged to its
waist, in the cakey sand dough. A sentinel: isle of dreadful
thirst. Broken hoops on the shore; at the land a maze of dark
cunning nets; lurther away chalkscrawled backdoors and on the
highf'T beach a dr)'ingline with two crucified shirts. Ringsend:
ttigW"lms of brown steersmen and masler mariners. Human shells."

Pages 7293031
" ...... they're all so different Boylan talking about the shape 01
my foot he noticed at once even before he was introduced when
I was in the DBC u:ith Poldy laughing and trying to listen I was
waggling my foot we both ordered 2 teas and plain bread and
buuer I saw him looking with his two old maids of sisters when I
stood up and asked the girl It:here it was what do I care ILith it
dropping out of me and that black closed breeches he made me
buy takes you half an hour let them down wetting all myself
always with some brandnew fad every other week such a long
one I did I forgot my suede gloves on the seat behind that I
never got alter some robber of a Uioman and he lIiGnted me to
put it in the /rish Times lost in the ladies lal:atory DBC Dame
street finde r return to Mrs Marion Bloom and I saw his eyes on
my feet going out through the turning door he ltas looking when

I looked back and I went there for tea 2 days alter in the ho pe
but he u:asn't now how did that excite him because I It:as crossing
them when we were in the other room first he meant the shoes
that are too tight to 1t:alk in my hand is nice like that if I only
had a ring with the stone for my month a nice aquemarine III
slick him for one and a gold bracelet I dortt like my foot so
much still I made him spend once with my foot lhe nigh t after
Goodwins botch up of a concert so cold aud windy it was well
we had that rum in the hOllse to mull and the fire wasn t black
out when he asked to take off my stockings lying on the hearl hrug
in Lombard street well and another time it was Illy muddy boots
hed like me to walk in all the horses dllng I could find but 01
course hes not natural like the rest of the world that I what did
he SO)' I could give 9 points in 10 to Kalty Lanner and beat her
what does that mean I asked him I forget what he said because

Parts of it first published in the ULittle R evue" 0/ Margaret Anderson and Jane
H eap, Ohicago , 1918-20~ later as a book in France by Sylvia Beach Shakespeare & Co.
and in the U. 8. A. ny Random 11ouse.

342

the stroppress edition Just passed and Ihe man If jilt the curly
hair in the Lucan dairy thats so polite I think I saw his face
be/ore somell:here I noticed him /then I IWS tasting Ihe butter so
I took my time Bartell (IArcy too that he IIsed to make flln of
I(:hen he commenced kissing me on the choir stairs aflcr I sang
GOllnods At'e Ma ria what are I( e Il.miting lor 0 my heart ki:.s
me straight on the brow and part which is my brol/;/1 part he was
pretty hot lor all his tinny voice too my 1014.1 notes he nas alw'lYs
rming abou t if you call belief'e him I liked Ihe way he used his
mouth singing then he said Itasnt it lerrible to do that there ill
a place like that I dont see anyth illg so terrible abo/lt it 1/1 leU
him abollt that some day 1I0t 1I0W and surprise him ay and I'll
tah'e him there and show him the very place too we did it so
nOlc there )Ou are like it or lump it he thinks nothing can
happen without him knowing he hadnt an idea about my mother
till Il.e were engaged otherwise hed never hm'e got, me so cheap

as he did he ItoS 10 times u-orse himself al/)llOw begging me to

give him a tiny bit CII! aU my drawers that Il..as the evening
coming alollg Kenilworth square he kissed me in the ere of my
glove and I had to take it aU asking me questions is it permilted
to inquire the shape 0/ my beliroom so I let him keep it as if I
lorgot it to think of me when I saw him slip it ill to his pocket of
course hes mad on the sl1bject 0/ drawers thats plain 10 be seen
allcays skee:.ing at those brazen/aced things on. the bicycles u:ith
their skirts bLowing liP to their navels even when Milly and I
were out 11'il11 him at the opell air fete that one in the cream
mllslin standing right against the sun so he could see every atom
she had all when he saw me from behind following in the rain
I saw him before he saw me however standing at lhe corner of
the Harolds cross road with. a new raincoat all. him ltith the
muUler in the ZingaTi colOllrs to show off his complexion and
the brown hat loo/':ing sLyboots as usual . . . . ."

The cunnin g ambiguity of the P ythian orac le of Delphi was full of contradictory
meani ng depending upon where th e listener put th e co mmas, semicolons and periods.
But th e quoted passage from Marion Bloom's soliloqu y is a stream of the subconscious stringin g thoughts like beads without any punctuation to impede the widening
and a!:cen din g spiral of meanin g. But this did not yet make "U lysses" a revo luti onary work. Com pared with th e writing of the dadai sts, who recreated the conscious
and subconscious in integration, "Ulysses" is still "natu.raLisl1l," even if of a twodimensional kind. Joyce demonstrated in it the two levels of o ur psychophysical
existence only in juxtaposition-though with marvelous precision.

He telesco ped

nouns. ve rbs, adjectives into forceful images, visual and so und proj ections. He overthrew the old co nvention of a successive development of ideas. H e took element s
independent of space or time con tinuum when he needed them for th e cha racterization
Fig. 432. Reproduction of a kidney in
"lalex" , 1939

of eternal human tra its.

Whitman had already tried to show in hi s poems the finest structure of psychophysical
detail s. as if th ey had been seen through a magnifying glass. The French naturalists,
th e Brothers Goncourt, Zola and later Proust, tran slated thi s technique into thei r
prose. Joyce, too, was occupied with the precise formulation s of an ultra-naturalism.
In "U lysses" one ha s to perceive the whole with its interpenetrati on of details in
order to gra sp the dynamic fusion . TIle whole calls upon one's compl ete capacities,
co nscious a nd subconscious a like. The result is a richness and precision of rendition
never before known .
In th e new technology there are analogies for such a precision. It is no t yet the superprecision of the microscopic section but~at least- that of the close-up. For example,
wi th rubber liq uid one can make visi ble the blood system of the kidney~a most
co mpli cated orga n, full of minute details, never before seen in renderings of anatomic
sections. Now, by injecting latex into the blood vessels a nd dissolving the tissues in
acid after the rubber has set, an exac t repli ca of th e kidney can be produced with
outside and inside vis ible. \Vith this new technique, as with th e new writing technique, one sees more.

343

Anolher analogy is a co lored lantern slide of a cubist painting \\ hich is thrown

out of focus \,hen projected so that, for example, an un focussed Picasso stilllife
of 1922 looks like a Cezanne. The peculiar greelHed coloring of the Cezanne apples
is repeated exactly in the Picasso apples out of focus. ]n focus, the same picture
may appear to the inexperienced spectator as decomposed into inco herent shapes
and color spots, entirely unfamiliar until the un focussed view is shown which
provides an almost macroscopic definition of the apples. The cubist painter, in
tryi ng to uncover th e essen ti a l propp.rti es of his subject, worked with an infinitely
grea ter precision than his predecessor. He tried to see more and what he saw
he painted more intensely. ''(lith Jo yce's langua ge one ca n also see " more."
But what is thi s " more?"
It has been stated previously that th e function of the com pleme ntar y color in
a painting- whether rendered actually, or produced only in the mind of the spectator- is to crea te a feeling of bala nce, the sa tiation of a psychophys ica l hun ge r.
The way in \\hich thi s is achieved determin es th e quality of painting. Jo yce groped
for a sim ilar law on th e large scale of man's total ex istence and tri ed to decode
Figs. 433 a, b. Pablo Picasso, 1924
Still life (in and out of focus)
While the uninitiated finds it difficult to
read the picture in the original version,
he easily can see especially in color
projection-the "normalcy" 01 the still life
If it is out of focus. In this case it becomes very similar to the still lifes of
Cezanne

the impulses which seek to esta blish th e psychoph ysica l balance in eve ry situation.
Although Illan in his vanity and illusions is still pressed through heritage and
ed ucation to wa rd tran scende nt a lism and tries to overcome his cri ses with metaphysics. J oyce found a rational method to balance such longings for "eternity"
with the cyclic recurrence of biological a nd historical facts, personalities and
characters.
Finnegans Wake
" Finnegans Wake" con tai ns all these elemen ts but in new relationships. The verbal
richness of the "Ulysses" period is increased while the joined eye a nd ea r sensation
is retained. The previously natural is ti c, descriptive effects are veiled, tendin g to
obscurity, to manifold interpretations.
Joyce tried to avoid the limitation of a precise sub ject-rendering. The outpourings
of the su bconscious sphere did not allow an unalterabl e fixation . The pluralistic,
timeless meani ngs could be better safeguarded if

t~.ey

remain ed flex ible. not defined

too sharply but enveloped in the amo rph ous qu alit y of th e drea m.
"Glossas glossa rum glossan t" may have been J oyce's desire. Ancient Roman law
was so terse, yet so complete that later centuries did not seek new laws but merely
interpretation of the original codes. Then th ese expla na ti ons of the glossarist were
glossed again and aga in by new glossarists. This may explain the vaulting ambition
A little child. painting a horse. showed the picture to his older sister who burst into
laughter. UWhy do you laugh't u asked the chad indignantly, ado you not see that
it is nwre horse than a horse't"
Pages 160-161 .
Ul n terpretatiolls of interpretations inlerpreted.n

344

of Joyce to create a new introspccthe bible, a unh'crsa l repository of trends and

traits of the human being which \dB provide material eno ugh for commentators of
generations to come.

\Vh ile in "Ulysses" he postulated the unily of personalities, in "Finnegans Wake"

he look up Vieo's idea of th e c)c1ically recurring history. In "Finnegans Wake,"
in a trancelike atmosphere of a day-dream, no value is placed upon details as such,
onl y upon their discrete relatedness. The consecutive order of th e o ul er reality
is s uspended so that the inner world with its greater " truth" ca n be demonstrated.
There is no " up" and no "clo\\ n," no " fonvard" a nd no " backward ," no seq uence
of direction, position, lime, s pace. Only the sy nthesized absolute relation ship of
e\'en ts and personalities, like an equipoised sculp ture, hovers in the universe.
This does not mean that "Finrll'gans \Vake" is en tirely the outpouring of auto
matic writing, unchecked by the conscious mind.

On the co ntraf) :

If one

accepts the diffuse nature of the book and does not try to make co mparisons with
pre\fious forms of literary ex press ion, it hecomes clear that th e intellect, the logical
mind. plays a dominant role in it. Th e book is co ntroll ed by a sharp intellect which
filters e\'ery detail with great di sc rimination through the meshes of a l\'lachiavelian
alertness. One senses its fullness, the rc\'erberations of the psyche as well as of
hi story and cu lture even if it is imposs ible to follow all their implica ti ons without
sharing J oyce's polyhistoric and multilingual knowledge. At th e fr o ntier between
a passing and a new epoch hi s lang uage is composed of a ll lan guages a nd all
the contemporary slan gs in order to make understandable th e present, past and
future travail of the world in its vari ega ted yet eternal rec urrence. Jo yce is the
\'essel of very old knowl edge and very new hun ches. One feels behind hi s work a
universal wisdom from which the co nscious and the subco nscious receive their
impetus. This two ed ged intelli ge nce of J oyce crea tes the atmosphere in which the
subconscious releases th e poe tic qualit y: th e bleedin g fr om a th ousa nd wounds followed by a Hom eric laughter. Th e subliminal conni cts between the conscious co nception of writing as an ideological task and the su bco nscious tend ency of release
are in Joyce interl ocked fun cti ons of human existence.

]n a stat e of balance

the ideal may be to feel what o ne think s and to think what one feels. l ovee is rather
near to thi s state. With hi s lan gua ge one almost hears and sees. thinks and feels
at once not only the scope a nd th e problems of th e world . but of oneself as well.
One of the tragedies of ou r ge nera tion ha s been the forced beli ef in " today," in
': progress," the stability of humanis ti c id ea ls.

Joyce was not deceived by s uch

camounage. H e kn ew man's ti meless faults as well as his virtues. H e had no illusio ns

about potential duplications of barbarism.

He stood for a totalit y o f ex istence,

of sex and spirit, man and woman j for the universal agai nst the specia li zed; for
the union of intellect and emotion: for blending history with forecast. fairy tal e
with science. With thi s he liberated himself from the restri cti ons imposed upon
writers by Marxian theo ri sts whose demand for adherence to the tacti cs of the
party often negl ected basic emoti onal concepts and human trai ts. Their eyes were too
often directed toward the ep hemeral and the transient. thu s shorl.c ircuiting th e

345

constant and multifarious. Jo)ce contained multitudes.- And with these u multitudes"7
he pa\ ed the wa y to a related , space.time thinki;l g on a larger scal e than any writer

had done before.

From
"Finnegan. Wake"
(fir<:l pu blished as " Work in Progress" in "t ra nsitio n'" later in

book rorm by The Vik ing Press, New York. 1939) --

" Bygmester Finnegan, 0/ the Stuttering Hand, freemen's maurer,

lived in the broadest uay immargin able in his rush/it toofarback
lor messuages before Foshuan judges had given us numbers. ' ..
" . . . . erigenaling from next to nothing and celescalati ng the
himals and ali, hierarchitectitiptitoplotical. . .
"Arrah, sure, we all 10Le litlle Anny R uinr, or, Ite mean to say,
louelittle Anny R ayiny, when unda her breHa, mid piddle med
puddle ~he lIinnygoes nannygoes nancing by.
"No nubo no! Neblas on you live! Her u'ollid be 100 moochy
afreet. o r Burymeleg a nd Bind merolli ngeyes a nd all the deed in
the woe. Fe /0 /om! She jist does hopes till byes ,dll be byes.
Here, and it goes on to appear now, she comes, a peacefu8le, (l
parody's bird, a peri potmother, a pringlpik in the ilal1(/iskippy,
u;ith peewee, and powwows in beggybaggy, on her bick) bocky,
and a flick flask /leck/linging its pixyUgh1in8 pacts huemerom)
bOil'S, picking here, pecking there, pussypusSJ, pltwderpllssy.
"How bootifaH and how truetowife 0/ her, when slrengf), lore
bidden, to steal Ollr historic presents from the paSI po~tpropheti
cals sO as to It ill make us all lordy heirs and ladJmaidesses 01 a
prett)' nice kettle 0/ fruit.
"As Ihe lio" in ollr teargarten remembers she nenuphars 0/ his
Nile . . ' . . . 0/ eyebrow pencilled, by lipstipple penned. Bor
rOIt;;ng a IL'Ord and begging the question and stealing tinder and
slipping like soap. From dark Rasa Lane a sigh and a tLeep.
from Leshia Looshe the beam in her eJe, from lone Coogan
Barry his arrow 0/ song, from Sean Kelly's anogrim a blush at

the name, from I am the Sullivan that trumpeting tramp, fram

Suffering Dufferin the Sit 0/ her Style, from Kathleen May
Vernon her M abbe fair efforts, from FiLllhepot Curran his scotchlove mach reether, from hymn Op. 2 Phil A dolphos th e u:eary 0 ,
the leery, 0 , from Sam)'ourdll Leaver of Damyou fj;ell Lover
that jolly old molly bit or that bored saunter by, / rom Timm
Finn again's weak tribes, loss 0/ strength to his so wheel, from
the ludding on the greene, agirlies, the gretnass 0/ joyboys, from
Pat M ullan, Tom Mallon, Dan lIIeldon, Don !tIaldon a slickstick
picnic made in Moate by /II uldoons. T he solid man saved by his
siJlied uoman,.
" There uas a time when lIaif al ph abetl ers would have written it
down . . .
" . . . lor the goods trooth bewi ldcrblis!Oed. . . .
" He misu nderstr uck and aim /or am 0110 0/ number three 0/
them . ..
"But our undilligence has beell pl ut herotested so enough 0/ such
porter black [oll:neess , to base lor printink.
"Gossipaceou~ Anna Lilia
" lIelotiiotiositis in pllTe fusion by the score

"By/all.
"Upploud.
"Mawmaw, {uk, Jour beee/slay's {i::zin OLer.
"The fright of his light . . ,
"Enterru pt ion
" . . . beside that ancient Dame street, Ithere the statile of .1Irs,
Dana O'Connell, prostitllent behind the Trinity College, th at
arranges aU the auctions 0/ L'aluable colleges."

U'hitman said of himself "[ contain multitudes," when challenged for inconsistency .
Jlan .ll excellent essays hare been v..'ritlen about Joyce. Sugqested for reading aTe
R. J[iller-Budnitzkaya "James Joyce's ulysses" ( Dialectics r. 1[}S8)~' Carola Giedionlrelcker "The Function of the L anguage 'in Contemporary Po etry" (transition," S o.
Q2, 19S3)~' uJames Joyce" by Ilarry L et:in ( ..Y ew D irections, 1948)~' uA Skeleton Key
to Finnegan's n 'al.e:~ by Joseph Campbell and IIenry Norton Robinson (HaTcourt~
Brace anrl Co . ..Y. Y. 1944) is (In interesting though sketchy attempt to soh:e the
enigma of Joyce's last work.

346

Figs. 434435.

In Its efforts to integrate the arts, the Institute of Design bnngs before the students
the great creative writers in lecture senes.
For a better unde rstanding of the work of
fames Joyce, Leslie L. leWIS prepared
charts disclosing the structure 01 the books
"Ulysses" and "Finnegan's Wake"

o
347

2.9

Though such random quotations from "Finnegans Wake" can but hint at the
intricate use of language but not the structure of the book, they indicate Joyce's
capacity to evoke a rich atmosphere, and his method of producing new and fuller
meanings by recomposition, twisting and distortion of words. This is very similar
to the technique of the cubist painter who superimposed and interpenetrated eleva
tion, ground plan and cross-section into a space-time coherence and employed dis

tortion to emphasize substance and a VISIOn

"The method is quite simple!

111

molion.

You distort the words in a given passage so that

they suggest at one and the same time not only the original normal ones but also
another series of verbalism which they now resemble.

In order to convey these

multiple phrases at once, it is important to respect the intonation of the whole

as well as the individual words whose units of sound are being distorted. The
procedure is therefore more co mplicated than a series of puns or individual words.
Moreover, the words heard in overtone must be systematically related and must
contribute to a single planned effect."
In analyzing these "puns" of multiple meaning, one may come near to the author's
possible interpretation. But it is the reader's knowledge and education which is
the measure of the exact or hit-or-miss explanation. Here are a few samples:
"There's the Bell lor Sexaloiter."

The multitude of possible meanin gs are at first almost bewildering, but attempts at
a solution are soon transform ed into an intellectual game, which slowly becomes a
part of the subconscious ability

10

grasp such sentences and composite words without

conscious analysis.
The bell is ringing (" Iaeuten" in German ) for the six o'clock Illass; but also Belle,
the gi rl, is there to loiter for a "Sechser" (a " dime" in Germany). Or: Belle is there
for sexual loitering; or sex exploi tation? Also, every third Monday in April, Zurichers celebrate the "Sechseliiuten," a Beltane feast, by burning the " Bogg." the demon
of winter.
Another one:
" Oh , my back, my back, I want to go to A cheslesPains."

Aix-les-Bains is the wellknown French spa for rheumatism, gout, elc. But here the
name changes into the designation of the ca use: "aches and pains." This has a similarity to the handling of th e Guernica sketch by Picasso ( page 250 ) where the face
of the terror stricken woman also contains the piggish visage of Hitler, who caused
her sufferings.
"Tree taken jor gralted"

indicates "taken for granted;" but here is "grafted" which ma y be taken as implieo
in the process of "grafting a tree," but also as political

~~gra ft:'

"The Language of James Joyce" by Margar et Schlauch, in uScience and Society,"

Vo l. Ill , No.4, 1939.

3411

,,-jth his express ive, lucid interpretation of a foreign language J oyce amazes even
those whose mother tongue he uses.
" . . . lakes a szumbath Jor llis u.eekelld alld wtlSsarfla p lor his
re/rtskment . .."

This sentence plays with Hungarian words which he enlarges with new co nn otations.

He acco mplishes thi s by jugg ling three languages, Hungarian, En glish and German.
Through his conjuring tri ck the words logically follow each other in their new implications mu ch as th ey did in th eir ori ginal meaning.

" Szombat" is SHturday, "vasarnap" is Sunday. "Nap" has a double meanin

g "day"
a nd "sun ."

Jo yce makes " sunbath" (szumbath ) out of "szombat" (Saturda y), indicatin g that one
usuall y takes a sunbath at th e weekend. Sunda y (vasarnap ) follows Saturda y (szombat) just as after a sunbath one takes a dip as a " fri sky" refreshm ent. " Wassarnap"
can be understood as a " nap in th e water" if the similarit y with th e Germ an " Wasser"
(water ) is recogni zed.
But " nap" is in Hungarian also "sun " so that at the end J oyce produces a most
elegant pun . a cross wise identity:

,u"batll
~~

loaler,,"p

Of co urse, the danger of this type of ex planation is the destructi on of the fresh impact
of the surpri se wh ich one experi ences at the first readin g in co ntext ; the fluidit y of
" felt" movement has a " plasti c" impact not consciously ex plica ble.
It is a doubtful commonplace th at " puns are the lowes t form of humor." In the

case of " Finnega ns Wake" th is sta tement surely does not fit. J oyce's wit is very
candid. He quickl y builds up a moo d of ease. The reader is willin g to go on with
th e rath er complex tas k in vo lved in readin g the book. The ga iety, implicit between
th e lines, betwee n th e word s, and within the co mposite word s, makes one feel happy.
At the sa me time th ere is a feel in g th at the auth or himself enj oys mos t of all the
p: rand spectacle of li fe in spite of h is murd erous knifin g of human petul ance. When
he sco urges social a nd ind ivid ual defi ciencies, he does not sound as if he we re preach
ing in gloomy rage. His humor grows beyond the obvious in th e wo rd co mbin ati ons
with th eir ambivalent or mu lti ple mea nin gs. He speaks for example about th e
"panoroma of al l no res of speaches." There is somethi ng to see: "panorama;" but

also someth ing to smell : " flores" ( Howers); and to taste : "aroma," and things
to touch and feel- peaches, speeches and species.

349

Has he achieved here the coo rdination and the interchange of the senses \\ hich Rim
baud meant? Is his an x-ray technique of verbalization ? Probabl), It is the approach to the practical task of building up a co mpleteness from interlocked units by
an ingenious transparency of relati onships, The method parallels the cutting of mo
tion pictures, The editor of a film sometimes relates (pastes ) units- different shotsmade at different places and different times, into a new entity. The result Illa) ha\'e
little to do in its new sy nth etic existence with th e original meaning of the single shots.
Specificall y, the Russia n 4' m3chinegun" montage of th e silent days, with the li ght ning.
quick perception of relationships in the associative link of odd elemen ts. shows a
simi larit y to th e J o)cea n kin eti c technique of multiple com pressions.

1 one presupposes that th ere is an underl yi ng unity of all crea tive \\ ork in a period.
one can find in Joyce's writings analogies to con temporary techn ological terms. In
these term s Joyce's manifolded word agglutinations (often co nstructed from German,
Hun ga rian or other composites which so und nonnal in these languages but strange
in English ) appea r to be simi la r to the industrial process of assemblage by bolts,
rivets and screws :
"oliltohellou to/ that"
"wavyalJ}'eavyhefll'yeot'l eLe) en IIflir"
" bron~efi(lded"

"so JI.crea k / 001 ed"

"whilelallhatted" ,

J oyce's Jusion o f words. like

"panaroma"
"immarSlflable'

" engmallng
.,
. "
"celescalating"
"bootiJall".

are again eq ui\alent to the present technology of mass production as it occurs in

welding, casting, molding. stamping.
S uch approxima tions in motion pict ures a re as yet rare except in some surrealist and
abstract fiLn s,
"Finnega ns \~/ake" is not as easy to com prehend as "Ulysses," but as one becomes
accustomed to it s pec uli ar la nguage th e \\ ork as a "hole loses mu ch of its crypt ic
character. \Vithou t tr yi ng to size up his philosophic sig nifi ca nce. J oyce's universalitv
and inventive ca pacit y must be ac kn owledp;ed with admirati on.

In spite of animosity and misunderstandings. Joy ce's influence gro\\s co nstantly,

Not e how the langl1aqe of contemporary adl.'ertisin.Q lw s adopted Joyc e's method of
combination: u g irlesQ1fe" instead of burlesque.; Ub r ullch'~ for breakfast a.nd lun ch:
Pittsburgh u smag " meaning smoke and fog ,

350

For instance, one of the mosl origina l of the ) oung American \\ rilers, Thomas
\'roife. sho\\ed brilliant use of the It'o rd \\hich might very well have had Joyce for its
godfather.
From "You Can't Go I-lome Again" by Thomas \Volfe ( Harper Brothers. N. Y. 19W):

"The Fox asleep was a breathing portrait 01 gllileless ;"noce/l ce.

He s/tpt on his right side. legs doubled lip a little. hands lolded
toge/her underneath the ear, his hot beside him ort the pillOIL
Seen so, the sleeping figure ollhe Fox Itas touching-for all his
{ire and forty )ears, it l(Ias so plainly boylike. By no 10llg stretch
of fancy the old hat beside him on the pillow might haL'e been a
childish tOl brought to beel !f;ith him the night before-and Ihi<~,
in fact, it Itas!
It lias as if, in sleep, no other part of Fox uas left except the
boy. Sleep seemed to hate resumed ;nlO itself Ihis kernel of his
life, to hafe excluded all transitions, to hal'e brought the man
back to his acorn, keeping thus indolate that It.'hich th e mUll,

indeed, hod 1I('l'er lost, but 1IJhich had passetl Ihrough change and
lime and all tire accretions of experience aflll IIOW J!Od been
restored, 1l1/1t.'OL'en back into the single oneness of itself,
And ret ;1 was a guileful Fox, withal. Oh , gllileful Fox, how
i'lnoce"t in gllilefulness and in innocence how full 0/ guile!
Now straigh t in cllnning alld how cunning-straight, in all direcliOnS how strangedevious, in aU strangedeviollsness how direct!
Too straight for crookedness. and for envy too serene. too fair
for blind ill tolerance, 100 just and seeing and 100 strong lor
"ate. too hOliest lor base dealing, too high for low sllspiciousness,
too innocent for all the scheming tricks 0/ slt'Orming tillainyyet nner hatl been taken in a horse trade let!"

\Volfe's sentences are more than shimmering, sparkli ng variation or permutations

of the words, Reading them quickly one becomes aware not alone of the brilliance

of Fox' characteriza ti on, but beyond that. of the "plus" which turns wnllllg
mto
literature.

In 1935 Raoul Hausmann , the dadaist \\ riter, ga\'e a recital of excerpts from his novel.
It was a text overloaded \\ ilh details, precisely described; lengthy revelations j a

baroque richness in every sentence. For a while the excessive details appeared to be
somewhat out of date, if com pared to the telegraphic brevity one is used to today.
But slowly I was captured by the novel. The acoustical emphasis, the foaming water
fall of words. anticipated a literature of phonograph records Ilnd of the radio- not
yet accepted but in the making, The ears are slower, less exact than the eyes. They
have to be overloaded wilh a g reat ,'ar iely as well as quantity of sensations before
they can com pete

351

as to reception- " ith the lightning quir.kness of Ihe eyes .

E. E. Cumming's poem shows the influx of 'brutal" slang into the el)sian fields

of

poetry. The phonetic spelling makes tbe poem appear to be almost a puzzle:

"Y

guduh

y doan

)doan

Lisn bud LlSN

)OnnUhSlan

dem

ydoan

gud

0"

nudn

y guduh ged

am
Lidl yelluh bas

YUnTlIlhstan dem doidee

tuds u;eer gain

yunnuhslan

flIl

llcm

y gaduh ged riduh

due SIVILEYE zum

..

(fro m " Vi ew' No.2 Seri es III)

freedom and unpredictability

The new artist is deeply concern ed with moral obligations toward the e ntire society
of whi ch he feels him self a part. In this sense Less ing's stateme nt that "the theater
is a moral institution' ca n be applied to all creative activities irres pective of their
initial stimuli and peculiar media. Thu s any art wo rk is the r esult o f the forces
manifest in the social and economic structure and mirrored b y man. Art may often
appear bare of ideological clarity in the sense of a social program. However the artist
is not a propagandist but m o re than any other pe rso n, a se ismog raph of his time
and its directi on, wh o co nsc iousl y or un co nsc iously ex presses its substance. Apart
from thi s limitation of predete rmined soc ial and ethi cal ex istence, th e creative artist is
free as to hi s formulation.

This freedom is th e ge nes is o f the unpredi ctability of

ge m us .

I n " r iew."' ediled l}y Oha rles H enr i F ord. a grou p of you n g w riters t ries to can
fin ue the A 111 erien It literary tradition of the atantgarde.

"roup poeir"

It is a stran ge paradox th at th e 20 th ce ntur y with world communicatio n and interd epend ence o f trade a nd politics a lso fos ters a barren iso lati on o f the indi vidual through
mec hani za ti on a nd cit y life. Allh ough the inhabita nt o f the lar ge ci t) is dependent
on m an y se rvices, he has mo re oppo rtunit y fo r pri vacy tha n hi s ancestors had in an y
othe r prev io us pe ri od. Cit y tech no logy. ma nufac turing and se rvice indu stries pro-

vi de the fam il y ,dlh de li very o f goo ds, prepa red food , hot wa ter, hea t, laun dry,
ne wspa pe r, book. ra di o pe r forma nce a nd telev ision . But when th e b ills a re pa id

e,'eryo lle cons ide rs hi mse lf free from perso na l obligati ons. T aki ng these amenities
".\lagllo Cil.'ilQS, magna soliludo"-Creat

cities, sreal solitude (Latin proverb)

for g ranted th e in divi du a l is in danger o f becom ing iso lated , los in g the rea li za ti on o f
th e coll ecti ve na tu re of man's existence.
A small avan tgarde is a lt empti ng a reo ri entati o n by over co mi ng or subli ma ting th is
isolati on. Th ere are a rti sts, sc ienti sts a nd educa tors wh o seek to make th eir findi ngs
an integra l part o f th e com munity, a new li fe for all, to tra nsm ute lea rni ng in to a
process of organ ic growt h. But th eir fresh ou tloo k has to be brought to the masses
in order to increase the understan din g of the po litical and economic forces and to
prepare a full grasp of the sociobio log ica l needs withi n the new tec hn ology. One of
the great shortcomings of our civi li za ti on is the tendency to d ispense knowledge wi th
out taking the responsibi lity for its inter pretat ion. Bu t respo ns ible ci tizensh ip can
come on ly by conversion of know ledge into pe rsona l growth and creative action.
Th is wou ld guarantee that e"cr}one- \\ha tever h is profession-could act successfull y
within his field and co ntribute to ot hers as well.

353

The fight fo r a new social and economic order is a constant process, but it is not the
task of schools to make a decision as to the theo ries which should be victorious. The
duty of the edu cator is to un cover the forces which form society so that the individual, equipped with the knowl edge of the processes. may form his own opinion and
make a decision about his position in this wo rld.
Within the social sciences the analysis and practice of politics- as the tool of
reali zation-could be a most important subject. But there is hardly a possibility
that it will be accepted in the near future. No regime tolerates instruction producing
criticism of its own methods even if co nstru ctively und ertaken. Yet no education can
be justifi ed as an edu cation for skill s alone. It must inc1ude a qualitative analysis of
social relati onships. The results then mu st be translated into humanisti c and ethical
terms, independent of party tactics. A good method for thi s is to stimulate group
activities such as studen t cou nc ils, gro up research, group poetr y, which lead from a
vicarious, passive attitud e toward a well-directed, energetic participation.
group IJoetry as "wordmodulator"
After havi ng made stud en ts acquainted with the problems of literature, namely, with
the professional problem o r developin g lan guage as a flexible instrument for expression or as the emotional seismogra ph of a period, th e task arises to deepen this understanding. The answer is active partic ipation in the sam e way as the students of
th e Institute of Design not o nl y become theoreti call y familia rized with the plastic
arts. but learn to express themselves actively in th e differen t media.
One of the principal findin gs is that- besides elementary working problems-studies
may be made with results si milar to the solutions of con temporary artists. I n stimulating the stud ent to tackle such problems. one ma y reach numerous o bj ectives:
(1)

The stud ent, belonging to the younger gene rati on sensitized to new aspects of

life, will tend to g ra sp the con tempo rary trends with ease and will evolve a more
positive att itude toward th em.
(2) The student will go on to in dependen tl y solve hi s problems which have little to

do with the classic-historical routine.

(H oweve r, hi stor y of literature will not be

elim inated since most of the new problems grow at least partially, from past performances. )

If con fr ont ed with the work of a new author, the student will not be frightened
because he will recognize part of his own problem in it.
(3)

(4) He may lea rn to see the difference in quality between his and th e artist's solution

which is the sta rt for improvement of hi s own accomplishments.

Group poetry is an excellent departure to eli minate inferiori ty complexes, fear of
beginning. Its advantage is that it g reatly helps to overcome isolation of the individual
and prepares him for common tasks with his fellowmen .
"Poetry has to be made by all, not by one alone," La utreamont said. Croup poetry
awakens the imagination, widens the organizi ng power of the participants.

354-

The tec hnique of group poe try-as it is used in the In stitut e o f Des ign- is s imple.

IL follo\\ s the s imultane it y procedure o f Apollinaire. Thi s g iv es a rath er naturalistic

start \\ ith in the fram e wo rk o f in ventive visual and acoustic co mbinati ons . At the
beg innin g e \ c ry one in the g ro up (the numbe r may vary fro m ten to fift y) writ es
do \\ n a sent ence on a cOlllm on theme such as "War," " Cine ma;' " Th e Pro fess ions,"
" Postwa r probl ems," "S ig nifi cant Experie nces," and uscs these sentences as th e raw
ma te rial fo r th e g roup poe m. The individual may take th e pari o f, fo r exampl e, a
cabin et mak er , law yer, doctor, mechanic, artist, bla cksmith , so ldi e r, etc. Then a
se nte nce is produ ced by each whi ch cove rs the s upposed activiti es o f hi s " pro fess ion ."
Aft e r the sent ences arc formul a ted , g ro ups of five to te n pe rsons are fo rmed an d a
chairman a ppoi nt ed . Each g roup the n writes a collective poem fr om Ih e unre la ted
sent ences \\ hi ch . durin g the g roup wo rk , us uall y rece ive a surpri si ng co he rence.
Afterward , th e poems are perform ed by the groups and reco rd ed on th e ph onogra ph .
As the s tude nts' actin g and pe rfo rman ce must reach the sam e level o f c reati ve ness as
th e poems th emse lves, thi s ta sk becomes another chann el o f self.express io n.

Th e

stud e nt s' inte rest will foc us not onl y o n the 'VTillen ve rSIOn
, but a lso on its a udil Qr y
int eg ral ion .

Afte r thi s ph ase o f the work, the stud ents may go ah ead with an y numbe r o f soluti ons
brin g in g their wo rk into cl ose r re la ti o nship with the dadai sts, surrealists, elc. The
ne w poeti c qualit y and its fus ion with our complex e xi sle nce ca n be ex pressed mo re
vitall y throug h such an approa ch .

In the foll owing ex ampl e o f g roup poetry the unrela ted sentences, " the g iven
d a ta"
,
a re und erlin ed .

Sent e n ces about profession s

Cabinet maker

put his pla ne against the ponet and pI/shed

Plumber

That what is obr;ious is seen, portrayed and

misunderstood

Defend rhe accused

Argile in the interesl of client
Doctor

Artist

Blacksmit h

T wists hot iron shoes horses makes clamps

door latches grills and bars

Sergeant

lie bellowed "ortiers is orders"

I atlempt to cure the ills 01 men

Bang- Bang- pop-sssss
/ilt the lid . . . . . connect the pipe

Gunner

Z:;oo",m , bonG, /lie shot the mark again

-' fechanic

A garage mechanic wiping stretching while

/l iving the lfiindshiefd 01

(J

Cllr drhen by

round red man smelling of cigars

355

(J

J" Iy, 1941

Summer Se:;"jon, Somonauk, Illinois

The

~ollet'.i"e

pot'm

an antiaircraft Bun man mokes

fl'e S H 0 r the mark oBoin

i atltmpt

10 cu re Ihe

Z Z ZOO 0 AI

D A 1\ G

I S

ILLS of men - fane r;oice)

I
Pllt

ORDERS
A garage mechanic WIPING S T RET C II I N G NJhue h

my

W I P E D u;indshield """round

plane

against

BANG

(all)

the

BANG

SSSSSSSSSS

pantl
and

PCSI/

ORDERS

"red man smellllllll cesnTS

POP
s s s s

ssssss

lilt the Lid connect the pipe (lost all) lItl4;u;issssstsss

1/ 1/ 1/

ED

I RRR 0 N

SHOES horses, clamps, (/oooo"r, 1 a t c h e s ,

GRILLSSS

(all)

defend the

AKKUZED

BARS

ARGUE

that uhich is obtious is seen

in the interest

01

/lOT

portrayed

and

misullderstood

the client he

BELLOWED
(Lillian Garrett.

Erma Lennox.

Jeo:"e Reichek.

Joe Turner.'

Here is another exercise based upo n a different set of unrelated se nt ences:

Group *2 Iloem
ology

oh

oh

oh

solo supreme sox

clock s?
seconds
Il.ee k s mOlllhs dar s }ears
cen turies
cen lll ry%BY
alltchology
in lact
dlltchy dut chyolog y

oh

oh th e poor people
masses
maggots
a herd ollocomothe.~ lrnching
ink in Kelly
a hera 01 sau; 01 seagulls
ink at pelly
ink at pefly alIa pink
,oleda (ofealJ.s on toa,(1 borders destruction
destruction
destrllction

Fe bruary] 944
( Oa\id Aaron, Richard Filipovski, Pat Parker. Helen Quisenherry. N"ir.k Sa\'age. Beatrice Takeuchi!

indh'idual work

Several young studen ts became much stimulated by the group poetry \\ ork and continued to write. The most talented among them was Ja ck Snyder. a 19 yearold bm.

356

who was killed in action in the second world war in November 1944. 1 mourn the
loss of this promising young man. Though he had not had the time to produce
mature work, fragments show the gift that was there:

She
She's
She's
She's
She's
She's
She' s

357

all endless covern fhat reechoes your call 0/ eternity.

a trip throllgh time.

the screaming delight 0/ wind blown spray from breaking Iwves.
a birei's warble frozen on a winter day,
the snap of footsteps on cobblestone.
the thick ful/ness of spilled ink without the emptiness oj its bottle.

IV
a proposal

youth only?
" He who has th e) Quth has th e fulure: ' Preparations arc made in all quarters to

uhave" the) Qulh , oh en casting the adult generati on as ide. Ho"

C\

er, for a better

wo rld yielding more from its reso urces for the stru ggling milli ons, one should al so
make a bl ueprint fo r a com prehensive adult edu ca ti on. 1 " Quid a lm ost like to say
~'compul so ry "

adult educa ti on, or better, a coope rat ive activity pIa" or active recrea

tion. This last is the morc importa nt since present techn ology ( let al one the advances
in th e ma ki ng) may cut dow n workin g ho urs and th e new sciences ma y in crease life
ex pecta ncy. It " QuId be a maj o r tra ged y to be unprepared for a c reati ve. that is.
acti ve use o f th e co mi ng leis ure lime.

Sin ce pioneeri ng days Am eri ca has had its cooperati ve acti vities, s uch as th e townhall
meetin gs in Ne w Engla nd. \\o rk sharin g at crop tim e, barn rai sin g and oth er parties,
uto pian coloni es. cO lllmun il) cenlers. freemaso ns. cO Jl\ enti ons of associations. labor
uni ons, " ome n's dubs, Y.M.C.A .. Y.W.e.A .. reli gious sects

an infinite number of

oppo rtuniti es 10 meet and d iscuss di\'erse matters. These a re generall y good pagea nt ry and pastim e but no t a h\ ays a hum ble apprenticeship to\\ard a creative, erudite

l ife.
Group activi ty of the future mu st be more conscio usly awa re of th e mechanics of its
own opera tion as well as of its res ults. Th ough the an cien t ci\jc cent ers. th e Greek
agora and Roman for um , were rath er good instru me nts fo r crea ting public opinion

358

a nd g roup co nsc lo us nc::!s o f commu na l issues, it is d oubtful tha t the s im e

I)

pe o (

c w ic i nstru ment co uld be used fo r th e same purpose in our time. It is most pro bable
th a t ', e ha \ e to go through a peri od o f tria l a nd e rror-as in ma ny othe r matte rs
since the in d ustri a l revo luti o n

be fo re \\ e can find th e ri ght (ra me wo rk fo r our o wn

civic a nd " co mmun it) ce nt e rs." Some cle ment s o f a health y a pproach ex isted in the
no w suspe nded f edera l Art Proj ec t, in so me art centers a nd settle me nt ho uses o f thi s
co unt f) . partl ) in the S \\ iss La Sa rraz Cro up o f Mada me dll Ma ndrot, pa rtl y in the
En gli sh health ce nt e r o f Drs. \",,\Tilliamso n a nd P earse (Peckham )' Also th e villa ge
co ll eges initiated by Henry Morri s (Ca mbrid geshire ), which provided wo rksh ops,
labora to r ies, pla y and hea lth supe rvis ion fo r the urban a nd ag r icultu ra l po pulatio n
o f large a reas. stimul a ted th e pa rtic ipa nts not to " rece pti on" but to c rea ti ve ex press ion.
Th e new activit y " pl a n" mu st be more dim ensio nal ; an activ it y in rela ti onships. 1t
mu st brin g a bout a comple te i nteg rat io n o f the techn olog ica l and soc io biolog ical
va lues d o rma nt in th e i nd ustr ial age. In stead of socia l climbi ng, ch a rity o r m is
placed perso nal sacr ifi ce. it should lead to a happy p a rticipa ti on . Ins tea d o f th e
cOCoo n t) pe o f iso la tio n, it sh ould ge ner a te a m utu al exch a nge. It sh ould b reak dow n
gene ra l prej udices by eli mi na ti ng un checked mispri nts o f th e mi nd , re\'e rbe ra ti ons o (
supe rstiti ons a nd goss ip. It should brin g an abunda nt life as well as intell ec tu al pe r
se"e ra nce.
The new acti vity pl a n mu st be unde rstood as part of acti vized soc ia l li ving in tn e
most varied and producti ve form s o f c ulture and healtll. In stea d of a passive fl ood
over the e) es a nd ea rs by ra di o, tele vi s ion , cine ma a nd press, it lllllst lea d to a n
acti ve pa rt icipa tio n in wo rkshops and pla ys, sympos iu ms a nd politi ca l di sc ussio ns.
This wo uld c rea te th e stimuli for a rejuvenati on o f c reative citi zenship. sponta nei ty
a nd a n und e rstan di ng o[ the need s o f the co mmunit y. But all thi s must have a prepa
r a ti on. The re mu st be a na tural dem a nd for th e fo rm s o f rea li za ti on. S uch a de man d
can be crea ted best \\ he n integ ra ted edu cat io n- as outlin ed in thi s book- will be
not a n exception but th e gene ral rule.

parliament of social design

Ever y civili zation h as to build up step b y step its necessa ry wo rking in struments.
Youn g A merica achi eved thi s ma inly through the generos it y o f wea lth y dono rs who
erected scientifi c i nstitutes, un ivers it ies and colleges, museums, a rt in sti tut es a nd
foun dati ons-giving sp ecial co ntributi ons fo r va ri ous resea rch proj ec ts . Most o f
these instituti ons a re wo rk ing on speci ali zed tasks acco rding to th e h aphaza rd inte rest
o f th e patrons. However, \\ ha t neithe r America nor a ny othe r contin e nt h as built
up yet a re th riv ing agencies wh ich stri ve fo r coordi natio n o f activi ti es, (or a sy nthes is.
Such agencies shou ld be cu ltura l \\ o rk ing center s, in stit utes of wo rkers who by mas
te r ing their own fie lds, could embody all speciali zed know ledge into an int egrated
system through cooperative action.
Such experts are already wo rking in diffe rent parts of the world. ]f earnest elTorts
were made to relate their findings and if a sui table environment cou ld be found

359

I /i

-.
--_.;;--. . .--..__- ._..----...--.-_.
---_.
---

-,

-------------

.I

/,

..... 5 :

--_.... ""

-_.

-t

- -

-~

-'

." -.;,.==:;-;.....~

fo r th eir \\ ork , a deeper insight into urgent problems would result.

Regional

groups, of the type proposed, would serve as catal ysts for thi s process of integration.

It is astonishing how differentiated knowl edge ca n be in spite of a generally similar

educati o nal and social background. By directin g interest to commonly accepted tasks

and problems, thi s varied knowledge of the ex perts could easily be united and syo thetized into a coherent purposeful unit y foc ussed on sociobiological aims. By collaborati on between these regional centers on th e different topics " to resto re th e basic unit y

of all hum an experiences," a hu nd red facts of livin g, work, emoti onal outlets, subli
mations, recreation and leisure co uld be worked out and tran slated into terms of
common understandi ng.
As a first step for such a task, an international cultural working assem bl y could be
estab lished. composed of outsta nding scien tists, sociologists, artists, writers, musicians,
technicians and cra ftsmen. They would work either for a long o r a limited period

together, in daily co ntact, in their studi os and laboratori es. They wou ld investigate
the rools of our intellectual and emotional heritage. They co uld deal with such
prob lems as Ihe individual and the group ; town and co untr y planning; produ ction
and dwell ing; prefabrication and standards; nutrition with its old and new th eories;
recreation and leisure; oplo-phonet ics; psychological a nd physiological color va lu es;
fun cti ons of museums; music; theater; cinema; television; th e etern a l problem of

360

A CULTURAL

WOR~

CENTRE

INSlllUTE

a=

~ ) M~'EU.

,o,AC1lfECT

DESIGN

Co.. , ,<r()() U.

Figs. 436-439. 0

John

J.

Kewell, 1943

A cultural working center

In our C1vili'Zation of specialists whose
.....ork is rarely coordinated it would be a
blessing to assemble scientists, artists,
technicians and businessmen under one
roof. There they would have all facilities
to work on their specific problems in work
shops. studios, and laboratories. But they
would be required to hold weekly councils
in order 10 approach and solve one particular problem of social importance
through a common effort.
The plan envisions a c:>mplex buildinq
with modern workmg conditions lor research and with all the amenities 01 the
physical equipment

~
, V

'Y"\

'

\\
3(

.-rJ '

general and hi gher educationj industry and agriculture ; village colleges: sociography
of towns, cities, co untri es. co ntin ents: the social phenom ena of working processes;
folklore; crime and rehabilitation. eco nomics and governm ent, etc.
The assembl y co uld th en co ntinu ously publish its findings in reviews and books.
moti on pictures and broadcasts.

It co uld plan exhibiti ons, plays. sy mposiums and co ngresses; propose, demonstrate
and indicate settl ement of iss ues of fundamental importance.
Together with its possible branches th e assembly could represent a ce nter of th e hi ghest aspirations. As the nucl eus of a worldgovernment it could prepare new, collect ive
forms of cultural and social life for a coming genera ti on.
In accepting th e responsibility of initiative and stimulus, it co uld se rve as th e intellectual tru stee of a new age in findin g a new unity oj purpose; not a life of metaphysical haze but one based upon th e biological justi ce to develop all creative capacities for indi vidual and social fulfillment. lt could write a new charter of human life.
culminating in th e right to and the capacity oj self expression ( th e best bond for
socia l coherence) wi th ou t censorship or economic pressure.

lt could translate Ltopia into ac ti on.

361

;nde.,
lFigure~

t"QIIIIU ll.lt{'

page~:

italics the page.!- \\hcre th e

i llll ... lrali o ll .!' ('a n

.\

I W. Iii
art hi~tory 70, l iS. 177

.\ ullo. \ . 70. /0-;.162, 263

\ awn. O. 356
.,\ hLot, B. IS. /i9
\boo tt, G. JI)l)
a !, .. trlll'!: :11"1 I II , ] 12. 150
urti .. t, B. U3, 271
cnlllpo ... ilion 130

lut ~('hool 27,275

l\ rtarin, P. 103
articulation 68, 126, 153. 155. 190, 218
arti~t 28, 29, 31, W, 57, 58, 61. 63, 65,
7 1,2 16,211,352355
Al"up, O. 102
a ..ocial 71
1I~"emulaAc 5 1, 263
atom 266
Audcn , \\ . II. 329
a ut OIll:lta 237
automatic lHitin~ 2lO, 329. 330, 336, 3--1:;
automobile 95, lt8, 140, 215, 255, 260,
268. 280
a\ant gar-de 61, 62. 273. 28-1, 329, 3 10.
352, 353
AHam(l\ 'L7i

be found.

(Ir1i .. rn ...

dc .. ip,n II
film 273, 281, 283
l1I('an., J57

pain ter .. 218. 332

painting ]32. H5, 150. 272.

330, 336. 339

... culptor:. 218
~culpture 217, 339
,j .. ion 12.153
uenu ... tic 271. 276, 217. 355
.\ cro l)Qli .. 2 11
actor 261
Adler, A. 71
,\ dler, .\ . 12
adobe 102
admixture: by addition 159
b~

subtraction 159
adult education 358, 359
aerial \ ic" 136, 178
ad\crti<;ing 16. 19.55.81,85.161.166,
178. 237, 216, 263. 26 1. 269. 284, 306
Ady, A. 329
Arrican <'Cu lll\ UrC 225

after.i mage ] 23, 156. 160

agora 358
ai rbm.. h 10
uirjel 16
airplane 52, 55, )01. 118.236,2.,1 1,257.

260
Albert , C. 216. 230
."Ie~allder, F. 70
amateur 26. 272, 27 I
A merica I I. 18, 268. 302
.\me rican Indian 225
anal) .. is 32, 292, 330. 3-18, 354
Ana!>ta .. i, A. 320
I\ nder!!on, .\1. 329. 3 12
Ander..on, Sh. 303
anthropology 70
anthropomorph 151,265
Apollinaire, G. 292, 298. 299, 301, 305,
306, 314. 316, 328, 329, 355
al)l)relltice .. hip 358
aptitude tesl 71, 72
Aragon, L. 329
Archipenko, A. 60, 2 16. 222, 223, 235.
Arch ipcnko, A. 60, 216. 222. :l23, ~35. 210
architect 70. 221, 216, 260, 283
architecture 35, 42, 58, 86, 96. J23. 178.
190,211. 211. 2i5, 256, 257, 260, 26 1.
268, 328, 310
arena 261
Aristotle ISO, 156
Acp. 1. II . 126,13-1. /35, 221,293,3 11.
313-315. 329. 332
art 8,22.26.27.28.29 ..'n . 31, 12, 19,
61, 65, 70, 101. 113. Ill. 115, 110.
145, 177.238,2 11,297.318.324.33,),
352
art center 359

n
B:lader, J. 318
Bacoll, F. 18
Bakunin, \1. 61
B,II, II. 293, 316-318. 327
8,11,. J. 218
Banfl 26t
baroque 153, 151, 166, 236,
Barr, A. 63
Barta, A . 329
Bartok, B. 292
ba~ic cour"e 6 1, 71, 73, 99
Baudelaire, CII. 328, 330
Bauhau:, 42, ll, 63. 81, J O~,
Baumei"ler, W. 150
B"cc, II . 63, 111,263, 308,
Beach, S. 312
Bea ll, L, 193, 19.J
Beard .. ley, B. 8i
Beaumont, C. 273
heaux arts 96
Beckett. S. 336
Beet ho\'en. L. 61
Behren:;, P. J08
Bernal, J. D. 258
Biela\\ .. ki, E. 185
Bill. ,\1. :?2.s
Binkler, A. 73
binocula l' 118
biologieal 30, 12, 260
biological: adaptat ion 297
approval 298
bill of rig.hts 7
capacities 16
expe ri ence 210
fa ct" 311
forces 293
foundation 123
fonction 20, Ill.
fllndamental" ]5
implication 216
illlplll~es 12
justice 361
law:, ]]
natlln." 25
need~ 310
nOtlri"hment 211
organizal:oll 217

363

ori{'ntation 17
potentia lit ie.., 20, i2
reCfuirem{'nt~ II, 10 ~
"llCcic!I 27
lI ~{'fllll1{,"s 57
Liolog) 70
biotech nilJlIC II, 2 11
bird\,eye ,iew 11 7, 151,206,207, 215
Blocl.., A. 339
hlock (;;c ll ipturl'l 218.2 19.220,226,236
Blood .. tein , O. 30
BlulII, I.eo l)old 3 n
Blum. \. A. 273
. IIl., U. ~_,
'NI 217
8 OCCIO
. , 2 1B
Bodmer, ,~. 232
BodonJ, G. B. 60
Bogan, L. 336
bol"hc, ik 339
Bon .. et. l. K . 3 1.'), 329
Bolticelli, L. 156
bourgeoi .. , Y. 108
bourgeoi .. ie 15. 18,296,303, 3J1, 339
Brancu .. i, C. 2 10
Braque. G. 60, 116, 121, 126, 127,
130, 332

241, 301

105,263
309, 333

Brdzil 260
Brecht, R. 293
Bredcndieck, II. 73
Breglcr, Ch. 247
Breitenbach, J. 182
Breton, A. 329, 330, 336, 339
Breue r, 1\1. 16, 103, 101, 110, Ill, 26/
Bri nkm a n, A. E. 117
Brit i:,h Film In ~ t itllte 272
Broom 329
Brown, J. 185
Brownjohn, It 77
Bruguicre, F. 65
Bu chbinder, R. 202
Bulliel. C. J. 70
Bunucl 273. 27 J
Burchartz, J. 315
Burke, K . 293. 297
bycicle 15
Byzantine 156

266

Caaba at ~ f e('ca 220

Caharet Vo ltaire 310, 327
Cage. J. 66
Cal der, A. 210
Ca lla han, I I. 185
call igramme 298, 301. 306
calligraph}, 12
Calvary 120
camerale,,!:!' Ilhotography 124
Campbell. J. 316
cantilevered 16, 89. 236
capacitie;:; 23, 25. 26, 211, 361
capi lali .. m, 15. ]6, 55, 3lO
Cap roni 261
Carlu. J. 2 15, 216
Carnal', R. 70
Carrara. A. is, 98
cartoon 120. 270
Ca.:,tel. Pater 168
cathar.. j~ 27, 322

c81hedral :z.l-t, :H5

Ca\alcanti, A. 273, 282
Ca}ton, II. 70
cellophane 172, 188
Cendr:u<;, B. 293. 329
cen ~or~hip 30, 361
ce ntrifugal 148
('entripetal 148, 341
("t'ramic~ 92
Cezanne, P. 60, ]]3, 116, 1I7, 123, 134,
135, 154, ISS, 158, 159, 344.
Chagall, .1\1. 332
c hemi~try

]77

chemurgy 4l
Chennayelf, S. 70
Cheval, F. 321
Chia\erri, C. 118
Chicago school 103
Chicago window 102, 103
('hildren'" verses 324, 334
Chirico. C. de 332
Chi na 21. 339

CIA)I 104
cinema 55, 123, 160. 168, 258, 278,
303, 355, 359. 360
chic center 358, 359
civilization 27, 28. 104, 114, lS-l,
211. 302. 353, 359, 361
Clair. R. 273
cia<;<;ical 117, 128, 238, 332, 354
clo<;e up 173, 281, 343
Coc leau. J. 273, 275, 293
coli,". 65. 124. 128. 130. 134, 139,
204. 212, 302, 309, 341
college 2.1. 359
co lonial 48
colo" 65, 68. 86, 116, 124,125, 126,
ISO, 154168, 190, 218, 258, 266.
282. 293, 294, 344, 360
colorimetry 166
color organ 166. 168
color photography 44, 170176
('om mediu delf arte 20
co mico; 121,208
co mmunity 27, 42, 109, 224, 260,
359
communilY center 55. 99, 104, 359
c{) mtnuni <;m 303, 339
co mmuter 108
complementary color 59, 123. 156,
160. 161. 166, 344
compelition 13, 11, 34, 56. 71 , 78.
340
('ompo<;ite view 116, 117, 125, 221
compoo;ition 123, 161, 173
conca \'econvex 74, 76, 164. 198,
218. 283
conflict 27, 329
co n<;ciou s 27. 29, 32, 57, 74, 123,
29~. 320, 325, 329, 330, 334, 343,
352, 358
conspicuous wasLe 49
("o n<;t ru ction 142, 152, 226, 233,
238. 241. 311
('o n'- Iru ctivi<;m 60. 65, 113. 130,
141 , 142. 148. 154, 221, 235, 238,
292. 315. 339
('o n~lIm('r 33. 62
"Contact" 329
('on tent 42. 218. 299. 314, 341
conH"yor belt 51. 245
rnpf'land. A. 292
Copf'land. J. 70
t.orbu"if'r. T.e 61, 108. 228. 2r;0

283,
156.

167,

Corpron, C. J86
Corsaw, R. 35
Courbet, C. 61
Courl8uld Institute 158
counterre\olUlion 340
Cowley. M. 329
craft 22, 8",
creal ive IS, 22, 25, 59, 63, 170, 198, 210.
224.238.241,275,298,330,334,337,
340, 352, 353, 358, 359, 361
Crete 162
Crevel, R. 337
criminology 177
Cross, E. 158
Cross, J. 208
Crowther, J. C. 70
Cryslal Palace 103, 260
Croze. ". J . 36
Cuba 327
cubism 12, 58, 65, U3, 116139, 141,
ISO, 153, 154, 221, 245, 248, 29'2,
302, 320, 328, 339, 341, 344, 348
cullic 42. 48
cultural working center 361
cult ure: 17. 28. 70, 272, 359
Egyptian 225
Cerman 316
Creek 225
Indian 225
proletarian 339
Cuneo, L. 203
cyclic 344, 345
cyclorama 265

n
134,
281,

353,

158.
152.

217,
217,
345,
235,
134,
283,

dadaism 141. 212, 310320, 327, 330,

331, 332. 336341, 343, 355
Dali, S. 273, 274
dance 123. 244
D'Annunzio, C. 303
Dante, A. 120
Darwin, C. 18, 61, 296
David 1. L. 126, 153
Davi<;. 1. 123
Debussy, C. 61
decoration 49
defense housing 111
Degas, E. 153
Delacroix 31, 158
Delauney, R. 124
democracy 48, 49, 104
De Nari, A. C. 254
De Patta, M. 94
Dennee, P, 329
design 33, 42, 62, 63, 70, 78, 86, 306
designer 42, 62, 70, 78, 134, 260, 268.
284
Oessau 63
De Styl 277
Oetroit Institute of Art 167
Dewey, J. 7l
lliagram 36. 73, 11 5, 173. 174, 188,
245. 256. 269, 279
" Dial" 329
di ctatorship 29
dictionary of light modulator 202203
of photogram 196197
Didot 60
dilettante 71
Di<;ney. W. 168
di <:torlion 116118. 123, 206, 208, 251,
252. 256. 277. 348
O'Ocag ne, P. I\L 269

364-

doodlin. 325. 329

Doecker, R. lOB
Doesburg, ~. van 315
Doesburg. T. \an 64. 13', 279. 315
Dostoievsky, F. M. 61
Dorner, A. 70
double image 252
Dovshenko 273
drama 273. 276
drawing 68, 73, 74, 76, 132, 137, 177,
202, 308, 324, 338
dream 27, 208, 252, 330, 33], 332, 341,
344, 345
Drewes, W. 148
Dreyer, C. T. 282
Dreyfuss, II. 55
dualism 340
Ducasse, l. 296
Duchamp, 1\1. 58. 248, U9, 338
Dufay color photo 158, 17l, 172
Dushkin, O. 65, 70
dynamic 153, 237, 248, 266, 282, 310, 343
dynamiccon<;trucli\e sy"tem 238

E
Eakins, T. 31, 247. U8
easel painting 219
Eckart, C. 70
eco nomy 22, 33, 55, 58, 70, 78, 266, 352,
361
Ede, H. S. 70
Edgerton, )-1. 31, 247, 24-8, 252
editor (film) 280
education II, 17, 18, 21, 23, 58, 61, 62,
63-112, 246, 275, 284, 320, 324, 340,
344, 354. 358, 361
Eggeling, V. 158, 271
eggshell construction 53, 95
Egypt 162, 220, 238, 244
Ehrke, L. F. 253
Ehrman, 1\1. 86, 87
Eiffel tower 57, 260
Eiger, A. .35, 56
Eisenstein, S. 155. 279
Einstein. A. 29. 61, 116, 266
electricity 178, 210. 236, 288
electronic 49, 56, 206, 276, 281elementary schools 24
Eliot, T. S. 314, 329
Elu"d. P. 330. 33-1. 336
emotion 23. 30. 57. 15"', 336, 345
emotional 7, 10, 21. 28. 35, 58, 67, 71,
114, 115, 124, 139, 153, 198, 210, 218,
241, 256, 279, 294, 299. 312, 314, 322,
324, 329, 332, 334, 310, 354, 360
emot ional illiteracy 11
emulsion 172, 187, 272, 278
eng ineer 34, 302
engineering 70
England 49. 273
enigmatic 334
enlargi n~ 204
equ ipoi sed 219, 236, 3 15
Erechteion 244
Erickson. R. 20-1. 233
Ernst. 1\1. 418, 411
e<;capist 150
est hetic 57. 150. 177. 208. 226, 271.
284, 341
ethical 352. 35l
elhics 14
Europe 33. 42. 49. 116. 268, 395, 316
Evertsen, K. 59, 90. 109

c\'olution 23. II. 61. 166. 3--l0

exhibition 260, 261, 263. 261. 361
experience 23. 30. 216. 218. 241. 248,
276. 278. 279, 283. 292, 293, 330, 355
experiment 23. 65. 70. 15.l, 168, 174,
217, 238. 260.273. 3 10
explosion 15l 2-15, 311, 3 12
export 33, 3 1
eXpOsition 260. 261. 263
exposure 176.207.217.291
ex pre:.sion 25. 27. 31. 36. 59. 61, 64, 66,
70. J23. 2J6. 178. 188. 209, 218, 219,
238. 241. 2 18. 251. 265, 276, 284, 292,
291, 314. 315. 321. 330. 345, 355, 359
express ioni .. m 117. 111. 15-1, 158

t'
facsimile 57
faith 19
Faraday. I. 61
fac:ci~t 11, 291. 296, 303
fa~hion 34, 62, 261
fatigue 55
fau\ism 1 n, 320
fear 26, 68
Federal l\ rt Pro jcl'l 359
feeling 7. 8. ] l. 30. 291, 349
Feininger, L. 38
fellow tra\('!er 339
fene.,tration 10'
F erno, J. 273
ferrotype 208
Fip:aro 302
Filipo\'''-ki. R. 69. 85, 95. 224, 290. 356
fi lm : abstract 273. 283, 350
archi tect 272
color 273. 281. 283
commercial 273. 277
conti nuum 279
cul 278280
documentary 273
editor 280
edu cational 273
printing 280
c:cript 284291
"'ound 276. 277, 280281
stage 272
c:tuclio 273
Finland 260
fini~h e:. 51, 74
Finn e ~an s Wah 3]6. 341. 3--11350
fireworkc: 173, 237, 336
Fic:her, II. 70
Fic:hingcr Brother ... 168. 277
fhe year plan :~:W
Fleece, J. 92
Florentine ] 56. 159
Foley. J. B. 173
FMd. C. II . 352
For.,herj!. D. /73
For~ t, F. 40. 41. 92
fMm 29. 33. 12. 19. 50. 66. 74, 216,
211 . 291. 299. 3 10
forum 358
foundati on co ur~e 64
Fourier, F . 'I. C. 61
Fay, L. 178
fragrance 182, 310
France ]55, 296. 303. :-l1O. ::116, 321. :-128
Fra nce, R. 44, 45. 2 11 . 269
Fra Angelica, cia F. 156
free art ic:t 61
free ent erpric:e 55. 58

fref'" ma~on JaB

freedom 352
French, T. 70
frescoe 86, 163
Freud, S. 18, 61, 115, 116, 329, 340
Frey~sinet, C.10I
frog's e)'e view 117, ]54, 206, 207
Freytag. Loringhoven 329
frustration 10~
F,y, M. 261
function 30, 33. 42, II, 49, 55, 62, 79,
141 , 284, 332, 345
functio n of art 28
functional 33
functional desig.n 49, 55
functionalism 44
furniture 35. 49. 58, 87- 91, 100
futurism 12,65, 121, 141, 153, 154, 212,
237,247. 218, 302- 307, 310, 311, 316,

339. 3 10

Cahardini 26-1
Gabo, N. 226, 238
Calileo, C , 18
garden cities 106
Garrett , L. 356
Gatechair, E. 35
Gatechair, R. 93
Geane, N. 291
geometric ]23, 152, 2.tl
genius 31. 352
Gerard, M. 70
Gerard, R. 70
Germany 45, 273, 316, 318, 325
Giacomelli. J. 240
Giedio n. S . 57. M. 70. 10-1, 266
Giedion \Vel cker. C. 346
Gilbreth , F. 31, 56, 123
Giollo di Bondone 116
glass 60. 61, 68, 8~, 92, 103, 104, 188.
235. 236
Glazer, II. 38
Goethe, W. 19, 157, 160, 161, 172, 294
Golden, E. 91 , 135
Gold, holl , M. 83, 8J, 123, 199
Golgotha 120
Goll. Y. 293
~othi c 2W
Concourt Brother..; 343
Goro, F. \T,'. 174
COltc:chalk, L. 70
gO\ ernment ]5
p:radation 159. 178, 188, 216
Graham . R. 290
grammar 130, 293. 312
graph 121
gra vity 236
Greece 17, 18. ]62. 2 14, 28 1, 358
Creco, O. T. 134, 160
Gree n. C. 82, 83
Crierc:on. 1. 273
Gri c:. J. 156
group ac ti \ iti es 20, 101.354,355
p: roul) poN ry 353357
Gro pi ll~. 1. 63
G rooiuc:. W. 2 1. 41. 61. 63, 6--1. 70. 103
105, 10811 2, 211. 257, 258, 259
Groc:z. c. 212. 3JJ . 318
G ri ffi t h. D. W. 279
Guern ica 249. 251, 252. 3 18
j!uil t complex 341
GII~ge n he i m . s. R. 139

365

Hack .... orth. I. 51

lI aendel, F. 277
lIalbe, M. 117. 180, 181
lI aldane, 1. B. S. 71
ha lftone 40. 212
ha nd sculpture 65, 67. 68, 73, 7 1, 75, 77,

221
hand tool 4 1. 66, 78
handicapped 72
handicraft 33
handle 35, 47
hangi ng ga rdens 224
harmony 65, 162
lIan'e)', N. 174
lI a"field , J. 212 . 318
lIauron, O. de ]58
lI auc:mann . Il . 168,212, 318, 351
IIa)akawa. ~. L 70. 293, 297
II ayter, 5, W. 42, 43
health center 109
HeaIJ. 1. 329, 3-12
Heine, II . 61
Heiner. II . 237
helicopter 2 J5
Helmholtz, II. 31, 206
Ilepworth. B. 65
lIetenyi. ~1. 188
hij!h <;chool 25
11i11 Robin Camera 117
Hindemith. P. 292
Hirschfeld )lack, L. 168
historical 23, 27, 212. 293, 354
history 70, 166, 226. 237, 214, 303, 31 3,
316. 330, 340. 345. 354
Hitchcock, II. R. 70
Hiller, A. 29. 251. 303, 3 18
Hoech. II . 212. 318
Hoffman 168
Hofkirche. Orec:den 11 8
Holland 46, 111 . 260
Hollywood 218. 271. 278
hou~inj! project 110
"u el ~enbec k . R. 293. 311. 316. 329
Hugo. \'.296
humanitic;; 23. 58
Hu mphri e~ 277
lI un!!;ar}, 12
Hu xl ey. J. ] I. 19
hydroclock 237
h) c:t eri a 310

I
Id

3~ 0

Idah , E. ]85, 20i

ideogram 298,301 ,306
illit eracy ]1 . 208
illu sion : tactile 76
\i c:u31 14, 236
mage 208. 28 t
magery 25. 10, 121
maginary 209. 330
magina tion 65. 79. 168, 260. 298. 3;; 1
mitation ISO, 158. 226
mperiali c:m 3 11
mport 33
mpresc:io nic:m 58. HI. ] 50. 151, 159
in ~llI s tri a l : age 332. 359
dc<;ign 3362. 12, 60
d e ~ ig n e r 3.'5. 63. 65
prnce~", 23.;

(t'\OIUlion 13, ..J.-I, 18.51,57,

3]0, JII, 359
,-ocid}' ] I
lechnoloJf} 211
indll~tn ]5.3.... 62, 79, 272, 273275, 36]
InJ!:rl ... J. D. 131
inrra rt'd: clIlu]",ion 206
0\ en 9.1
photography 207, 210, 272
inf('riorily complex 351
inhibition 26. 27, 68, 71
intellcct 7. 11, 19, 21. 23. 25, 35, 1)4,
65. 71. lll. ]]5. 132. 256. 330, 33-1,
336. 339. 315. 359, 360
intell('('tuul integration 70
inll'Al"Ution 20. 23. 61. 211, 26"', 269.
281. 313. 355. 359, 360
interff'rencc (light) ]66
intuition 30, 56, 57, 67. 168
intuiti\{' 11
i n~pirat ion 208. 211. 329. 330
in ... tinct 20. 31]
In,-titut (' of Df,-ij!n. Chicago. 7, 9, 46,
6.1.61. 65. 87. III. 203. 201. 20B. 224.
227,2.12.260,282,331,354,355
ill\('ntion ]70. 301. 326
I. Q. 71
irralional 19
Italy 30.1
"i 10", Am"t(,rllam 238, 268
h('n". J. 2i3

.1
Jacob"on, E. 70
Junco, \1. 310
Janohk i 277
Je/T('r<.on , T. 48
jellyfi ... h 253
J ennin):!". II. 273
Jew .. Chri"l 120
je\H'lry 93, 9,
jil! 78
Jo/Tre, \lur~hal 305. 308, 3]0
John~on, M. 97
joint 81. 90, 98
Jol". E. 311. 313. 317. 318. 327, 329
JO-"f'pll"on. \'- 329
Jourdain 261
journali~m ] 77
JO}Cf'. J. 61, 256. 293. 299, 303, 316, 329,

.111.151
JUf!('nd .. til 12, 19

K
Kafl-a. F. 293
kaleido!'cope, ]21
"'all-mann. \1. 322
KUlHlin-..ky. W. 36, .17, 61, 61 , ]31 , 13,).
11.5.291
Kann. II. 83. 91, 99, 100
... a .... ak. I.. 29.1, 329
Kadaili .. , ~. (j8, 209. 390
Kaurmann Ilou "e 257. 260
Kf'ck. G. F. 98. 106, 2.1/
Kf'ck. \V . 178. ]85. 198, 201
Kemf'Il\. \. 238 ..lj~

!;,nd,ll. J. 202 201

K,p". G. 61. 81. 17.1. 185. 190. 192, 193
Ker~chbaumer . T...'320. 322
Ker .. tf'n, A. 81
K(,\\f'll , J. J . .1fiO.l(jf
Kif'~ll'r.

F. 261

k..indergarten 22, 2>1, 66, 324

kinetic 150, 153, 173, 219, 236, 237, 241,
246. 252. 265, 266, 268, 288, 350
kitchen 46, 5-1, 55
KJee, P. 61, 134, 332
knockdown 55,88,91,263
kodachrome 173-176, 272
Koepke, \\. 224
Korda, A. 118
Korn. A. 258
Korzybski, A. 30
Krenek. E. 70, 292
Kropotkin, A. 61
Kostellow, A. 116
Kozman , ~1. 161
Krueger . .\1. 70
Kula, E. 86

L
Labatll, J. 216
labor .. a\ inc: 55
labor unions 358
laboratoq 63,70, 102, ISO. 168, 198, 260,
360.361
Lamarck, J. B. P. A. 61
land<"'caping ]02
Lane. .\1. 253
language 209. 252, 293, 291, 301, 312,
316. 320. 326. 330. 336. 345. 348, 351
Lautn!amollt. Count 295, 314, 354
La<"'zlo, A. 168
La\ater, J. K. 61
law of chance 210
Leavitt.Taylor, S. 92, 95
Lee uwenhoek, A. 206
Leepa , A. 221
Lege<, F. 39, 61, 70, 128, 132, 133, 134.
168. 273. 332. 333
legibility ]21. ]24, 268, 301
leisure 358, 360
Lenin. ~. 61. 339
Lerner. N. 90, 163. In. 185, 200
L'E"prit Nou\'eau 260
Le"sing, C. E. 352
leiter t}pes 60
lellerin,:!: 65
Le\in. II. 3 16
Le\~tik, F. 183, 185
Levy, J. 312. 331. 336
Lew i". L L. 70, 347
liberal art~ 21. 58, 65
life dra\\ing 65
light: adverli~inp: 266
box 172, 173. 198200
colored 31, 86, 154, 163168, 170
dj"I)lay ] 50. ]58. ]66, 238
f re"coe 163
modulator 65, 198203, 265, 318
painting 31, 163, 252, 288
texture 139, 273
work .. hop 284
Jikene"s 218
line 36. 38, 40. 74. 123, 126, 128, 137,
111.150.151. 241
linear 231. 232. 279. 3]4
Lipchitz, J. 225, 228
Li""itzki. EI 13.J, 148, 308, 3]5
literacy ]7. 28
literary 218. 310. 34 1, 345, 352
literature 70. 292357
lillIe Re\iew. The 329, 342
Llo\d. II. 277
Loeb. II. 329

366

logi~tics

268
Longini. R. 196. 197
LOnbergllolm, ~. 268
lennox, E. 356
Lorentz, P. 273, 279
Loos, A. 61
Lubetkin 102, 103
Llimiere color photo ]58
Luther, M. 316
lyric 315

McCray, M. 137
Macchiavelli, N. 3... 5
machine 18. 40. 44, 48, 49, 58, 63, M.
66, 78, 273, 302. 339
automatic 16
exercise 78
machinegun cut 281. 350
macro photo 207, 304. 344.\ladame Butterfly 265
magnetic 236
magnifying 20-1, 206
mail order hotl"e 55
'\falespine, E. 329
Malevich. K. 60, 61. 64, 65, 130, 151.

270, 272
'Tallarme, SL 298. 300, 302
\lalte"e cro"s 188
.\Ianet, E. 57, 61, 154
manufacturer ]6, 353
~farcek. C. 93
market re"eMch 56
Marinelli, F. T. 292, 302306, 3]6, 329
:\I.A.R.S. C\lodern Architectural Re
'>earch Society) 261
~'lar"ton. W. R. 237
\-farvi". F. T. 269
:--'Tarx. K. 18
Marxi"t 3t5
rna"k 216. 2]8
ma~" 2]9, 220. 2.37. 238. 24]
ma"s di"lribution 55
rna"" production n. 15. 3S. 49. 5t, 55.
62. 63. 70. 217. 350
Male 282
mathematic~ 65. 70, 269
.\Tati""e. II. 60. ]34, 135
Malter. II. 122123, 210. 249
~laxwel1, 1. C. 61
Mayakov--ki. V. 292, 303, 308, 329, 339
~fead. '\T. 27
mea"uring: 78
mechanical drawin,:!: 65, 78, 96
mechanizalion 56. 353
medjae\'al 153.30] ,3]6
Mehrinj!. W. 283
'1elville, II. 329
i\lemling. IT. 120
Mendel. G . .I. 61
'-'I en tal Ilygiene Sen'ice 72
), I erz /.11
metaphY"ic" 311, 361
metallurg:y 44
'Tetropolitan )fu"eum. N.Y. ]26
'Texico 49
'Teyerho1d. V. E. 2M
\ficheJanj!el(), B. ]57. 226
\fi cic. L. 329
micro (photog raph) 202. 20(j. 207. 210
303
'liddle ag:e" 17. 237
Mies \'an der Rolle, L. 103, lOR, 261

;\liIler. Budnit zla)8. R. 346

\1 illand, D. 292
~li1l~ . J. A. 208
~lin oan 162
\I iro. J. 13-1. 331
mirror 8 1, 123. ISO. 166, 201, 202, 201,
208. 216. 252. 258, 288, 352
mobile 65. 81. 123. 236, 23i. 238, 2-l0,
252. 256. 281
modeled 2 19, 200, 236
modeling 65
\l ot'l)iu~ ring 172
MoholyNagy, 11. 1/8
).l oholyNagy, L. 36, 46, 55, 58, 6~, 72,
76. 87, 134, 138, 139, 142, 150, 151 ,
152. IH 165, 167,169,171, 172,173,
178. 181. 185. 187. 188. 189.193, 194,
196,197,212,213, 215,232,235,238,
239. 242, 243, 254, 255, 261. 265, 272,
273, 283, 285, 289, 290, 315, 327
molding 52. 5-1. 60. 350
\folzahn. J . 216. 226
;\Iond ri an. P. 60, 61, 64, 65, 134. 140,
111.151. 160
'\l oni~1. 296
.\Ionocular 118, 153. 178.236
montage (film 1 278. 302
.\fant egna. A. 154
~r onte"<oOri, .\1. 22. 23
\loori.. hSpanish 2H
~ Joore. II. 65,2 17
moral 16. 21. 352
;\Jorgen .. tern. C. 299. 313, 327
~I orri". C. 70
-'forri ... H. 359
-'forri .. G. L. K. 146. 218
-'forri .. , C .. Jr. 204, 207
-'Iorri .. , W. 306
\fot herwell. R. 142, 143
)'Ioser. W. 258
motion 34. 36. 53. 6.1. 74. 84. 114. 115.
118. 120. 122123 167. 173. 188, 210.
219.225.237.240.241. 245. 248. 252,
256. 266. 2i8
motion flow 20i
motion piclllre"i 11. 86. 121. 161. 190.268.
2iO.291. 300. 306
.
multiform 28.3
multiple rnt'anin!! 3 11. 318. 350
muhh' iew 117. 121
mummification 216
\funch. E. 120
~I un ..ell. H. 160. 161
mural 86. 151. 219, 251
mu"eum 359. 360
-'l u ~f'tJlll of ~fodern Art, N.Y. 62. 63,
197. 263
-'Iu"eum of :\'onOhjf'cti\'e Art, N.Y. 139
nlll"c1e power 48
mU"ic 42. 65. iO. 2i6. 292. 293. 328. 360
.\Iu<:<:olini. B. 251. 303
.
mlltatil)n 113. 277
~fu)bridge, E. 31. 121. 247. 248

Napoleon I 60
Napoleon III 295. 296
National Callen. London 157
naturali<:m J.t3
natllrali~ti c 121. 128. 141. ISO. 157. 172,
li3. 226. 2i1. 311, 314, 355
.
need~ 21. 25. 19. 359
Xef. 1. l!. 70

negati\e 188. 19-1. 209, 280

neighborhood... 109
.\'el .. on. P. 101.26 1
neoimpres!;ionjsm 141, 158
neopla~tici~m 113. 13 1. 111,112,148
Ne~bit. J. 258
Neuratll. O. 115
nellro"i" 340
.'leutra. R. iO
Nelltra. R. J. 258
Ne\ille. P. 330
Nev.hall, B. 70
New man. A. 140
newspaper 2 12, 307, 308
NeWlon. I. 160
Nenal. " . 329
.'lichol~o n . B. 149
Niederkorn. L. 185
Niedringhall<:. C. 46, 88, 89
Nietz"che. F. 302
Noelde. S. 273
noise 212. 277. 292
Nolan. L 92
nomograph 269
non-objective 110, ln, 148, 150, 217,
283
nomensical 293. 297. 310. 312. 314.317
.'lorth America 260
.
oo\'el ,3.t 1. 351
novelty 3-1-. 62
number poem 328
nutrition 360

o
object (objet) 128, 132, 139. 198, 332,
334. 337
objective quality 36, 18, 56, 8~
OBrien. V. 70
observation 156.216
ob"ole~cence 3 ~

odor 182. 3]0

opaque 59. 159. 188. 198. 206, 2 18, 252.
258. 315
opera 166
Oppenheim . " ..B2
. I '-I
- ') ?- 7 _'81
optlca
_ I ?_1_.
_I 3 '_,
optic~ 177
optophonetic 168. 360
organic to. 12.62.67, 158.218,221. 221.
353
.
ornament 12. 41. 15. 58
Orti~. F. 327
O~ lw ald. W. 160. 161
Oud. 1.1.P. 61. lOB
Ozenfant. A. 311

p
packa!!in!!: 55, 58, 88
Pain e. 48
painting 4? 59, 70, 85, 113169. 177.
178. 216. 218. 226, 261, 2n, 292, 294.
324. 340
Palucca. C. 215
panthei~m 216
Pantheon ]02
P apadaki. S. 10.1
papercut 68. 8]. 82, 83
papier.mache 272
Parker. P. 69. 290. 356
parliament 359
Parthenon 211
party 29. 339, 3-10. 351

367

Pascal. B. 61
Pa<:ternak. B. 329
Pa~teur, L. 61
Pa,lo\\. I. P . 61
peace 268
Pear~e , Dr. 359
Peech. S. D. 70. 313
Pereira. 1. R. 16,
P eressutt i 264
perforated 74, ] 23, 197, 217, 219, 225.
228. 236
per... pective ]1 3. U8, 126, 152, 153. 156.
236. 244. 245
lJf'r,"onality 24
Pestalou i, 1. H. ]8
Petoefi, A. 6]
Pcv.. ner. A. 238
P fen ni ger. R. 276, 277
phantom 245
Phelps. O. 70
Philadelphia Mu .. eum ]56
philosophy 21. 61 . 121, 134, 177, 278,
283. 294, 308. 330, 337, 350
pho<:phorescence 168
photo cell 284.
photocreative 208
ohotoelasticity 188
Photogenic 208. 209
photog ram 173. 174, 187.197, 206, 207,
215, 256. 288, 289
photogra ohy 31. 40. 6], 65, 84, 116, 117,
121, 123, 133, 152, 168, 170215, 216,
252. 272. 278, 284, 306. 337, 338
photography in color 44, 170,176
photomontage 115, 12] , 177, 208, 209,
212.215.245, 251. 256, 265, 28 1, 290,
301. 308. 309
ph}!'icaI 114. 219. 283
phy!'ics 65, 70
ph ysioloJ! ical 21 , ]23, 168, 282, 293.
297. 360
Picabia, F. 58. 168, 255, 273, 328, 329
Picas<:o. P. 38. 60. 61. J/6. 128, 129.
130. 134. 139, 142. 190. 249, 250, 251,
252, 328. 332. 3+1. 348
pigment 86. 124. 156, ]57. 163-168. 170.
199. 219. 252. 271, 272
Pilniak. B. 329
pioneer 177, 271, 273. 275
Pi<:cator. E. 264. 283
plane 68. 123. 124, 126, 128, 134, 154,
245. 272. 283
planner 244
planning i8. 86. 101. 106, 109, lID, 153.
215. 268. 318
plaster ca<:! 231
pla .. ti c 31. 35. t k 52, 54, 58, 59, 60, 64,
68, 73, 74, 83, 93, 95, 165, 197, 235.
252
olastic modulato r 218, 219
Plato 17
play 66. 70. 197,241.293,359,361
pluraii"m 154. 3+.1
plywood II. 46. 83. 88. 91. 99
Poe. E. A. 61. 293. 297. 329
poetry 42. 70. 208. 293. 29t, 296, 297,
305. 322. 325. 329. 353, 357
pointilli<:m 141
polarization 272
polarized (lightl ]68.188
politician ]8. 294. 3-10
politics 29. 266, 273. 330. 339. 3~8. 3;)3.
354. 359
Poliansky 329

Polk, W. tol
Pollock, T. C. 293
polyphonic 292

II

Pompeian 162
portrait 178, 185
position 150. 21.6, 345

posith'enegali\e W. 58, 59, 60, 123, 149,

154.

20~.

217, 220. 222. 225

post cubism 134, 150

poster 245, 306. 309
I)Olte ry 33, 48

Pound , E. 293
POII~ <;,jn. N. 131. 153
PO\.. ell, II. S. 125
pragmatist 296

Prall. D. 91
preci"ioll good" 54

prefabrication 5-1- 112 244 360

prehi<:loric 153 '
,
,
prerenai ....ance 153 158 226
Pre~lini, J. 50

,
Preusc;,er, R. 99. 230

primary color ]54, 159. ]61. 283

primitive 26. 153. 216.225 325
primili\e hou<;e 97, 98
printing 17. 273

Prinzhorn, II. 320

Pritchard,

J. 268

product design 31. St. 85

pr~clion IS, 266, 268, 269, 272, 340.
production iIIu"lralion 245
production ri ... k 51
prore~"'ional

28. 30. 325

profit 13. ]5.25. 49
profile 218. 2 t7

progl'e<;s 315

progre""j\e education 23. 70

projecti\'c ~pace 97
project ion 271. 279. 283. 344
proletcull 339
propaganda ]8. 19, 62, 237 294 306
339,352
'
,
,
proportion 217. 218, 241
Proudhon, P . J. 61
Propylaen 2'1'l
pro"'perity ]5
Proun IJIProu",!. J. 343
p~)'cholol!ical 20. 21. 114. 115, 123 ISO
156. 206. 2,19. 251. 282. 315 319' 320'
329. 340. 3 11 . 360
'"
psychoanal~ .. is ]1. 27. 72. 329. 340, 341
p<;ychopll\"'I('al 27. 31. 44. 54. 157, 160
166, 282. 293. 291. 312. 310. 344
'
P<;),ChOllC 29.3. 319. 325 330 336
Pudo\kin. W. 279
'
.
pun 3l8. 319

Quality: emotional 294

inherent 124
inlrin"ic 10, 271
mu .. ical 326
obj{,(,lh'e 36, 48 56 84
.
"42
o r re IatJOn",hip"
orJ!'anic 71. 271
photographic 178. 188
pla<:tic 219
poetic 325. 355
subjective 36. 74
<:culptural 218
Qui"enbt'frY. IT, 356

Rabung, G. 74, 118

radar 21.6
Rading, M. 108
radio 19, 41, 51, 55 260 284 351 353
"..'
359
raJiography 207
Rand , P. 308. 309
Rapha el, S. 13.1.
Rapson, R. 54, 100, 106, 107
Ray, M. 70, 187, 190, 191, 273, 332,337
Read, II. 70, 298, 329
reali!lm 217
lca1i~t manifesto 238
Rea\ y. G. 339
reconstruction 110
recording 210, 276, 340, 351
recreation 55, 56, 99, 109, 358, 360
reducing 20-1
Reed, J. 290
reRection 8-1 . 151, 158. 201, 206, 208,
252. 254, 272
refraction 166
Regen;;leiner, E. 86
regional planning 245
rehabilitation 28 72 361
Reichek, J. 356'
,
reinforced concrete 35. 103, 104
reiation",hips 10, 12. 13, 40, 42. 58, 67, 68,
114. III , 152, 158, 159, 216, 217, 219,
22 t 226. 236, 237, 238, 245, 257, 266,
268. 278. 29 1, 344, 345 350 359
relati\ilY 266
"
relief 135, ]49, 158, 202. 221
relil-don 19, ] 55, 317. 358
Rembrandt , va n R. 134
renai ..sa nce 31. 59. H 3, 118, 152, 153,
15 1. 156,226. 2.36. 244 271 280
renderinp; 12. ]15. ]20,' 121: 153, 178,
206, 210. 245. 252, 271, 281, 305
Renger- Patzsch. A. 256
Renoir, A. 131. ]59
reportage 207
repre"''''ion 310. 311
re"earch 62, 86, ]50, 151, 157. 272, 320,
351, 359. 361
" Respondez" 295. 296. 302, 318
re<:pon"ibility 16, ]9. 34. 62. 64, 353, 361
reti culation 208
re\olution ]9. 17. ]8. 22. 126. ]50, 264.
280, 298, 302, 310. 318. 325, 328 336
339. 3'1l. 343
'
,
revohinJ!,: 121 , 125
rhetoric ]]
Rhoades. N. 73, 95
rhythm 65, 66. ]24. 150, 153, 218. 238,
281, 293, 326, 334
ribbon windows 104
RibemontDessaignes 293 329
Rich, D. C. 70
'
R~ chter. I-I. 271. 315
R,ley, D. 67. 78, 221, 231
Rimbaud, J. A. 61, 295, 310 314 3?6
328,350
'
,-,
'1 im ington ]68
Rinker. E. ]85, 205
ritual 27
Robert "'on. E. W. 70
Rob in"'on, H. M. 346
Rodin. A. 3 1, 226
Rogers 26-1
Rogers C. 236
Roland, R. 339

368

Roman 162, 3-H, 358

romantic 178
romanticism 302
Roszak. T. 233,234,235
Roth Brothers 103, 104
Roth, M. 203
Rotha, P. 273
Roumania 316
Roussea u. J. J. 61
Ruben s, P. P . 157, 160
rubber 79, 3-13
rubbings 135
Ruckmick, eh. 70
Rudge 45
Rudofsky, B. 61
Rudolph, Ch. 245
Ruhemann, Prof. 157
Runge, Ph. O. 31
Runnels, D. B. 54
r..u ~kin. J. 306
Rullman . W. 168,271
Russia 339
Rus"olo. l. 212. 292
nllth erford. E. 61

s
St. Paul's Calhedral 245
"ale 51. 52. 269
salesma n 34Sam uel. R. .10. 59, 136
"anilariulll 257
Santmycrs. R. 38, 212, 251
Savage, N. 68, 79, 20J, 290,356
Sayvetz, A. 70
Schawinski, X. 214, 252 265, 309
Sc hick ele, R. 311
'
Schiltz, A. 74
Schi nkel , K. F. 102
schizo phreni c 320. 322
Sc hl emme r, O. 330
Schmidt , H. 103
Schmidt. 1. 240
Schoenberg. A. 61. 292
~chopenhaut'r. A. ]60. 302
~chwartz. W. 290
Schwillers. K. 65,131, 285 293 318320
.12.5. 326, 328, 329
,.
.
science 18. ]9. 31. 34. 49. 55. 64, 65, 121.
177. 206, 241, 266.. 283,296
308 345
354
,"
"creen 27]. 272, 279, 283
Scriabin, A. N. 168
sculpture 42. 60. 70, 81, 85. 123 178
202. 216-243, 288. 324. 310, 345'
,
sculpturein .theround 219, 232, 236
seapla ne 26~
Secession 329
"eeing: abstract 207
distorted 208
exact 207
intens ified 207
penetrati\e 207
rapid 207
simultaneous 208
"low 207
Seelig. C. 231
"'emanlic" 30. iO. 114. ISO
Sen",ka. F. 13 1,327 '
sensory 11 . 29. 310
"cries 208
Sert. J. L. 70
"'ervice indll"tries 55
SCUTat . C. 61. 131, 158. 159

Se\en Aru 329

..exual 62. 329, 310, 345
.. hading 124, 125. 126. 128
shadow 156. 157, 158. }ll7. 172. 190.204,
226, 252, 265, 272, 291
Shakespeare. W. 12. 310
shape 42. 49. SO. 62. 68, 82, 128, ISO,
154, 159, 202, 209. 219, 246, 253, 266,
294
Sharoun. II . 108
Shearer. S. 70
.. heher 104, 244
Shepard, O. 294
.. hifting 125, 126, 204, 241
!=hoppinj;!: center 99
Sibata, R. 118}19
Siegel. A. ISS, 210211
<:i(!:n 42, 314
Si,:nac, P. 158
silhouette 187
Simons, H. 70
Simonson, J. 93
simultaneous ]2, 153, 168, 208, 249, 256,
268.278. 283. 299. 306. 308. 314
!;imuhaneity ]53. 277, 301, 354
size ]50, 153, 241
.. ky"craper 45, 103
.. lab .. 8]
Slack, C. M. 253
Slonim. M. 339
.. lum c1f'arancc 55. 260
Smith. 0.225
Sm;th. J. J. 185, 198
"s n 4" 329
Snyder, J. 356
social 21, 29, 78, 106, ISO, 216, 244, 254
socia l : background 360
consciousness 55, 276
crisis 303
decay 325
deficiency 349
de .. ign 359
goal 21, 23
implications 55, 266, 268
needs 310
obligations 55
reali .. m 340
reality ISO. 310
re .. pon .. ibility 62
re\olution 325
.. ciences 2.1. 65
"I ruclure 300. 352
task 99
Ihought 21
"oc iely 22. 30. 42, 62, 269. 291, 299, 319,
330. 339. 354
.. ociohioloJ!ical 29. 56. 312, 353, 359 360
<:ociology 33. 44, 70. 360
'
SokoHk. F. 185. 206

:::fdi;~I.iOl~:02i~,22~~~2~~~' 225~~ 294

..oliloquy 343
~mmer. C. 70. 72
:;ound 273. 276. 28'1, 293
sound: collage 205
effect 300
poem 327
recordinc: 273
..cri pt 277. 300
lexture 277
Soupault 329
South Ameri('a 48. 174
South Sea ' .. landers 225
.. pace 42. 64. 68. 100. 153. 154. ]55, 190,

219,221.237,238,244,245,280,343,

3.]5
space cell 124
space modulator 85, 96, 97, 98, 235, 242,
254,255
spacetime 12, 96, ] 14,115, 121, ]SO, 153,
168. 240, 241, 211-269, 280, 283, 288,
315, 346, 318
Spain 264, 302
s palial 40, 74. 81. 102. 124, 153, 154,
188.217,231,24-1,245,246,248,260,
283
<:pecialist ]5, 16,20, 21, 361
.. pecilllization 18,21,65,70,79,84.345
spectrum ]55 , 159, 161, 166, 174,272
speed 31, 3~. 57, 206, 210, 237, 245, 246,
247. 248, 266
Spender, SI. 329
"phinx alley 244
"piral 226, 232, 238. 256, 313
sport 55
s praygun 40
sta~e desip: n 264, 265
Sial in. J. 339
~tam. M. 108
"'am ping 52
standa rd 34. 45, 49. 51. 71, 72, 159, 178,
218. 2<16, 260, 306, 360
stali c ]51. ]53. 237. 238, 240, 241, 245,
246. 252, 266
.. talistics 115, 328
.:.Ieel 35, 46, 60, ]03
Steiger, H. 258
Stein. C. 293. 300. 325, 329
stereomelry 124, 141. 272
:::Ieven!!o. IT. IT. 104, 105
Sl ickell , J. II . 246
~tieglitz. A. 184, 185.328. 329
.. timulu s 11. 160, 293, 352. 361
~tone 216. 224
Siramm. A. 293, 329
~Irand P. 273
Stravinskv. J. 61. 292
"treamlining 34. 52. 53
.:.Iream of con'Sciou"ness 31]
.. troboscope 31, 12], lSi. 207, 245, 247,
248
.. tru('ture 29. 38, 70. 74. 79. 80. 92, 98,
102. 103. 124. 150. 159. 202. 209. 218.
241. 251. 258. 266, 268, 278. 294, 315,
.126. 327. 347. 352
I::lllarl. C. C. 60
Sturm. Oer 238, 277, 328
!'<I\le 34
.. tvlization 2]7
s uhconsc iou s 8. 27. 29. 31. 61, 70. 114 .
124.125.208.320.325,329.330.332.
340-343, 348
.. ubliminaT 345
Sullivan. L. 42. 49. 61. 102. 103. 294
'S ilnerimno"iti on ~8. 121. ]24. 154. 273,
70<. 700. 210. 215. 248. 252_ 254, 255,
282. 288. 10~
':'lIperman 30. 302
sIIneroatural ]9
""oremar; .. m 11 3. 130, 134, 141 , 154,
270. 272
"urfa('(' treatm ent 241
"urreaJi .. t'1 141. 2]2, 292. 3]0, 329-341.
150.355
Sutnar. L. 30R
"rnecdoche 128
-)non}m 252

369

.,)nopsi" 120,271,281.288,289
"ynlax 312, 337
Sweden 2 I , 260
Sweeney, J. J. 70, 301
Swift, J. 27
Swindler, M. II. 162
Switzerland 24. 260, 329, 359
syllogism 11
symbol 22, 14], 254. 255, 256, 272, 293,
297,314,341
symmetry 107, ]7'1, 218
symposium 361
synthetic 31. 202, 277
Syrkus. 1-1.70. 111
SYl'kus, S. 70, 1]]

T
tactile chart 65, 67, 68, 69, 74, 76, 77.
202
tactilism 134, 154, 241
Tague, R. B. 87,96, 106, 107
Takeuchi, B. 100, 290, 356
Talbot, 1. 187
talent test 71
talkie 271
lapestry 87
larget (moving) 246
Tate, A. 293
Taut, B. ]08
Taut, M. 108
Taylor, C. 68
Taylor, F. W. 31, 56, ]23
technicolor 272
technological: application 31
development 241
processes 55
lerm 350
trends 55
unemploymenl 241
value 359
technology 22, 24. 3], 48, 51, 57, 61, 64,
121, 141 , 163. 206. 306, 343, 353, 358
Tecton Group ]02. 103
television 55. 168, 264, 272, 284, 306,
353. 359. 360
temple 244
tempera 40
temperament 217
Testa, A. 79, 13 1
lesti ng 71, 80, 81i
lextile 44. 85. 87
texture 38. 42. 4-1. 58. 62, 68, 72, 123,
124. 125, 126, 128. 134, 135,154, 167,
202, 204. 218, 221, 241, 272, 293, 308,
315. 350
therap y 72. 330, 340
Thorea u, II. D. 61
"391" ( magazine) 329
Thurslon e. L. L. 70
Tiepolo. G. B. 157
t;me 121. 238. 266, 280, 343, 345
time fa cade 246
tinge 282
Tol~toy, L. 61
tongue twi .. ter 326, 327
tool 63. 64, 66, 217, 226, 268, 354
Torre Bueno, T. 68, 83
tor .. ion 240
touch 74, 216, 349
Toulou ..eLautrec, II . ]3--1 , 245, 246
town hall 237. 358
lownplanning 109, ]11,245.360

tradition 22, 65, 153, 155, 177.178,224.

316, 352
tran .. lucencl 157, 159
tran"parency 58. 59. 154, 157, 188, 197.
198, 202, 201, 209, 210, 226, 235, 238,
252. 258. 261. 315, 350
"tran .. ilion' 329, 3 13, 346
trend 19
Trohky. L. 339
troubadour 301
tubular ~ I ee l 46, 57
turbid 157
Turck. O. 228-229
Turek. W. 35
Turin 273, 279
Turner, J . 356
Turner, W. J. J50
TVA 110
twi<:tinJ!,: 7 L 225. 226, 256, 348
"291" (magazine) 329
typical 216, 217
typography 299. 301, 303, 306--310
T",m. T. 293.311, 315, 316, 318, 329

u
UJy~<:t' .. 256,
uncon .. ciOll~

299, 341-3-15, 347

330, 352
unintelligible 114
universe 166, 345
uni\'er<;.ity 23, ISS, 359
U.S.A. 33, 49, 174
U. S. Burea u of Standards 159
utilitarian 4l. 79, 296
Utopia 61. 163,298, 361

\ -irgil, P . M. 120
vision 30, 58, 61
\ is ion : binocular 118
frozen 231
in motion 12, 114, 116, 118, 120,
124,152,153,226,244,245,246,
256, 266, 268, 281, 3.1(), 348
monocu lar 118, 178
photograph ic 206, 207
total 31
\'isual: arts 246
axis 282
demonstration 261
ex pre~sion

264

fundamentals 114, ]21 , 123, 134.

173
manuscript 285
metapho r 279
technique 268
visualization 30, 57. 2M. 268, 294
vocabulary 247
mcational guidance 71
\ocational traininp: 21. 61
void 220. 224, 241
\'ojno" 217
Voltaire 61
\'olume 12, 61. 68. 217, 219, 220, 224,
226, 228, 236, 211, 243, 265
volume: ne~ative 218. 230. 231, 241
"irtual 65. 207, 237

\V
Wachsmann, K. 70
Wagner. M. 257
Walbaum 60
Waldheim. J . 46. 53, 91
212. 268, 291, 30" 311, 316, 325,
355. 357
warm-over 92
Warner, L. 70
warping 74, 75, 92, 157, 219, 222

\l'erfel, F. 311
Werkbund 103, 288
Wernham , G. 297
Wetzel, M. 168
Wheeler, R. 97, 101
Whitman, W. 48, 61, 295, 302, 318, 325.
329,346
WiIred, T. 168
Williamson, 01'_ 359
Windsor chair 44
W ireless 210
wire mesh 82, 83, 260
wire structure 68, 202, 209, 231
Wirth, L. 70
Witzi nger, I. 70
Wolfe, T . 351
Wolff. R. J. 40, 146, 147, 216, 22'1, 231
Woelffer, E. 216, 334, 335
11'00 1 216. 263
woodcllt 68, 79, 202, 331
wood spri ng 79, 80
Woolsey, Judge 299
word-modulator 35-l
wo rksharing 358
workshop 68. 84. 85, 359
world fair 260. 263, 261
world government 361
wo rm's eve "iew 154.211
Wright, F. L. 21, 42, 61, 102. 101, 257,

260
Wu, S. 176
Wurster, W. W. 70

x
X-ray 58, 154, 168, 206. 207, 210, 245,
248. 252, 253, 254, 306, 315

w.,

vacuum 124
Van der Vlugt and Brinkman 105
Yan Cogh. V. ]:)..1.,158, 300
Yantongerlo. G. 2.13, 240
Varect'. E. 6], 292
Varro, )1. 70
Ya .. ari 329
Venetian 156
\ermet'r. J. \an Delft 153
Verto\,. O. 273, 279. 380
Vico, G. B. 315
Victorian 41, 340
"View" 352
\iIlage college 361
,iolence 303

Washin~ton.

G. 60

Watanabe, Y. 266
water 219. 236
waleI' color 40
wea\ing 85, 87
weekend 55
Webber. G. 161
weig-ht sculpture 76
\\eld ing 52. 83, 235, 350
Il" eltan5chauung 29
Well o. fl. G. 188, 267
Wentworth-Thompson, O'Arcy 36, 53

370

Yee, T. 53
Y.)T.C.A. 358
Yon$!, de J. 327
youth 303,310,358
Y. '" .C.A. 358

z
Zadkine, O. 222
Zeus 215
Zinns. R. 73. 91
zipper 89
Zola, E. 30U

The New Vision and Abstract of an Artist

by L. Moholy-Nagy, Director, Institute of Design, Chicago
Fundamentals of Design, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
Tne New Vision was written to inform laymen and artists about the basic
elements of the famous Bauhaus education where theory and practice in design were so successfully merged in a program of invention and creation. It

presents a new philosophy of art and industry which denies the traditional
distinction between the "fine" and "applied" arts. Its object, Moholy-Nagy
points out is not to propound any style, system, formula or vogue, but to
attempt to exert a revitalizing influence on all design. By coming to terms with
the "machine" it strives to eliminate the drawbacks of the machine without
sacrificing anyone of its real advantages.

"I sincerely hope this valuable book

finds its way . . . into the hands of
those who are seriously interested in
fairly understanding modern art as an
expression of the intentions of modern
artists and a reflection of the position
they occupy today. "-F. A. Gulheim, in
American Magazine of Art, Washington.

D. C.
.. - . . It is perhaps unnecessary 10 remark that the author has the most lively
awareness of the various developments
of modern art , for he himself has made
a vital conlribuHon to them. and as
painter,
typographer, photoqrapher,
slage-designer and architect is one of
the most creative intelligenr.es of our
time. . ."-Report by Herbert Read.
The Architectural Review, London,

"The New Vision" has proved to be

more than a personal credo of an artist.
It has become a standard grammar of
modern design."-Wolter Groplus.

The Bauhaus principles began with an emphasis on architecture, but later

this machine aesthetic was applied to almost every branch of design; furniture,
interior decoration, typography and advertising. These educational methods,

which have been in the process of filtering into all types of schools throughout
the world as a fundamental technique, are fully described in this thoroughly
revised edition with a wealth of illustrative material, including examples of

the work done in Chicago during the past years under Moholy-Nagy's direction.
The New Vision will be welcomed not only by those who want to know about
Bauhaus ideas but by all who would find a way through the multitude of art
isms. To everyone interested in art, design and education it will serve as a
stimulating guide to discriminate between dilettante and superficial design on
the one hand and functional and lasting design on the other.

This new (third) edition of The New Vision contains an autobiographical

essay by Moholy entitled Abstract of an Artist. This is a structural account of
an artist's transition from naturalistic painting to abstract expression. The
essay answers in terms of the artist's own development the bewilderment of

the layman before the seemingly radical departure of abstract art.

82 pages, 73 illuSirations. 71!2 x 10 in flexible binding, $3.00

Published by Wittenborn and Co., New York City.

3 71

"-1""

...

:n'. . ,.,. .-'

\ I'~

.," .. H. vie" ,:..

. .

..
"J

,"

,,

. .

,.

, ,;

. "f

"

."

"I

~t

,.

t' :

'ff
-'H

,,

,.

"

(it,

.Il.

.';hI