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A Note From The Author

Facilities & Workplace Design


An Illustrated Guide
First Edition
Engineering & Management Press
Institute of Industrial Engineers
Norcross Georgia, USA
1996

Free Copy Available At www.strategosinc.com


This book was originally published in 1996 and was quite popular. However, Engineering
& Management Press terminated publishing operations and the book went out of print.
Existing stocks are exhausted and it is now difficult to find, even on the used market.
I have been writing a second edition with more Lean Manufacturing examples and
terminology. However, progress has been painfully slow. Many people have requested
either edition. Accordingly, I am making this special version of the First Edition
available on a complimentary basis.
This special edition is a scanned copy of the original in PDF format. Some figures did not
scan well. In addition, there are original typesetting errors, particularly in the later
chapters. If you find yourself confused, it may be due to a mislabeled or misplaced figure.
I apologize for these lapses in quality. They are one reason why the book is free.
However, the principles remain sound; examples are realistic; the approach is
universal. It applies to Lean Manufacturing and, indeed, any Manufacturing Strategy.
You will also find supplementary material on our website at www.strategosinc.com. A
free preview of the Second Edition Chapter 4 is at www.strategosinc.com/facdes.htm.
I hope this is helpful in your facilities planning work.
Sincerely,
Quarterman Lee
President
Strategos, Inc.
Kansas City, Missouri, USA
www.strategosinc.com

Facilitiesand Workplace
Design
An lllustratedGuide
by
QuartermanLee
with
Arild EngAmundsen
WilliamNelson
HerbertTuttle

ENcrxeenrNc& MatacereNr Pness


Instituteof IndustrialEngineers
Norcross,Georgia,USA
http:llwww.iieneLorg

@ 1997 Institute oflndustrial Engineers. All rights reserved.


Published by the Institute of Industrial Engineers.
Printeil in the United Statesof America.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission
from the Publisher. The views and concepts presented are those of the
contributors. Publication by the Institute of Industrial Engineers does not in any
way constitute endorsementor approvalof the book s contents.
No responsibility is assumedby the Publisher for any injury andlor
damage to persons or ProPerry as a matter of product's liability' due to negligence
or otherwise,or from any use or operation of any methods,Products,instructions,
or ideascontainedin the material herein.

6 5 4 3 2 r

02 01 00 99 98 97

CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION

DATA

Lee, Qrarterman.
Facilities and workplace design: an illustrated guide/by Qrarterman Lee;
with Arild Eng Amundsen, William Nelson, Herbert Tuttle.
cm. -- (Engineersin businessseries;3)
p.
Includes bibliographicalreferencesand index.
ISBN 0-89806-166-0
1. Plant lzyout. 2. Plant engineering. 3. Office layout. 4. Work
environment. I. Amundsen, Arild Eng. II. Nelson, William.
Herbert.

IV. Title.

TSI78.L44

III. Tuttle,

V. Series.

1996

658.2'3--dc20

96-22972
CIP

Director/Engineering & Management Press:Eric E. Torrey


Editor: Forsyth Alexander
Cover by Marty Benoit
Printed by Edwards Brothers Inc.

ISBN 0-89806-166-0
Engineering & Management Press
25 Technology Park
Norcross,GA 30092

Table of Contents

Preface
...............
v
A c k n o w r e o g r " n t r . . . : : . : . . . . : . . . . . . : . : : . . : . : . : . . . : . : : . . : . . . . . : . . . . . . :".i.i. . . . : . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1 - Facilities in a Changing Environment...............1
Working facilitiesin modernhistory
...............
3
Facilitiesin a changingenvironment..................................
5
Approachesto facilitiesplanning
.....................
9
The industrial engineer'srole in facility planning .............t2
Chapter 2 - The Framework for Facilities Design.............13
The levelsof spatialdesign........
.....................
13
The phasingof spacedesign
.......2l
The spaceplan elements...............
.................
23
Spaceplan
................
27
The designproject........
...............
28
Chapter 3 - The Macro-Space-Plan
..................
29
Introducing CosmosProducts
.... 32
Planningthe project
....................
32
Informationacquisition
tasks..........
................33
Identifyingphysicalinfrastructure.....................................
50
The strategic
framework................
................
52
Key manufacturingtasksand focus opportunities.............54
Identi$'ingoperationsstrategy......
..................58
Designingthe spaceplan ...........
....................
65
Cosmoscell and processdefinition
................
69
The spaceplan primitive
.............88
Constraints
...............
88

Design of Experiments
Designing macro-space-plans
..... 91,
Identifyingkey materialhandlingissues.........
..................
94
Decidingon the bestspaceplan...........
..........95
Evaluatingthe Cosmosspaceplans
...............
99
Chapter 4 - Macro-Space-Planning

and WorkCellDesi9n................
Workcells...........

... 109
... 111

Interpretingterminologyand conventions............
..........772
The micro-leveltasks
................
114
Selectingthe products.................
The DiamondEquipmentCompany..............................
119
Gator SteelFoundry..............
....725
Designingthe process
................128
Planningcellinfrastructure
..........
.................136
Externalproductioncontrol
.......138
Designinga spaceplan...........
....I49
Selectingthe bestplan ...........
....157

Chapter5 - WorkstationDesign:
the Sub-Micro-Space-Plan
Allocationof functions
Motion economy
Ergonomics
The workstationspacepIan............

t67
...............162
.... 165
............
L66
..............
774

Chapter 6 - Site Planning and Location............................


183
Sitelocationand acquisition..............
..........184
Siteplanning................
.............
188

Chapter7 - OfficeSpacePlanning
Approachesto office planning
The officelayoutteam ..........
The layout project
ChapterS -A

Final Note

Gfossary
Bibliography
..................
fn d e x
Aboutthe authors

...................203
.. 204
.... 207
.. 207
..................215

...........277
........227
...............225
.......,.,.,.,.,.231

..232

Preface
Modern factorylayoutbeganmost notably at Highland Park, Michigan.
There, Henry Ford and CharlesSorensenfirst put large-scaleflow line
production into place.Layout, the arrangementof equipmentwithin
the building space,was the most striking featureof Ford production.
The layout of Ford factorieswas so noticeable,it disguisedrhe more
intangibleelementsof Ford and Sorensen's
highly integratedandwellthought-out manufacturingsystem.As a result,manyfactorymanagers,
businessexecutives,and engineersstill try to replicate eady Ford
layouts.Theseimitationsoften areill-suited to their businesspurposes.
Evenwhen managersdo not copyFord layouts,they continueto believe
that layoul is the heart of efficient production.
And so it is, but only as the culmination of a rational design
process:aprocessthat movesfrom globallocationto workstations,from
policy to operations.It is a processthat includesthe entire range of
tangibleand intangibleelements.The resultis a designthat integrates
products,service,people,information, and technology.
Our facilitiesplanning approachbuildson the pioneeringworkof
RichardMuther andKnut Haganas,both ofwhom delelopedsystematic
layoutplanning (SLP) and systematichandling analysis(SHA). These
conceptsremainvalid after almostthirty-five years.Our approachuses
contemporarylanguageand examples.Data acquisition is stressed.
Perhapsmost importantly, we integrate manufacturingstrategyand
manufacturingfocus,conceptsfirst put forth byWickham Skinnerand
first recognizedas connectedby William Wrennall.
This is more than a manufacturingbook, however.The concepts
originally developedfor industry now apply to services.Products and

FacilitiesPlanning
servicesmeld togetherin almosteveryviableenterprisein today'sworld.
"business
process"coversall productivehuman activity.
The conceptof
Government, education, the professions,and industry are simply
variationson a few centralideas.Therefore,the planning ofa government
facility or an idea fzctory follows the sameprinciples and approach as
the planning of an automotive factory.The planning of a hospital
follows the samecourseas the planning of a textile mill.
Under its
A facility projectoften is the catalystfor new strategies.
guise,managementmayopena strategicdebatethat bringstogetherthe
many disparatefunctionsand elementsof the enterprise.It canprovide
The projectthen translatesthe
the structurefor analysisand discussion.
resultsinto steeland concrete.In this way, facilityplanning becomesa
large-scalereengineeringproject rather than an exercisein template
shuffling.
Our purposein writing this book is to help practicingindustrial
engineersnew to facility planning. We intend it to be practicalwith
are
manyexamples,forms,diagrams,andvisualaids.Visualapproaches
is
usually
mind
human
The
planning.
for
facility
important
especially
more creativein avisualmode.Illustrations,graphs,andchartseffectively
that havemanylevelsof detail.
representcomplexspatialarrangements
Also, data is more significantfor most of us when we can seeit.
A plant layout is the product ofthousandsofdecisions,both past
andpresent.It is the physicalmanifestationofthe firm's manufacturing
strategy,whetherde factoor otherwise.Thesedecisionscoverthe entire
rangeof manufacturing-finance, personnel,process'product design,
and many, many other topics.We cannot possiblydo justice to all of
theseissues.We hope, however,to alert industrial engineersto their
existenceand importance.We hope to point the way to more rational
and strategicallyorientedfacility design.

Acknowledgments
t{e this_opportuniryto thank others who helped with this book.
[e
Margie and curtJennings producedmuch of the aitwork. sandraLee
helped with research,data entry and proofing. Maura Reeves,Ellen
snodgrass,Eric Torrey, Forslth Alex"nd.r, anJ the staffat the Institute
of Industrial Engineershavesupportedus and helped make this final
product readable.

Chapter 1
Facilitiesin a
ChangingEnvironment
"The

dogmasof our quiet past are inadequateto the


stormypresent.As our situationis new,we must think
anew.tt

Abraham Lincoln

Working facilities are the land, buildings, and equipment that provide
the physical capability to add value. This book is about operational
facilities used for a wide range of business,government, institutional,
and charitable activities. It applies to offices, factories, and fast-food
restaurants.It appliesto anyfacilitythat housesvalue-addingoperations.
For convenience,terms such as"businessfacility" or"factory" are used,
although the changing nature of work has blured many of these
distinctions. The principles herein apply to a wide range of situations
the industrial engineercommonly encounters.
Facilities areboth durable and expensive,lasting for decadesand
sometimes even spanning centuries.A firm's facilities are among the
most expensiveof its possessions.
They representthe largestassetitem
on most balancesheets.
The durability of facilities, their cost, and their primary role in
adding value make them an important strategic element. Just as
gunpowder made the fortresses of medieval Europe indefensible,
changesin technology, culture, and politics can quickly render today's
industrial facilities obsolete. Conversely, facilities that adapt to the
nature of their competitive environment can be a continuing sourceof
advantagefor their owners.

FacilitiesPlanning

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Figurel.l - StrotegicRelotionships

FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment
Figure 1.1 depicts the interaction of facilities, organization,
products,and processes.
The understanding,design,and development
of thesevariedelementsinto a functioning businesssystemarereferred
to in variousterms.Among theseare:manufacfuringstrategy,co{porate
reengineering,and businessarchitecture.
The importanceof facilitiesdoesnot lie solelyin their cost and
durability. They are also the most tangible element of the business
system,the element to which everyonein everyareaof the businesscan
relate.They can be a central,common referencefor the restrucfuring/
reengineering/strategic
debate.
Working facilities in modern history
Industrial facilities
shops that servedthe needsof individual artisanswere the industrial
facilitiesof the Middle Ages.Thesewere small and centeredaround a
singleskill suchasarmoryor saddlemaking.They had simpleand clear
arrangements.
Duringthe Industrial Revolution,powersourcesandthe movement
of raw materials determined faciliry design. Textile mills required
streamsfor water power, and cumbersomeshaftsand belts dominated
their arrangement.Eady iron andsteelmills werelocatedon waterways,
railroads,or mining siteslcoal,iron ore, and limestonetransportation
dominatedtheir design.
Early large-scaleproduction shopssuch as the pickering piano
Factory @g, 1.2) developedin the nineteenth century. These large

Figure 1.2 - The Pickering Piono Factory, Boston, Moss, Circo | 870

FacilitiesPlanning
buildings turned out high numbersof manufacruredproducts.At one
time, the Pickering factoryturned out 400 pianoseachday.
In the earlytwentiethcentury,the progressionofmass-production
technology required facilities that optimized material flow. The
micro-division of labor made skill less important than efficient
movementof product.
In the secondhalf of this century,information and knowledge
beganto dominate industrial production.The educationand skills of
As a result,
the worKorce in industrializedpartsofthe world increased.
industrial facilities must now optimize the coordination of people,
and products.
processes,
Government facilities
In the Middle Ages, the most important governmentfacilitieswere
town fortresses.Their primary mission was defenseagainst roving
bandsand neighboringciry-states.The fortified town of Rocroi,on the
northernplain of France,is an example.Still largelyintact,it is a lasting
of thesefortresses.
testimonyto the durability, cost,and obsolescence
With the adventofgunpowder,battletechnolory advanced.New
tactics evolvedand armiesbecamemore disciplined.These massive
works drained the treasuriesof many dukes and kings and became
fortresses
indefensibleand obsolete.By the time of the Renaissance,
had evolvedinto palaces.Their primary missionwas comfort for the
inhabitants, as well as the projection of power and prestige. The
buildersofmany governmentalbuildings wanted to intimidate potential
enemies,both foreign and domestic.
Governments no longer can surviveonly through warfare or the
threat of warfare.Their constituentsdemand addedvalue in a wide
range of human activity. Accordingly, many governmental facilities
now arebeing designedfor efficient operationsrather than projection
of power.
The United StatesPostalServiceprovidesan excellentexample.
Post offices built in the early part of this century were architectural
landmarks.Their mission was to display the power, stability, and
prestigeof the federalgovernment.Postalfacilitiesbuilt todayarenear
transportationcentersand optimize mail flow. Their primary mission
is the efficient distribution of mail.
Knowl e d g e - based fa ciI ities
Facilities in which knowledgeis the primary meansof work have
alwaysbeenmorevariedthan other types.The medievalmonastery,
for example)was a primary depository of knowledge in its time.

FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment
The church used this knowledge to vie with governments for
power and influence.
During the Renaissance
and Industrial Revolution, knowledge
becamean important sourcefor commercialcompetitive advantage.
Individual professionalssuch as doctors,lawyers,and financierswere
primary keepersof knowledge.Other knowledgeresidedin libraries.
Factoriesimbeddedit in their facilitiesand processes.
PeterF. Drucker
was among the first to rccognizethe increasingvalueofwhat he termed
"knowledge
work." He put forth theseideasin his landmarkwork, The
Practiceof Management,in 1955. Knowledge work dependsprimarily
on brainpower rather than manual skills or strength. In today's
manufacturing environment, most work requiring pure strength of
musclehas long been automatedaway.Much of the work that once
required manual dexterity has been taken over by computerized
equipmentsuchasnumericallycontrolledmachinetools or coordinate
measuringmachines.Therefore,knowledgeandthe informationbehind
it now havebecomeprimary sourcesofvalue in their own right. Many
organizationsexist for the solepurposeof processinginformation and
distributing it. Their facilitiesshould reflect and enhancethis role.

Facilitiesin a changingenvironment
Facilitydesignershavealwaysworkedwith materials,products,processes,
information, andpeople.Theirtaskis to arrangeworkprocesses
on land
and in buildingsfor optimum performance.This hasnot changedand
will not change,but rapid shifts in technology, politics, and culture
require a more fundamental understandingand analysisfrom the
facility designer.It no longer is sufficient (if it everwas) to copy an
assemblyline just becauseit was successfulsomewhereelse.
In addition to the long-term trend toward increasedknowledgebasedwork, other trendsofa stretigicnatureareaffectingbusiness.
The
facility planner should catalyzeor lead an organization'sadaptation to
ever-changingsurroundings.
The environmental imperative
Harmony with the environmentis an increasinglyimportant business
concern that will not go away.Population growth is a principal factor
dictating this concern;the spreadof the suburbsthrough increased
mobility is another. Organizafionsthat surviveand prosper in coming
yearswill anticipateand lead with their environmentalpolicies.
Location requirement changes
Information is the raw material of the knowledge worker. With the

FacilitiesPlanning

confluence of information processingand communication, the


information superhighwayhas opened.The ability to distribute vast
amountsof information makesit lessimportant for facilitiesto locate
near the sourceof information. This is similar to the distribution of
materialsin an earlier day. As material transportationbecamemore
efficient. manufacturerscould locatefarther from their sources.
Knowledge-basedfacilitiesnow locatewhere their workerswish
to live-often far from traditional industry. Industries that require
specializedknowledgeoften convergein small areas:manufacturersof
in Milwaukee,Wisconsin;Wichita, Kansas,
overheadcranescongregate
has a high concentrationofvinyl printers for decorativedecals;and
"Silicon
Valley" in California is the home for many electronicsplants.
These changesaffect global facilitiesplanning decisionssuch as site
selectionand planning.
The changing nature of work
As products become more sophisticated,their knowledge component
becomesmore important. It is no longer enough to manufacture a
commodity product.Competition demandsvariety,frequentchange,and
distribution systemsthat deliverphysicalproduct,service,andknowledge.
The natureofworkhas changed.Today, individualsseldomwork
alone. Knowledge teams are necessaryin product design, process
design,finance,andevenlaw.Teams,by their nature,requireproximiry.
Facilities can inhibit or promote teamwork. They can smooth the
operation of complex and etherealknowledgeprocessesor they can
isolatepeopleand preventcommunication.
The socio-technical system
Socio-technicalsystemshave alwaysexisted,although few managers
recognizedthe phenomenonuntil recently.Managementthought was
caughtin the Newtonianconceptthat organizationswerelike machines,
giant clockrvork mechanisms that ticked away in a predictable,
mechanicalmanner.Eric Trist ofthe TavistockInstitute developedthe
socio-technicalidea in the early 1950s. Teamwork, total quality
management(TQ{), and other techniquesfor employeeinvolvement
havetheir roots in the conceptofthe socio-technicalsystem(fiS. 1.3).
The social systemincludespeople and their habitual attitudes,
values,behavioral styles,and relationships.It is the formal power
strucfure depicted on otganization charts and the informal structure
derivedfrom knowledgeand personalinfluence.The technicalsystem
includes machinery, processes,procedures, and their physical
arrangement(layout).

FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment

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Figure1.3- Socio-TechnicolSysterns(Eric Trist, 1952)

FacilitiesPlanning
To be effective, the social and technical systemsmust integrate
and assistone another.Facilitiesplanning plays a major role in this
wherepeoplehaveisolatedworkstations,large
integration.Businesses
inventory buffers, and few sequential processeshave difficulty
implementing teamwork. A manufacturing work cell that requires
extensiveteamworkwill not producein an environmentof suspicion,
individual rewards,and command-control.
N on -h i e ra rchi caI org aniz ations
Hierarchical organizationswith functional divisions of work evolved
from the Roman Legions,the Catholic Church, and medievalguilds.
Such organizations are ill-suited for today's work, where the work
product requiresinput from many functional specialtiesand where
coordinationbetweenspecialtiesis a primary requirement'
While TqM emphasizescross-functional teamwork, more
fundamental reengineering emphasizeselimination of functional
structures in the organization This puts special demands on the
facilitiesplanner.Non-hierarchicalorganizationsmust constantlychange
to accommodatechangesin businessvolume and product life cycles.
In these organizationsthere is less division between traditional
managementand labor functions. Many engineersand others who
traditionally worked in office areas now have their desks in the
manufacturing plant. Many of today's high-tech manufacturing
operationsdemand more cleanlinessand order than the traditional
office. Therefore, facilities must be more open with few walls and
barriers.Theyrequire constantrearrangementto accommodatechanging
work cells and changing team structures.
Global business restructurtng reengineering, and facilities
Thanks in part to the changingnatureofwork, global economics,and
large-scalerestructuringis occurringin many
technologicaladvances,
many facilitiesthat areno longer contributing
As
a
result,
organizatrons.
to company missionswill close.Other facilitieswill be built. Many
reengineered.
more will haveproductsrealignedand processes
Facilitiesplanning is often a large-scalereengineeringproject.It
aswell as suPPortingelements.
is an opportunity to rethink processes
During a facilitiesplanningproject,the designerscanhelpmanagement
clarifr missionsand rationalizeproduct lines.
Layout is an integral part of reengineering and restructuring.
Meaningful restructuringrequirescorrespondingchangesin the layout.
Conversely,a layout redesigncanbe the catalystfor restructuring.
Many symptomsofinappropriate businessarchitectureappearaslayout

FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment
or materialhandlingissues.Factorylayoutcandemonstratethe needfor
reengineeringto an organizationreluctantto tearitselfapart and rebuild.
Approaches to facility planning
Those who plan and build facilitiestake many approaches.Some are
highly organized;othersaread hoc. Examplesofapproaches(fig.7.4) are
experiential,masterbuilding, cloning,bottom-up,systematic,and strategic.
Experiential
In this approach,peopleplan their facilitiesbasedon past experience,
common sense,and instinct. In any organization,the experienceof
senior membersis valuablefor information on what has worked and
what has not worked in the past. Otganizations, aswell asindividuals,
need this experienceto function.
A faciliry designedfrom experiencetaps into the rich knowledge
of those who have gone beforel however,experience-based
facilities
planninghaslimitations.Experience,bydefinition, is basedon the past,
and new technologyand organizationstructurescan make it obsolete.
In addition,planningby experience
is usuallyunorganized.
It frequently
is the resultof the memoriesofonlyone or a fewindividuals,and others
mayhavehad additionalor contradictoryexperiences.
Suchhindrances,
aswell as forgotten details, haunt theseefforts.
In planning a major facility, experiencecannot be ignored but
must be gatheredfrom the widest field of experiencepossibleand
appliedwith judgment and discretion.
Master building
Master building focuseson consrruction and buildings. The final
product is often impressiveand sometimesa work of art, but it may not
fit the operationalneedsofthe enterprise.Master builderscanbe found
at many levels in both large and small organizations: a company
president building a new headquartersor a department manager
focusing on technologicalimpressiveness
rather than actual needs.
Using a building to displayfinancialstrength,technologicalprowess,or
artistic accomplishmentis a legitimateform of advertising.However,
this purposeshould be balancedwith other businessneeds.
Cloning
Cloning simply duplicates an existing facllity or portion of it. This
approachis fast.Ifthe existingfaciliryisprovenandifconditions arethe
same, this type works well. McDonald's uses cloning to build its
"factories"
hamburger
throughout theworld. For mostfacilities,however,

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FacilitiesPlanning

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Figure1.4- SpoceplonningApprooches

cloninghaslimited usebecause
sites,processes,
andpeoplearedifferent.
Cloning should be appliedonly when appropriate.
Bottom up
The bottom-up approachstartswith the details.How many desks?
How many and which machines?How many people?From them,

FacilitiesIn A ChangingEnvironment

11

departmentalunits and, eventually,the overall facility plan are built. It


is a satisfactoryapproachif the derailsand how theywill be assembled
into a largersystemareknown, ifthere is time, and ifthe detailswill not
change.such conditions are often met for smallerfacilitiesin stable
environments.
Bottom-up planning does not lend itself to new operations
strategies.Becauseall detailshaveto be worked out beforefinal design
and construction,constructionlead times areoften too long. On large
projects,the detailsbecomeso overwhelmingit is often difficult to
maintain schedules.
Systematic
Systematiclayout planning (SLP) usesprocedures,conventions,and
phases.It helps layout plannersknow what to do at each step of a
project. This provides layout planning with system and strucrure,
savingtime and effort. However, many layoutscreatedwith systematic
methodology are simply better versionsof what went before. The
primaryconcernis how to arrangeblocksof space.A morefundamental
issueis what blocksof spaceshould be arranged.
Strategic
The strategicapproachis top-down. It setspolicy first and arangesthe
technology, organization, and facilities to support it. Starting with
businessand corporatestrateg'ysuchasglobalsitelocation,it movesto
operationsstrategy andfinisheswith detailslike locarionsof equipment
and furniture.
A strategicapproachis direct and haspurpose.It allowseveryone
involved in the project to follow a common direction. Used alone,
however, strategic direction is insufficient. It does not tell faciliry
designersand thosewho usethe facilitieswhat to do.
FacPIan
The FacPlanmethod combinesthe best of variousapproaches.It has
systemand structureand adds strategicdimension. It taps into the
experienceand knowledgeof thosewho usethe facilities.It can work
from detail to generaland vice versawhen appropriate.
FacPlanusesa hierarchyof detail levels.It focuseson strategic
issuesat the appropriatetime and minutiae at the appropriatetime,
usinga modelprojectplanto guideandsrrucrureeachproject.Procedural
flow chartsguiderheplannerthrough eachtaskand assistwithdecision
making. Charts,forms, and designaidscontributeto the organization
of information.

12

Facilities
Planning

The industrialenginee/srole in facilityplanning


The central,strategicrole offacilitiesplacestheir designersin a unique
position. Industrial engineerscan assumenarrow roles as technical
equipment arrangersor they can take broaderroles as educatorsand
catalystsf or or gan\zationalstrategic debate.
The latter requiresmore than skillsin layoutdesignand technical
procedure.Strategicperspective,well-developedinterpersonalskills,
patience,and understandingare alsonecessary.
This work providesinsight into the basictechnicaltoolsindustrial
engineersneed for facilitiesplanning. The broaderskills will reguire
experience, insight, maturity, and education.

Chapter2
The Frameworkfor
FacilitiesDesign
The completedesignof a facility requireswork from many disciplines
within an organization: sales and marketing, purchasing, human
resource
s, accounting,and more.More visibleis the work of architects,
structuralengineers,processengineers,and management.Architects
and structural engineerscheck soil conditions, building codes,and
infrastructure,detailingthe structure,appearance,
and internalsof the
building andsite.Processengineers
mayplantheproductionprocedures.
To guide and coordinateall theseefforts, managementsetsstrategic
policies.
Industrial engineersalsoplay key roles.They often managerhe
overallproject and report to top management,and they may perform
someor all of the abovetasks.Most importantly, they plan the useof
space.Thesespaceplans,atvariousdetaillevels,becomethe centerpiece
for coordinatingthe entire project.
The levels of spatial design
Layout, or spaceplanning, is the centralfocusof facilitiesdesignand
dominatesthe thoughtsof most managers.But factoryor office layout
is only one detail level. Ideally, a facility design proceeds from the
generalto the particular-from global site location to workstation.
Larger strategicissuesare decidedfirst.
It is useful to think of spaceplanning in five levelsas shown in
figure 2.1. Figures2.2 through 2.6 show qpical ourputsat eachlevel.
These range from the global maps of site location to engineering
drawingsof tools and workstations.

FacilitiesPlanning

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.=
.=

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.9

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.9

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rr O-

=o

o9

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o
=

E C

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'i(d

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o o
i o

o=: v

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:i: q
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al,

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->=. 9

Figure 2, | - The Levels of Space Plonning

bo

,;g
r O

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

15

Level I -Global site location


During global location,the site location level,the firm decideswhere
to locate facilities and determinestheir missions.A facility mission
statement is a concise summary of products, processes,and key
manufacfuring tasks.A facility rarely canperform more than two or
threekey manufacturingtaskswell. The missionstatementis therefore
an important guide for facilitiesplannersand others as they consider
variousdesigntrade-offs.
Other outputsat this levelusuallyincludea reportto management.
For multiple sites,mapsshowing site locationsand customeiactivity
are common. Figure 2.2 illustrates.
The cost of spaceplanning at Level 1 is small. Global location
usuallyinvolvesa few top executivesand one or fwo industrial engineers
or consultants.Each level below requires more and more people,
analysis,and detailedengineering.Yet, the corporatebudget pro..r,
frequentlydemandsthat all significantplanning be delayedurriil uft.,
a decisionis madeto proceedwith siteacquisition.Thoselevelswith the

Proposed
South American Plant
Site Specification
Contents
1 .O Mission
2.0
General
Requirements
3.0
Land Features
4.O
Building
5.O
Transponation
6.0
l.ltilities
7,0
Labor
8.O
Communlty
9.0
SupplleG
1O.O Environmental

Mission
Statement
Midwest Plant
& Warehouse

Mission
Statement
Brussels
Warehouse
Mission
Statement
Shenandoah
Plant

O Manufacturing
I Distribution
-9u !

l! Proposed

The Shenandoah
Facilitywill
manufacture the Elite
product line for high
volume customers in
the Eastern United
States. lt will strive to
be the primary
supplier for our
industry for high
quality OEM material.

Figure 2.2 - Level | - Site Location

16

FacilitiesPlanning

most strategicimpact and the lowest planning cost receivethe least


attention. Consequently,the decisionswith the most strategicimpact
are sometimesmade with the least reliable knowledge.
Overall businessstrategy is most important at the global level.
Determining the number and location of sitesrequiresfar more than
simply searchingfor the lowest labor rates and largest tax breaks.
Available labor skiils and attitudes toward work, supporting services
suchastool productionandmaterialsupply,andpolitics,andsometimes
For example,if a plant
geopolitics,must alsobe major considerations.
is located in the wrong countr/r it may becomea geopoliticalpawn.
Technologicalprowesscould then shift to other regions.If there is
political instability locally, it can destroy a firm's ability to produce.
Important raw materialsmight be depletedor replaced.Suchproblems
are not easyto correct.
Appropriate planning resultsin facilitiesoptimized for the markets
and located near the most important resources-resources that,
increasingly,involve knowledge, skills, and infrastructure rather than
raw materials.
Level 2-Supra-space plan
At the supra-spaceplan level, site planning takesplace.This includes
number,size,and locationofbuildings, aswell asinfrastructuresuchas
roads, water, gas, and rail. This plan should look ahead to plant
expansionsand eventualsite saturation.
The documents from a site planning project almost always
include a site drawing (fig. 2.3). Frequently, they involve a seriesof
drawings showing past, present,and future configurations (there may
be severaloptions for these).A major site study also might include
narrativeson site history and descriptionsof the considerationsand
rationalefor the site plans.
At this level, planning still has long-term and far-reaching
Awell-designed infrastructuresupportsfuture expansion
consequences.
or conversionto new products.Proper location and building design
provide for logical expansionin suitableincrements.
Level 3-Macro-space plan
At the macro-spaceplan level, a macro-layout (fig. 2.4) plans each
building, structure,or other sub-unitof the site.Usuallythis is the most
important level of planning, for it setsthe focus,or basicorganization,
of the factory.The designersdefine and locateoperatingdepartments
and determine overall material flow.
Macro-spaceplan decisionsmay resultin new-productflexibility,

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

ffi

onur" II

onur"III 56000sr

17

2azzssr

Figure 2.? - Level2, Site Plonning


Master Site Plon, Shenondooh Plont, Stonewatl Corp.

lower costs,high quality,or a flexiblelabor.Fundamentalmacro-space


plan decisionsusuallyareeasierto correctthan site-leveldecisions.Still,
a poorly plannedfacility canbring high handling costs,confusion,and
inflexibility. These problems, in rurn, can causedifficulty in launching
new products, erratic deliveries,and too much inventory. Correcting
such problems may require a complete rearrangementwith major
investmentsin processequipmentand infrastructure.
Level 4-Micro-space plan
The location of specificequipmentand furniture is determinedin the
micro-spaceplan. The emphasisshifts from gross material flow to
personal spaceand communication. Socio-technicalconsiderations
dominate.Ifproduction teamsareanimportant elementofthe operations
stratery, the work at this level may inhibit or discourageteamwork.
Figure 2.5 showsa spaceplan for an operatingdepartment.

18

FacilitiesPlanning

O z e

Project
Report
ilacro.Layout

&

Om

Material
Handllng

El e ctro nE n g i n e e ri n gC o rp.
M a cro -L a yo uOp
t ti o n A

Macro-Layout
OptionB
Macro-Layout
OptionC
Figure 2.4 - Level 3, Mocro Loyout
Project Report Mocro-Loyout ond Moteriol Hondling

Level 5-Sub-micro-space plan


Individual workstations and workers are the concern of the fifth level.
Here, workstations aredesignedfor efficiency,effectiveness,and safety.
Ideally, the industrial engineerplans for the correct tools in the most
appropriate places,using fixtures that properly hold the work piece.
Materials are introduced at optimal locations and large items are
providedwith appropriatematerial handling aids.Sometypical outputs
are shown in figure 2.6.

TheFramework
ForFacilities
Design

ili l .

!' ,g"

i
tA
d;

uil-ir
9l

tfll,!

-6. "
3 9 E

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its'F

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Figure2,5 - Level4, Micro-Layout


Maypro Monufocturing Pump Mochining 6ept. Detail Loyout

19

FacilitiesPlanning

20

Workcell
Operstions
Plan
T

Eiliiiiu-;;-l

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Figure2.5 - Level5, Worl<stotionLoyout

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

2'l

Levels 4 and 5 are the more detailed levelsof spaceplanning;


therefore,equipmentand issuesaremore localized.When.h"rrg., "r"
necessary,
thereis usuallylessdangerofmajor productioninterruptions.
The phasing of space design
Ideally, design progressesfrom the global level to the sub-micro level
in distinct, sequentialphases.At the end of eachphase,the designis
"frozen"
by consensus.This seftlesthe more global issuesfirsiand
allows smoothprogresswithout continuallyrevisiting unresolvedissues.
It also preventsdetails from overwhelming the prolect. Figure 2.7(A)
illustratesthis logicalprogressionand showsthe strategicimpact ofthe
work in eachphase.Strategicimpact affectsthe long-term ab1fityof the
firm to competeand profit.
Industrial engineersrarelyhavethe opportunityto design afacility
.
in accordance
with the normal phasingshown in figure 2.7(A).There
are severalreasonsfor this. Sitesand buildings that haveevolvedover
manyyearsoutlive technologiesandtheir original purpose,and therefore
must be rearranged.Another reasonmay be management'sbelief that
the existingspaceplan is simply not optimal. In both cases,planning

(A)

I
tl
ill
IV
V

Ol..!.a

(B)

ta--l

/\

ln*--l
-

lctll

snrorc rmnacf\lHiii-l

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ill lr.#:l
IV
l-6--l
V
lsfiiii,l

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Time --*

(c)
I
tl
ill
'V
V

(D)

I
lEil-l
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lsr"rrii-l
Time -.|>

tl
ill
IV

IE.b"rI
lglt.

lr'fr--l

Er-l

V
Time -|>

Figure 2.7 - Time Phosing the Design Leyels

22

FacilitiesPlanning

plan level.Figure2.7(B) illustratesthis. The


beginsat the macro-space
phasingdemonstratedin figure 2.7(B) alsooccurswhen management
makesglobal and site-leveldecisionswithout the benefit of adviceand
counselfrom their facilitiesplanner(s).
The size and organizationstructureof cellsin a macro-spaceplan
and strategiesareuntried.This
may be indeterminablewhen processes
often happenswhen firms makea transitionfrom functionalto cellular
manufacruring.Pilot cellsmust then be developedto provethe concept
or technology.Figure 2.7(C) reflectsthis. A cell or micro-spaceplan
(Level4) then becomesthe first phase.Upon completionof this pilot,
peoplecan agreeon the generalapproach.Then the designercan shift
back to Level 3 and prepare a macro-spaceplan. The details of
remaining cellsare definedin their optimal sequence.
The phasingdemonstratedin figure 2.7(D) is common for large
office layout projects. First, the details of workstation layout are
established.This may comefrom standardizingspaceand equipment
for example,
basedon eachperson'spositionin a hierarchy.Secretaries,
may get a 175-square-footworkstation with filing spaceand word
processingequipment,while a GradeI engineergetsa 11O-square-foot
cubicle and a supervisor,a 15O-square-footcubicle. From the
organizationchartsand staffing forecasts,the spacefor eachdepartment
and the arrangementbetweendepartmentscan then be developed.At
this point, the project movesupward in detail to the global or' more
commonly, macro- level.
Separatingthe work into phasesand levelsis the ideal approach.
Nevertheless,there may be someoverlap.For example,the spaceplan
of a particularwork cell may not fit the boundariespreviouslydecided
in the macro phase.This may then require minor changesto the
previouslydesignedand agreedupon macro-spaceplan. For theseand
other reasons,phasingshould be flexible.
Proper phasingshouldbe consideredin the earlieststagesof the
project, perhapsafter the initial discussionsand certainlybefore any
significantwork effort begins.Here are someguidelines:
' work from the most generalto the most specificlevel (highest
to lowest)unlessspecialconditionsdictate otherwise;
' clearlycommunicatethe phasingplan to all participants;
' resistthe temptation to jump aheadbeforea particularphase
is complete;
' obtain agreementon the plan for eachphasebeforemoving on
to the next phase;and
' rccognizethat there may be some overlap between phases.

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

23

The spaceplan elements


Every spaceplan at eachlevel has four fundamentarelementsand two
derived elements.The fundamental elementsare: space
planning units
and constraints.
qPys): ffiniyies, spa-ce,
When developinga spaci plan,
the designersfi rst define andidenti$' SPUs.They th.r, .rrJrr"t. "ffi nities.
using the affinities,theyjoin SPUsto form oneor morc afi ni ty diagrams.
The affiniry, or configuration,diagramis the first ofthe derivei eleirerrts.
Spaceaddedto the configurationdiagramproducesaspace
planprimitire,
the second derived element. constraints applied io tit. space plan
primitive producethe spaceplan. Figure 2.8 showsthis progression.

@,'"::',1."
@$n,
@l:::ffi

Configuralion

Pwarerrouo

SpaceplanPrimitive

FFT

space
ffi

Figure2.8 - Elementsof o Spoceplan

24

Planning
Facilities

The conceptof fundamentaland derivedelementsis valid at all


levels.However,it is mostusefulanddirectat the macro-andsitelevels.
The chaptersthat follow explore its application.
Space planning units
SPUs arethe entitiesarrangedby spaceplan designers.At the macrolevel,they arereferredto ascells.(The systematic layout planning ISLP]
systemusedthe term acti'uityarea.)Acell mightbe aworkdepartment'
a sroragespace,a building feature,or a fixed item. Each cell initially is
nted by a symboland identifier.
represe
Nlost of thesesymbolsaretaken from ANSI Y15.3M-1979,the
American National StandardsInstitute standardfor processcharts,
which show the tlpe of activity that acts on a product. For space
planning,the symbolthat bestrepresentsthe space'sdominant activity
ir rrsed.Figrrt.2.8 showsthe symbols,their meanings,and color codes'
The standardsymbolsrepresentoperation,transport,inspection,
delay, and storage.For spaceplanning, t'"vo additional symbolshandling and product cells-are added. The handling symbol
designatesareasused for repackaging,transfers,or other elements
that are partly transport and partly operation. The product cell
designatesspaceused for multiple activities on a single product or
small group of products.The definition of SPUs is one of the most
strategictasksin facility planning. This definition decidesthe basic
organtzation of the factory.
Affinities
betweenany
Affinities represent variousfactorsthat demandcloseness
or personal
communication
example,
For
plan.
two cells in a space
are
Affinities
affinity.
to
an
interaction betweenworkers might give rise
+4
to
rated using a six-level scale,with numerical valuesranging from
-1. The scalehasfour positivelevelsthat mean sPUs shouldbe close.
Suchhigh-value affinities may resultfrom frequent material movement
betweenthe cells.Negativeratingsmeanthat the SPUsshouldbeapart.
There alsois a neutral rating, 0.
A vowel scale,A-E-I-O-U-X, may also be used for rating
"A"
affinities; this scalewasfirst popularizedby Richard Muther. Here,
"IJ"
representsa neutral affinity,
representsthe highest affinity rating,
"X"
i, " rregativeaffinity. This scalehasa mnemonic advantage-The
"nd
vowelshavecorrespondingword associationsasillustrated in ft gute2.9.
the methodsfor evaluatingaffinities.
Chapter 3 discusses
Figure 2.9 showsthe affinity conventionsdevelopedby building
on the original SLP system.The multi-line representationworks well

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

25

Vowel Scalar Manual CAD


Descriptlon Rating Rating GraphicG r a p h i c Color

Absolute

Exceptional E

l m p orta n t

U
Unimportant

Apart

N/A

Red

O r d in a ry

Yellov
Gr een
Blue

(None)(None)( None)

Black

Figure2.9 - Affinity Conyentions

for manual graphics.On many CAD systemsand other computer


graphicssoftware,it is easierto usevarying line widths, gray scales,and
color. When color is available,it dramatically illustrates the nature of
the affinity network.
Figure 2.10 shows the typical range of affinity distributions for
macro- and micro-layouts.
Affinity diagrom
SPUs combine with affinities to form an affinity diagram-the first
of the derived elements. This diagram is an idealized spatial
arrangementthat eventuallybecomesa spaceplan. In the diagram,
symbolsrepresentSPUs and lines representaffinities betweenthem.
A single line is the lowest value affinity and a four-part line is the
highest.Squigglylinesrepresentnegativeaffinities.Theseconventions
are illustrated in figure 2.9.
Using an iterative process,the designermanipulatesthe diagram
to create an optimal or near-optimal arrangement. A near-optimal
arrangementhasvery short high value affinities at the expenseoflower

26

FacilitiesPlanning

value affinities.It minimizes the crossingof affinity lines


Figure 2.11 illustratesthe iterative improvement of an affinity
diagram. It is interestingthat many computerizedplanning systems
emphasizethis specificprocesswhen, in fact, it is the part ofthe layout
processto which computersare leastsuited.
Space
Each SPU has a unique spacerequirement.Some SPUs may require
onlv a few squarefeet, while others may require tens or hundredsof
thousandsof squarefeet.
The natureofspaceand the calculationsrequiredchangeswith each
"elastic,"and the calculations
pianning level.At the higher levels,spaceis
maynot needto be asaccurate.At the lower levels,spacecanbe morerigid
but alsolessdefinite. For example,a particular machineor deskrequires
acertainamountofspace,andthe designercannotmakeit fit in lessspace.
In other instances,a piece of equipment may require a certain type of
spacebecauseit has a peculiarshape,such as a U. But, under certain
conditions, other items may alsofit in that U shape.

50o/o

40o.h

20Yo

10o/o

0o/o

Figure2.10 - Usual Affinity Distribution

The FrameworkFor FacilitiesDesign

27

Thespaceplon primitive
When spaceis addedto the affinitydiagram,it distortsthe diagraminto
the spaceplan primitive. It is an idealizedrepresentationand doesnot
include designconstraints.
Constraints
Design constraintsarethoseconditionsthat limit an ideal spaceplan.
Such constraintsmight be building size and shape,columns, floor
loading, utility configurations,externalfeatures,and many others.
Space plan
The fusion of a spaceplan primitive and constraintsproducesa space
plan. Severalviablespaceplansshouldemerge.A setof cells,affiniiies,
and constraints may give rise to severalequally valid configuration
diagramsandprimitives.Eachoftheseprimitivesmayresultin multiple
macro-spaceplans. The nature of the design problem precludesan
optimal spaceplan, exceptin the simplestsituations.
The designer'sexperienceis a key factor, for it helps him or her
decidewhich configurationshavethe most potential.It helpsscalethe
myriad of possiblespaceplans down to a reasonablenumber.
Figure2.11illustratesthe completeprogressionfrom fundamental

Figure2.1I - Optimizing o Configurotion Diogrom

28

FacilitiesPlanning

elementsof cells,space,affinities,and constraintsto the macro-space


plan. Theseelementsand the progressionarevalid for any sizefacility
and at any level.
The design project
The elementsof facility spaceplans are simple;executionof the tasks
requiredto developthem is not. Rarelydo the tasksneatlycorrespond
to the developmentas describedabove.At each level of design,the
approach changesto accommodatethe amount of detail, available
information, and the dominant issues.
At each level, an approachthat fits a wide range of projects and
siruationscanbe developed.These are calledmodelprojec*.With minor
variations,the model project for a macro-spaceplan, for example,
appliesto almost any macro-spaceplan regardlessof size,complexity,
or industry. Similarly, the model projects for cell design and site
planning apply to almostany cell designor site-planningproject.The
methods,formality, and time requiredvary according
scope,resources,
complexiry.
The sequence,
procedures,and deliverablesare
to sizeand
essentiallyconstant.Model projects for each level of design can be
foundin Chapters3,4,5,6, and7.

Chapter3

TheMacro-Space-Plan
The macro-space-planoften is the mosr important level of facility
planning. It sets the fundamental organization of the factory and
patterns of material flow with long-term effects. From personnel
turnoverto qualityto delivery,the macro-space-plan
influencesalmost
every measureof facility and organizationperformance.
Done well, it is a platform for reengineeringbusiness.It canforce
reexaminationof markets, products, and processes.It can achieve
quantum improvementsin productivity and profit. It can position a
firm for profitability and growth. Done superficially, it can leave real
issuesunquestioned.
This chapterexplainshow to designmacro-space-plans
using a
structured,step-by-stepapproachthat resultsin a near-optimalspace
plan andwide acceptance
ofthe results.This approachhasseveralparts:
conceptual
frametuork, modelprojectp/ans, taskprocedures,conventions,
and designtoolsand aids.
Chapter 2 introduced the conceptualframeworkwith its levelsof
detailthat narrowthe projectto a manageable
level.Thesefundamental
and derivedelementsshow how a spaceplan dwelops. Arranging the
levelsin phaseshelpsplan the project.In the pagesthat follow, macrospace-planning-one of the more important phases-is examined.
With a model project plan, tasks are arranged.Procedure diagrams
illustratehow to conducteachtask.The technicaltools and other aids
providethe meansto completeeachtask.Figure3.1is the modelproject
plan for a macro-layout.It showsthe requiredtasksand their sequence.
This model evolvedfrom the systematiclayoutplanning (SLP) approach
developedby RichardMuther almostthirtyyears ago.It hasbeenused

30

FacilitiesPlanning

for hundreds of projects and sufficesfor almost any size and type of
macro-space-plan.From project to project, the depth of analysis
changesalong with the methodsfor eachtask, the resources)and the
time. Occasionally,a projectrequiresa few additionaltasks.However,
the basicstructureand sequenceremain the same.
Each task has a two-part identification number.The two digits
beforethe decimalshowthetasklevel.The digits followingthe decimal
Task03.04,for example,
identifythe specifictask,roughlyin sequence.
macro-space-plan.
is the fourth task at Level 3, the
The tasksofthe modelprojectoccurin threedistinctgroups:data
acquisition,strategydevelopment,and layout planning.Thesegroups
are nearthe top of figure 3.1. Two tasks,03.01 and 03.27,areoutside
thesegroups.Task 03.01 startsthe project,with plans for activities,
Task03.21is the actualselectionofthe preferred
timing, andresources.
lavout option. It closesthe project and allowspreparationfor Level4,
the micro-space-plan.
A procedurediagram is provided for some tasks.For example,
figure 3.3 is the procedurediagram for Task 03.02. Such diagrams
illustratethe logic flow and sub-tasksrequired.These proceduresare
sometimesiterative.Most early layout models emphasizedthe third
task group, where geometricarrangementtakesplace.Of course,this
is important, but far more important is the determination of what
spacesto arrange.The definition of theselayout cells establishesthe
organizationof a faciliry'swork. Embodied in cell definition, it has far
more impact on facility performance.
Figure 3.1 alsoguidesdesignersthrough their first layoutsusing
the systemdescribedin this chapter.The designtask at hand should
always be the central focus and any temptations to jump ahead
prematurelyto other tasksshould be resisted.Completed tasftsalso
should not be revisited.Figure 3.1 helpsdesignersconcentrateon the
current task, its procedurediagram, and specificdiscussions.If each
the spaceplan will take shapeand the
task is done in proper sequence,
project objectivewill be reached.
It is vital to keepmanagersthroughout the organizationinformed
during the entire planning process,a responsibilitybest suited to the
designer. Many facility projects result in fundamental changes and
restructuring.Managersandothersneedtime to learnnewinformation
and form newviews.If they arenot kept informed and involvedin the
will not be
learning and reasoningprocess,agreementand consensus
achieved.This could resultin the rejectionof an excellentlayout.
There areseveralformal and informalways ofinvolving managers.
Formal methods include using a steeringcommittee to overseeand

The Macro-Space-Plan

31

review progressand adding update meetings to the model project. A


kickoff meeting can follow Task 03.01. During such a meeting, key
members of the organization could review tasks and confirm that
resourcesare available.An additional meeting, at which time factual
datawouldbepresentedin a non-threateningmanner,might followthe

=
o
(g
J

.49
vtg
tr

.9
(!

OH E
L

o
tr

Figure3.1 - Macro-Spoce-plon Model Project

32

FacilitiesPlanning

data acquisitiontasks.
A formal meeting is valuablefor developing operations strategy
builder. Agreementand commitment
andcanbe an important consensus
to the operationsstrategyarevital for later agreementon a faciliry plan.
Task 03.21, the evaluationand selectionof spaceplan options,is also
a good consensusbuilder. Extensive interviews and informal
with managersand othersthroughout the organization
conversations
are alsoimportant.

IntroducingCosmosProducts
Cosmos Productsis the companyused as a model in this chapterto
offacilitiesplanningat the macro-level.Cosmos
illustratethe processes
Products convertshigh-grade vinyl film into decorativematerial. The
markets,and
firm hastwo broadproductlineswith differentprocesses,
material
in many
distribution channels.Roll products-pin-striping
colors, patterns,widths, and combinations-sell in the automotive
that usethem
aftermarket.Custom sheetproductssellto manufacturers
boats,
of
campers'
Manufacturers
decoration.
logos,
and
labels,
for
Cosmos
customers.
are
typical
chain saws,and agriculturalequipment
often preparesthe artwork for thesecustomers.Custom productsare
flat sheetsof materialwith imprinting, adhesive
, anda paperbacking.
Cosmos Products started as a small operation about twenry-five
yearsago.The firm hasgrown significantly eachyear at ^n averagerate
of 22percent.To accommodatethis growth, therehavebeena number
of additions to the current faciliry. In recentyears'managementhas
experienceddifficulty that hasmanifesteditself in too much inventory'
shipping delays,and generalconfusion.
The company'scurrent project is reengineeringthe faciliry and
The obiectivesareto: reducematerialhandling costs;
relatedDrocesses.
reduce'operating .orrrl i-prove delivery performance; irip.or'.
teamwork, communication, and quality; allow for new products;
accommodate1998production;and deliverthe projectunder a budget
of $800,000.The steeringcommitteefor this projectconsistsof; O. W.
Holmes, presidentandchiefexecutiveoffi cer;J. Marshall, chieffinancial
officer; W. Burger, vice president,operations;and E. Warren, vice
president,salesand marketing.

Planningthe project

"Plan Project,"developsa specific projectplan.Developing


Task 03.01,
In this step,
demandssignificantresources.
a soundmacro-space-plan
is mappedout. The model projectin
the dispositionof thoseresources
figure 3.1-works for almost every macro-space-planproject, whether

The Macro-Space-Plan

33

large or small. Small or simple projects may need lessformality, rigor,


and documentationthan largeror complexprojects.Nevertheless,the
essentialsof eachtask must be done.
the key decision-makersfor the project.After
Step 1 establishes
they are interviewed and their objectivesare established,the time and
resourcesneededfor each task should be defined. With the above
information and the model,the designerthen plansthe project.Project
planning software is useful for this task, although for most macroa simpleGantt chartwill suffice.Figure3.2 is the schedule
space-plans,
for CosmosProducts.
for a new macro-space-plan
In addition to statementsoutlining tasks, elapsedtime, and
responsibility,the deliverablesfor each task should be identified. A
deliverableis a tangible output for the task. A written summary of
findings is a valid deliverable, as are a material flow diagram and
"IJnderstand material flow" is not a
physical infrastructure checklist.
valid deliverablebecausethere is no way to see' measure,or judge
completion. The designer should confirm that these deliverables
accuratelyreflectthe intentionsofkeydecisionmakersbeforeproceeding.
"Plan
Project,"the deliverablesare a task list, a
For Task 03.01,
Gantt chart, and a summary that includesthe project objectives.A
PERT chart is usefulbut not necessary.
The typicaltime frame for completinga projectof Cosmos'ssize
and complexity is about forty working days. Almost half is used for
information acquisition and strategy.This provides a firm foundation
for the layoutsto follow, therebyeventuallyreducing total project time.
This is sometimesdifficult for impatient managersto acceptbecauseit
takeslonger for a spaceplan to aPPear.However, far lesstime is spent
on changesand debate.Moreover, a consensusfor the plan is more
likely when all participants have been through the information and
strategJstages.
Information acquisition tasks
Once there is approvalfor the project plan, the first setof tasksinvolves
the gatheringofirrformation,both quantitativeand qualitative,needed
to developsound macro-space-plans.
This phasehas anotherpulposethat may be more profound and
lessobvious:raising awarenessthroughout the organizationand asking
difficult questionsthat manyin the org anizationmaynot haveconsidered
previously.At this time, the processofbuilding suPPortand consensus
for the outcomeis begun.
In addition to analysisskills, spaceplan designersmust have an
understandingof individualand organizationalpsychology.Consensus

34

FacilitiesPlanning

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Figure3.2 - Focility Re-Engineering

The Macro-Space-Plan

35

meanstime andcommonunderstandings
that mustbeginearlyin order
to bear fruit at the end ofthe project.
Product-vol ume ana lysis
Product-volume (P-!) analysisexaminesthe current and future time
frames for the products and their volumes.This analysishelps the
designerunderstandthe relationshipsbetweenvariousproducts.Highvolume and low-volume products,for example,may require different
equipment and production modes.The analysisalso defines future
requirements,helps selectthe best planninghorizon, and allows for
changesbeyondthe immediatespaceplan.
The resultsof the P-V analysisprovideimportant input for many
later tasks,and, therefore,should be completedearly in the project.
Facility designersthat have been long-time employeessometimes
believethey know the products well enough to skip this task, but this
is not recommended.
The procedurediagramfor product-volumeanalysisis in figure 3.3.
Block 1 documentsthegatheringofinformation.This maybeaccomplished
in the following ways:visually examining a range of finished products;
reviewing salescatalogsand other information for an overview of the
product line; and interviewing salesand marketing people. It is also
important to obrain overallsalesvolume history (usually,five to ten years
is adequate).
Where marketsandtechnologiesarechangingrapidly,tvyoto
threeyearsmay be a more appropriatetime frame.
Salesforecastsfor the following five to ten years should also be
requested.An absenceof this information indicatesuncertainty.It may
requiremultiple contingenciesin the faciliryplan. Unfortunately,sales
peopleand other managersmay be unwilling to commit to a forecast.
In such a situation,high, low, and optimistic forecastscould be asked
for, with the explanation that they are needed for facility planning
purposesand extremeaccuracyis unnecessary.
A requestfor a salesforecastmay touch off a flurry of executive
activity becausethe requestedinformation may nor exist or may be
questionable.Generating the numberswill help build management
awareness.It is sometimesthe beginning of an important strategic
debatethat ultimatelyleadsto betterfacility plans.This debatealsocan
lead to important and profound changesin managementthinking.
In Block 2, the forecastdata is plotted on a line chart along with
saleshistories.If they areavailable,oprimisticand pessimisticforecasts
should alsobe added.After examiningthe chart,plotting a regression
line like that in figure 3.4 may be helpful. Where seasonalityis a
concern,a separatechart could be usedto show monthly salesfor the

36

FacilitiesPlanning

past two to four years.Visual presentationis more meaningfulthan a list


ofnumbers. A simplechart often revealspreviouslyunrecognizedtrends.
In Block 3, the productsare examinedfor appropriategrouping.
If the facility will only produce a few products, such grouping is
Most facilities,however,havemanyproductsorvariations
unnecessary.
in anywhere from three to fifly groups. Preferably,thesegroups have
aswell ascustomerrequirements.
common manufacturingcharacteristics
Sometimesthe distribution channeldeterminessalesgroups.
During this task, the groups may have either a marketing or
manufacturingorientation,orboth. A marketingorientationmeansthe
items within a group are similar for the customer.A manufacturing
orientationmeansthe itemswithin agrouparesimilarformanufacturing
purposes.These groups m y or may not be the same. Sometimes

2
GroupedProdud ftofile
. Dollars
. Pi@es
. OtherLhib

Figure3.3 - Tosk3.01, Product-YolumeAnolysis

The Macro-Space-Plan

37

Thousands
40
35
30
25
2A
15
10
5
0

8&g&'1!$3ra1q" -lrf*f+,1f.::rr::at-t:ii':t,:-rilir:a*ia

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1 9 8 71 9 8 8 1 9 8 91 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7

Figure 3.4 - Soles HistorylForecost

operationspeopleadoptproduct groupsoriginally devisedby marketing.


This can complicatethe manufacturingprocessunnecessarily.
Once the groupshavebeendetermined,a groupedproductprofile
shouldbe prepared.Sucha profile takesthe form ofa rankedbar chart
showingsalesvolumefor eachgroup(fig. 3.5). Salesvolumeis measurable
in dollars,pieces,or other convenientunits. Severalprofiles showing
different units suchastons or palletsmav be helpful. A secondv-axis
on the chart showscumulativepercentage.
A more detailedproductprofile, Block 4, alsomight proveuseful.
There aresituationswhen a product group hassignificant salesvolume,
but individual products in the group have few (or no) sales.
The forecastsand P-V analysisbecomethe agreedupon basisfor
processdesign,spacerequirements,storagerequirements,and material
flow analysis.It is important to confirm the forecastsand other P-V
datawith managersand especiallywith the key decision-makers.
The P-V analysis can assist with the development of the
manufacturing strategy. High volume and low variety suggesthighspeed production line equipment. Low volume with high variety
suggestsa functionallayout.High varietyand a wide rangeofvolumes
suggestcellularmanufacturing.Seasonal
variationnecessitates
specific
strategiesfor inventory and capacity. The section on manufacturing

38

FacilitiesPlanning

strateg'ywill explore theseissuesmore fully.


A few short paragraphsor bullets can summarrze the findings
from the P-V analysisasshown in figure 3.3, Block 5.
Figures3.3through3.5illustratedeliverables
forthe CosmosProduct
Volume Task The following is its P-V summary,anotherdeliverable.

: Product-volume
summary
CosmosProducts
The 22 percent growth rate is expectedto slow somewhat during the
next three years.The 1997 forecastvolume of 35,000 units will be the
first faciliry planning horizon. Cosmoshas about 10,000line items in
the product database.
Theseareinl92 groupsaccordingto significant
feafuressuch as basematerial, color, and width. Thirty-four groups
represent80 percentofsales.Ofthe 192 groups,63 generatelessthan
$200 per month of income.We may have significantopportunity to
ntionalize the product offering or modify our inventory policy.
Existing process analysis
"Existing
Analysis,"involvestrackingworkproduct
Task 03.03,
Process
activity,or the sequences
in which outsideentitiesacton anorganization's
work product. For manufacturingspaceplans, the work product is
usuallya physicalproduct.In other spaceplans,the work product may
be intangible such as an information packet.In a hospital, the work
product may be a patient.
Existing processanalysisdocumentsthe processcurrently in place.
However,ifthe product is new,suchaprocessmay not exist,and a similar

5i)@

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ProduclGpup

Figure3.5 - Product Profile

The Macro-Space-Plan

39

product and processshouldbe studied.Ifboth product and processhave


no current benchmarks,an initial proposal for the processshould be
selected.The eady completion of this task createsa referencepoint for
processimprovementsand a spaceplan. The spaceplan designerusually
performs this task with assistance
from production people.This brings
detailedknowledgeof actualfloor operationsto the process.
Figure 3.6 showsthe procedure for analyzingthe existingprocess.
_
one or more flow processcharts are constructedduring ihis task.
Modified ANSI conventions(seefig. 3.7) areused in this charting
system,wherebysymbolsrepresentdifferent typesofevents that involve
a work product.
The operationsymbolmodifies the work product in a way that
advancesit towards a finished state. The transp,rt symborshows a
physicalmovementofthe work product-usually a significantdisrance,
such as ten feet or more. The bandling symbolrepresentssorting,
positioning, or some other short movement. Inspection checks for
quality. The delaysymbolrepresentssomething that halts the processfor
a time. Often, this is a work-in-processstaging.
Storageis a longer wait, usuallyin a designatedareawhere the
location and material have records. A short horizontal line at the
beginningofthe processshowsitemsfrom suppliersoutsidethe process
under study. vertical lines on the chart show the sequenceofivents.
Horizontal arrows show where severalitems of work product merge.
Text to the right of eachsymboldescribesthe event.These notesalso
might indicatetime,the numberofpeople,orother relevantinformation.
Processchartsand materialflow chartsshould not be confused.
There is a notabledifference.with processcharts,the symbolsarenot
locationsor workstationsor even machines.only the text has who,
what, and whereinformation.The linesdo nor representmovementof
the work product; instead,they representonly ^ ,.qu.rr." of events.
Constructing the chart(s) meansgathering initial information
beforehand;this is illustratedby Block 1 in figure 3.6. Some of this
comesfrom the P-vanalysis(Task03.02)and somefromlookingatthe
processand talking with knowledgeablepeople;
Block2 (fig. 3.6) of the procedurebeginsaddressingthe question
of how many and which products to analyze.It asksif theie areproduct
groups with similar processes.The answer should be basedon the
observationsand knowledgecurrently available.Somesituationsmay
presentthousandsor tens ofthousandsofproducts.
A definite answermay nor be possiblewithout extensiveanalysis,
w-hichis unnecessary
at this point. Suppose,for example,an injection
planning facility were being planned.The plant supplies67 molded

40

FacilitiesPlanning

itemsbut eachitem comesinany of 79 colors.This givesa total of 7,273


item, or SKU, numbers.However, the plant usesquick color change
equipmentand hashonedtheir skillsin colorchanges.For manufacturing
purposes,color is not a differentiator. The molders can make any given
of colorswithout difficulty. The 19
piecein any color or a succession
colors of eachpart would therefore be grouped asif they were a single
product. If suchgroupscannotbe identified, Block 3 is the next steP.
Block 3 asksif there arefewer than2i products. If there are,each

ProcessChart

Figure3.6 - Task 3.03, AnolyzeCurrent Process

The Macro-Space-Plan

41

item is charted. For more than 25, a charting sampleof 5 to 25 items


should be selected.This is Block 4 or Block 10. Product groups
identified in Block 2 are treated similarly, resulting in Block z. Simpty
substitute groups for individual products in the processdescribed.
There are severalmethods of preparing the charts. For a simple
process'personalobservationis enough.If computerizedroutings are
available,they may be used.A personalinterview with someonJwho
knows the processwell is sometimessatisfactory.usually, however, a
group approachshould be used.It capruresa wide rangeofopinion and
knowledgeand helpsbuild consensusfor the chart aswell asfor the later
spaceplans.
The group approach garhers the mosr knowledgeable people
_
available.Together, they construct a chart that follows the matirial or
item and records events that affect it. People often have difficulty
distinguishingthe product or item, workers, and machines.To help
with this, they should imagine they havebecomethe product and have
assumedits role. They should then report their experiences.
All elementsshould be recorded.Frequenth. there is an ,,official"
processdocumentedon routingsand a computeidatabase.
Then there
is the "unofficial" process-what really happens.unofficial erements
may include set downs, queues,and repairs. The group may wish to
include other information on the chart such as processtime or cost.
when this is complete, the group should make further commenrs,
particulady about which processelements are troublesome.some
additional questionsto bring out important processissuesare:
. Which elementsgeneratethe most quality defects?
. Which elementsare most difficuit to set up?
. Where are the largestinventory buildupsl
. Which elementshave the most scheduling difficulry?
. Which elementsdemandthe most labor?
The analystguides the group during this task by deciding:
. the level of detail for processelementsl
. the number of products to chart;
. whether and how to group products; and
. whether and how to group items that go into
a product.
To tally a count for eachf'?e ofelement, the percentageoftotal elements
is calculated.These could be charted on a bar or pie graph. Only the
operation symbol addsvalue.All other elementscontribute only cost or
time. The percentageofvalue-adding elementsis calledthe valueadded
index(vAI). vAIs frequentlyareintherangeof 20 to 30percent.Awenthougtrt-out processshould have a VAI of at least60 p-r.ent:
Next, a short summaryofthe resultsshouldbe pripared. The flow

42

FacilitiesPlanning

processcharts,elementprofiles,and written findings are deliverables.


The following is the Cosmosprocesssummary:

CosmosProducts:Existingprocesssummoty
The valueaddedindex (VAI) for roll productsis 13 percent'The VAI
for commercialproductsis 20 percent.Theseareboth quite low. There
area substantialnumberofopportunitiesto reducetransport'handling,
and storageelements.
In ro11products,the processesrequire specialequipment' This
equipmentis relativelysmall scale.Changeovertimes rangefrom five
to forty-five minutes.
For commercialproducts,processscaleis verysmallin the manual
Die-cutting operateson a medium scale.
operationsat pick-and-pee1.
Silk-screeninguseslarge-scalepresses.We may wish to investigate
for silk-screening.
smallerscaleprocesses
Slit-and-sheetoperationsall usea singleslitter that is quite fast.
Both commercialand roll productsusethe samematerial.Optimizing
the use of each roll savessignificant wastage.It seemsto dictate
continueduseof a common slit-and-sheet ^tea for all products.
The processcharts for Cosmos Products arc fairly simple. In
addition to the modified ANSI conventions,figure 3.7 showsthe process
for one of Cosmos'sroll products-a vinyl stock material for signs and
other decoration.Figure 3.8 chartsthe processfor a multi-color, die-cut
decal,atypicalproductfrom oneofCosmos'scommercialmarkets.These
decalsdecorateautomobilesand other outdoor equipment.This single
chart representsseveralthousanddistinct products.
it is often tempting to combine items,
With complexprocesses,
of the chart. Simplifying the chart,
the
complexity
reducing
thereby
however,is not the sameassimplifring the process.Much of the value
of a processchart is its accuraterepresentationof the full complexityof
a process.It is an important means of building consensusand
understandingfor a new spaceplan. A readablechart on large-scale
to conveythe full scopeand complexity
drafting papermaybe necessary
ofthe process.
lnventory analysis
"Inventory
Analysis,"is important for at leasttwo reasons.
Task 03.04,
First, inventory is usuallythe primary or secondarycapital consumer'
often vying with facilities for this dubious honor. Second,almost every
difficulty, problem,or defectin the businesssystemeventuallycomesto
rest in inventory. Inventory thus can be an indicator of the efficacy of
the businesssystem.

The Macro-Space-Plan

43

The inventory analysisusesfinancial and warehousedata. The


first stepin the analysisis to preparea chart that showshistorical annual
inventory turns, usually for five to ten years or even further if the
information is readily available.Inventory turns are the total inventory
from the firm's balancesheetdividedinto the total salesfor the previous
year.salesinformation usuallycomesfrom the incomestatemint. The
industryaveragefor the inventoryturn alsoshouldbe listedon the chart.
The inventoryturns for cosmos Productsareillustratedin figure 3.9.

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Figure3.7 - Tosk?.03, ProductProcessChort

44

FacilitiesPlanning

One or more inventoryprofileslike that in figure 3.10 shouldbe


prepared.These are pie charts or bar graphs that show the current
A production
distribution of inventory acrossseveralclassifications.
items,
raw
material,
purchased
ory
by
show
invent
classprofile should
(WIP).
profile
A product class
finished goods, and work-in-process
shows inventory by product or product group. Other classifications,
such ascustomerWq areusefulin specialsituations.
What does inventory analysisdetermine?Trends in inventory
historv can help size storaseareasfor the new facilitv or layout. Such

9 . ;

F H

ctcr!gge

Figure3.8 - ProcessChon for a Multi-color, Die-cut Decol

The Macro-Space-Plan

lnventory(Thousandsof Un ts)

InventoryTurns

30

30
"f

25

- - . - *
I

,t''

20

15
-:-.,r*r_,-

'2A

IndustryAverage
rurns

-/..

15

-7

10

10
+

lnv

llnitc

) Inv Turns
0
r98g

1990

199r

1992

1993

1994

1995

i996

1992

rgs"8

Figure 3.9 - lnventory HistorylForecost

Average InventoryIn
EquivalentStorage
Units

PurchasedN,4atls
237 7y.

Work-ln-Process
628 18%

ProductronStage

Figure3.10 - lnventory Analysis

45

46

FacilitiesPlanning

trends provide valuable input for the development of manufacturing


strategy.An unfavorabletrend might initiate a changein strategy.
The production classprofile alsocansuggestareasforimprovement.
High levelsof raw materialsor purchaseditems indicatea supplierand
purchasingissue.High levels of WIP indicate material movement'
scheduling,or focusissues.A high volume of finished goodsindicate
scheduling,sales,or marketingissues.The following is an exampleof
an inventory analysissummary:

CosmosProducts:lnventorysummary
Inventory volume hasincreasedsignificantlyduring the past six years.
This increaseis higher than salesgrowth' resultingin a gradualerosion
of the rurn ratio. Managementanticipatesthat, asa resultofthe facility
reengineeringproject,the numberof turnswill increase,and inventory
levelswill come down.
The inventoryprofileffig. 3.10] showsthe portion ofinventory at
each production stage.This indicates significant opportunities for
reducingfinished goodsand purchasedvinyl.

SpaceAnalysis
The spaceanalysisrevealscurrent spaceuse. The spacediagrams
indicatewhether the existinglayout is primarily functional,productfocused,or a mixture, as well as which products use line or cellular
productionandwhich usefunctionallayoutmodes.This spaceanalysis
alsohelps define layout cellslater in the project and can be a basisfor
spacerequirementcalculationsfor the new facility.
The spaceprofile also revealsimbalancesin spaceuse. Value60 percentor moreoftotal spaceusage
addedspacegenerallyrepresents
in the bestspaceplans.When value-addedspacefallsbelow30 percent,
therearesignificantopportunitiesfor improvement.Large amountsof
storagespacecanindicatea needfor more ceilularand line production,
or it may show a need for schedulingsystemrevisions.Using large
amounts of spacefor inspection or repair may indicate significant
quality issues.
When operationsfocusis an issue,adding a product spaceclass
spaceby product.Eachproductgroup has
diagramis useful.It classifies
a pattern or color. Spaceusedfor operationsfor a singleproduct group
will haveonly one color,while functionalspaceusedfor operationsfor
many product groupswill havemany colors.A product-focusedlayout
"messy''functionalspace
"clean"
product spacediagram and a
has a
diagram.A processfocused(functional)layout has the opposite.The
sectionon oDerationsfocusexplorestheseissuesin more detail.

The Macro-Space-Plan

47

The analystusuallyperformsTask 03.06,"SpaceAnalysis,',with


assistancefrom those who are familiar with operations.The analysis
beginswith a current drawing of the facility, preferablyone that shows
major departmentsand, perhaps,detailsof equipment and furniture
locations.The colors or patternsin figure 2.9 arethen used to code
marked-off spaceon this drawing.A tlpical resultis the existingspace
diagramfor cosmos Productsin figure 3.11. The areafor "".h ,p"..
classis totaled and a spaceclassprofile similar ro the pie chart labeled
"Existing
SpaceProfile" in figure 3.11 is prepared.

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Figure3.1I - ExistingSpoce Diogram for Cosmosproducts

48

FacilitiesPlanning

The collection and presentationof this information can alert


managersto keyissues.As with the otherinformation acquisitiontasks,
this is an important result of the spaceanalysis.The analystshould
encouragemanagersto begin askingsuchquestionsas:
' Why do we use 40 percent of our facility for storage,yet we
constantly fall short on customer delivery?
' Why are aislesin our facility so disjointed and chaotic?
' Why doesProductA require 18 percentof our facility s space
3 percentofour salesand0.5percentofour profit?
but only generates
The following is the spaceanalysissummaryfor CosmosProducts'

CosmosProducts:Existingspocesummory
I\{uch of our spaceappearsdisconnectedand scattered.The existing
spacediagram shows no clear,undedying plan. The proPortionsof
spaceuse are better than in many other industries, but could be
improved.Significantopporrunitiesmay existin reducingstorageand
traffic areas.Some parts of the plant have narrow aisles.Others have
overly wide aislesthat becomeWIP storageareas.
Organization analysis
"OrganizationAnalysis,"hasseveralpurposes.It can help
Task 03.06,
determinethe sizeof supportfacilitiessuchasrestroomsand cafeterias.
In office layouts,it may be essentialfor planning spacebasedon work
station requirements.It can help evaluatethe current and proposed
spaceplan. It can assistin formulating a manufacturingstrategyor in
betweenstrategyand practice.
identi4'ing inconsistencies
Organizationanalysisusuallybeginswith a completeand current
organizatronchartfrom the personneldepartment.It should include all
departments and employeesthat use the facility hdown to the lowest
levil. It alsomight includedepartmentsand peoplewho resideoutside
the facility but have a major impact on operations.An examplemight
be a corporate engineeringdepartment that designsprocessesand
oroducts but is in a remote location. Names and titles for each
productionworker arenot needed,but thereshouldbe an approximate
count for eachsupervisorand department.
Thesechartscanbecomequite largeand may haveto be plotted on
large-scaledrafting paper,but the chart should not be broken into small
sheets.This may be convenientfor the analystbut it disguisesthe true
nature of large, convoluted organizatrcns.Maximum impact is the aim.
Managersmust developand approvethe sftategicbasisof the spaceplan,
aswellasthe spaceplanitselfFigure3.12showshowto constructthechart.
After the organ\zationchart is complete, the current spaceplan

The Macro-Space-Plan

49

shouldbe examined.A continuous,enclosedline on the organization


chart shouldrepresenteachmajor areaon the layout,surroundingeach
position or departmentthat inhabits the layout areauntil all positions
are accountedfor.
Figure 3.12 illustratesspaceandorganization congruity. It shows
consistency between the current otganizatron and the current
arrangement.Peopleand positionsin the samedepartmentgenerally
occupycontiguousareas.

*
E
pQ I
: E6 E d

$ fts,*

ssgE

ON.E

sI
o-coO.

E8
ttr

AE
D O

=3

Figure3,I2 - Orgonizationol Anolysis

50

FacilitiesPlanning

howmanypeoplein the
A messydiagram(fig. 3.13)demonstrates
sameorganization units arescatteredthrough the facility. The diagram
by itself does not tell us whether the facility or the organization is
correct;it showsthat they are inconsistent.
ldentifying physical infrastructure
Physical infrastructure supports operations for all or most of the
product line but does not contribute directly to the process.For this

o
o)
d)

Figure3.13 - OrganizationalAnalysis

The Macro-Space-Plan

51

reason,physicalinfrastructureelementsdo not appearon the process


charts. Infrastructure seldom relates to a single product or product
group. Examples are: cafeteria,maintenancedepartment, heating,
ventilating and air conditioning space,and electricalswitchgearrooms.
Theseelementsarenecessary
for operationsandthey areessentialto the
spaceplan, yet they are easyto overlook.
A physicalinfrastructurechecklist(fig. 3.1a) helpscatalogthese
features.using this form involvessteppingthrough thelist with a small
group of knowledgeablepeople. Qrestions to ask are:
. Is eachitem in the current facility?
. Will a similar item be needed in the new facility or space
plan?
This list will be input for the cell definition task later in the project.

Human

Utllltlog
I
O
D
O
O
o
O
tr
D
a

Ouldmr Subshtion
lnd6r Bubtrtion3(s)
Switcho..r F6n
Molor Conkot C.nr.r
por.t
Udi.t.iruilibt.
1 1 5 v ,i . o h
2$v. l-;h
230v. 3-ih
.60v, 3-;n
16ot27rv , 3.gn

Intornal Tran3port

a P.r.onn.l I
lEmploym.nt Oflic
O Crcdii union
D Libfrry
a Tr.ininC Facilltils
O
a
I
O

'Jllili'r"-'o

a P.d.lrian
I P.ll.l Truct
a Fork TrucMncrol

t f,:f,3":,l::''

Cal.t.i.
v.ndino Ars
toungcTBrcat aoom
Etacutiv. Diniry F@

O Clnhl

H!.hh:
tr Erclrcis. Foom
O Jqging Trsck

O Nlturrl Lighi

OiEpalch

8ui[-ln Handtino:
O OY.rh.ed c;an.s
O F .ighl El.vetdr
O sc!|.
B Oth..:

trilai""r c"nt",
O
a
a
O
tr

a orinrDc wat.r
O C6li.C Tor.r

Ols$l.r Alrrn
Fi. Eqrass
sprintii' co.rot3
FL. 9r.tion
fo.nldolF.ttour Sh.[.t

Ptoductlon
a
O
O
D
a

o
Sl..m:
D Boibr B@m
D Oi.ribution sy3r.m
O
E
O
O
D

W.rhr@ms/Sho*ars

Sloreg.:
O Prck.elng Mil./lts
O lncid.;r.b

O Othor
D -

Extcrnal Transport

cont....c.
Foom.
Cu.tomd S.ilic!
Di.plry Rmm
Trainidc C.nt..

D
O
O
a
D
E
O
!
I

Fril Sidinc
f.il Dc*
Truck furnsr@nd
TrEr oet
Trwk Pr*ino
Ttu* Aal.
Truck Mii.t mno
Trrck Ae6./Es..!s
Ado AccslEoru..
lAdoPsdi4
U -

Siorrg.
O Arch
O S.cr
O Caiab0u./OiBptay
caia
E Micri
0 sury
surylur Furnitora & Equl!ilant

cuting c@hnl:
0 C.nt.l Finririon
O Chip S.pu.lion
D Chip Conv.yors

Utiliti.s:

o_-_-o-=--

Administratlon
a
tr
D
O

olhd

Hbiji[;:""iillL?,3'

a Edplry.. i.*ins

Fu.l Storag.
Fu.l O:r Phnr
Oil Tinks
Coal 9toreo.
oth.t

aSFc.
H.rtin!
O Intu..F.d H.ltinq O At Condiltontno
O ou.l cofl.crbt
O Loc.l Erhau.t
lO.n.r!l
V.ntilerion

Prducilon offic.g
Tool FooD
Toor Cdb
Cr!.n Roon
c.ntal Msinr.nidc.

oD_

|
I
I
I
I

o _
o---

ouality
a Ou:hryL.borlori.s
O Gio. Cllibr.lio.
O Fo'mulation
L!b.
D Dbc..p.nr Md.ilar

I E--_-

I
I
I
I
I

Development
I Product
I
I

o P,doryts shop

|I flo =5;::r:ir::,iri"
I
-|
lo_-.=--

Figure3.14 - Physicallnfrastructure Checklist

52

FacilitiesPlanning

Analyzing material flow


In this task,information from the processanalysisis superimposedon
the current spaceplan. The resulting diagramsbring attention to
materialmovementopportunities.They alsoindicatethe needfor more
cellularor line productionmodes.This taskalsoprovidesa baselinefor
measuringhandling improvementdue to the new facility or spaceplan.
Forthis task,theprocess
chartsandlayoutsdevelopedinTask03.03
and Task 03.06shouldbe usedto selectone or more items to represent
tlpical productsor parts.Lines and arrowsshouldtracemovementacross
the layout.The numberofmovesfor eachitem shouldbe countedandthe
movementdistancefor eachitem totaled.If the analysisis performedfor
many items, the resultsshouldbe averaged.Figure 3.15 is an example.It
andbacktracking.This faciJityhassignificant
showslong moves,crossovers,
improvement opportunity. Moves between organizationaldepartments
alsoindicate improvement oppornrnity.
Managers are often unaware of the severity of material flow
problems.This analysiswill documenttheseissuesin a dramatrcway.
It helps management take another step towards consensus,
understanding,and support.Other typesof materialflow diagramsare
alsousefulfor a more completepicture of the current materialflow.
Other issues
Other issuescanaffectthe layout.Theyusuallyarisein initial discussion
or during data acquisition.Someexamplesare:
' a schedulingsystemthat dictatesbatch movementthrough
the plant;
' difficultiesin hiring skilledpeoplethat maypush a company
toward automation;and
' external regulationssuch as those in the pharmaceutical
industry that may dictate functional operations.
Experienceandjudgmentarethe bestguides.At minimum, abrief
They may need significant analysis.
listing of theseissuesis necessary.

The strategicframework
An operationsstrateg'yis the dominant approachor philosophy that
guidesthe designof the manufacturingor businesssystem.Operations
and ultimate fate of an
strategiesoften determinethe competitiveness
organizatron Strategyleadsto structure,aswell asthe arrangementand
interconnectionof business
elements.Suchelementsmight bemachines,
information systems,people,or facilities.
Theyencompass
Strategiesextendoverlongperiods-years or decades.
permeatingeveryareaand aspectofthe
all the products and processes,

The Macro-Space-Plan

53

organization They affect and determine the behavior of individuals.


Operations strateg'y may be explicit or implicit. An explicit
strateg'yis stated,orally or in writing. Properly promulgated, it guides
decision-makers
in their dailywork, building a commonframeworkfor
both operationaland structuraldecisions.
An implicit strategy,by conrrast,is not written or publici zedas
such.It often resultsfrom commonunderstandingsaboutwhatmatters
for the business.These understandingsmay be rational or senseless,
effectiveor ineffective,consistentor contradictory.

0
C

o
o

il

c
o

o
o
o
o

tn tr
(-/ !

-F

o
o
o
c
o
a

l
-o
o
o_

F
o
@

.o

E
o
c

o
o
o
o
0

tt)

E
(,
o

o
o

6
z
3

(J
o
c
o
o

O o P
c"r
O
tn
t-

0
c

.9
o
o
o
O
c
o
o
(D
l t /

E
l ?

ra
- t
l

0 ) l o
, u ( J 6
L
r r

- 5 =
= =
!

Figure3.15 - ExistingMateriol FIow

:
!
g

54

FacilitiesPlanning

An implicit strategyis determinedonly by watching patternsof


decisionsand behaviorover time. For example,has the organization
evolvedalong functionalrather than product lines?Is new equipment
Is the schedulingsystem
predominantly high-speedand large-scale?
batch-oriented?Even the absenceofpatterns is a pattern.
Top managers
for operationsstrateg'y.
Managementis responsible
but
they cannot
can abdicatethe task of enunciatingthat strateg/,
relinquishresponsibilityfor the result.
Determining the framework of an organization'soperations
strateg'vhinges on the identification of heymanufacturingtasks,focus
and an operations
strateg!sumlnar!(or statement).
opportunities,
Key manufacturing tasks and focus opportunities
The design of a manufacturingplant or businessis like any other
engineeringdesign. It optimizes performanceon some dimensions,
while reducingoptimization on others.The businessenvironmentand
availabletechnologvplacelimits on the design.
This has an analogyin aircraft design.Aerospaceengineerscan
designan aircraftthat flies at Mach 3.0 or one that carries350 people.
They candesignan aircraftthat circlesthe globeon a few hundredgallons
of fuel or one that lands on a 500-foot runway. However, they cannot
designan aircraftthat doesall ofthe above.In the 1960sSecretaryof
Defense Robert McNamara tried to buy such a multi-puqposeaircraft
calledthe TFX. This aircraft did not achievemany goals.
Yet, manvmanagers
demandfactoriesthat producemanyproducts
quickly for manv customers,at the highestquality and the lowestcost
with output changingfrom day to day. Such a factory lacks focus.A
businessoperationrarelyperformswell on more than two or three of
thesekey dimensions.An unfocusedfactoryhastoo many tasksor too
manyproductsor too manyprocesstechnologiesor too many disparate
customers.It is often too largefor effectivemanagement.Such afactory
rarelyperforms any taskwell.
Manufacturing focus concernsthe organizationof products and
In the early7970s,Wickham Skinnerreco$nizedthat large
processes.
factorieswith manyproductsusuallyperformedpoorly. Severalfactors
contribute to this effect:
1. A wider range of products usually brings more variery in the
process.This requiresgreater complexity in handling, storage,
tooling, changeovers,
andskill requirements.It affectsalmostevery
facet ofoperations.
2. Awider rangeofproductsoften mustservedisparatecustomersand

The Macro-Space-Plan

55

markets. One market may regard delivery speedas a top priority


while another demands quality or customization. Such varied
market criteriaincreasethe diffi cultyfor manufacturingand decrease
effectiveness.

3 . Economiesof scaleare the usual rationalefor increasingfactory


size.Economy of scalerefersto the increasingefficiencyasplanti
and prorcesses
grow in sizeandoutput. The ideawaspopularizedby
Henry Ford'smassproductionmethods.Wickham Skinnercoined
the term "dis-economiesofscale."Increasingscalebringssuchdiseconomiesas increasedcoordinationeffort, isolation of specialty
departments,and isolation from customers.As a factorygrows
beyond 300 to 500 persons,the dis-economiesof scale soon
overcomethe economies.
4. Largerfactorieshavegreaterdistancesbetweendepartments.This
increases
materialhandling costsand exacerbates
the isolationand
coordinationdiffi culties.
5. unfocusedfactoriesoften haveextensivevefticalintegration.vertical
integration with a wider product range requiresmore disparate
processes.
This requiresfar more technicalmasterythan a more
focusedoperation.
A focused factory strives for a narrower range of products,
customers,or processes.
The resultis a factory that is smallerand has
few key manufacturing tasks.
In recentyears,Skinner'sconceptofthe focusedfactoryhasbeen
extended. Focus is an issue when organizing any combination of
products,technology,and people.It appliesto serviceoperations,to
factories,andto departmentswithin the factory.It appliesto workstations
within eachdepartment.The issueis: by what criteria shall we divide
our space,people,and machinesinto manageableunits?
There areseveralpossible
responses.
Someexamplesare:products,
processes,markets, customers, geographic areas, and support
requirements.For a morecompletediscussionofoperationsfocus,refer
to the first chapter of the Handbook of commercial and Industrial
Faci li ties M anagement.
For the macro-space-planof a factorfi the focus choice usually
narrowsto productorprocess.Aproduct-focusedplant groupsoperations
into departmentsthat focuson products.Each departmentmust have
all equipment and skills for all operationt, y.t only processa single

56

FacilitiesPlanning

product. This eliminateschangeoversand reducescoordination and


schedulingproblems.
A processfocus allows each department to specializein their
particularprocessor craft.It is a common arrangementin manyplants,
probably taken from the medieval craft guilds.
Many of the perceivedadvantagesof processfocus are elusivein
spaceplans and organizationsdo
practice,although process-focused
work well in certain, specializedsituations.On the whole, productfocused space plans are preferred becausethey have many more
advantages.Designersshould aim for the highest degreeof product
focus attainable, using processfocus only when exotic skills and large
The areasin which product focushas
s makeit necessary.
scaleprocesse
advantagesinclude: cost control, coordination, material flow,
managementand supervision,equipmentutilization' knowledgeand
skills,responsetime, flexibility, quality, and organization.
Product focus simplifies cost control becauseit pulls together the
sameor similar products and convertsmany indirect coststo direct.
Elaborate tracking and allocation schemesare often unnecessary.
operation must addressa wider product
Becausea process-focused
variet!, allocation of indirect costsis more difficult.
Product focussimplifiesthe coordinationof sequentialprocesses.
Operationsare in small areas,reducingthe complicationsof distance
and isolation and simplifying personal communication between
operations.Becausethe product rangeis narrow' only a smallvarietyof
problemsand issueswill arise.Productfocusoften usessimplermethods
for production control suchas Kanbanand direct link. In conjunction
with MRP-type systems,it reducesthe number of work centersthe
systemschedules.
When comparedto processfocus,materialflow reductionsof 80
to 95 percentare common for product-focusedoperations.There are
fewer interdepartmental moves, and distancesare shorter. Variable
flow paths often becomefixed upon conversionto product focus.This
allowsthe useof simplerhandling devices,suchas conveyors'or even
spaceplansoften requireexpensive
manualhandling. Process-focused
or
even more expensivefork trucks.
systems
vehicle
guided
automatic
range
and better communication,
Becauseof the smallerproduct
product focus simplifies management.Product-focusedcells often
require little or no management becausethey naturally encourage
teamwork. Product focus achievesthe shallower org nrzationsnow in
vogue.More emphasisis placedon productsand customersratherthan
departmentalloyalties.
In theory,productfocususesmoreequipmentfor the sameoutput

The Macro-Space-Plan

57

than process focus. However, firms seldom realize the theoretical


utilization advantageofprocessfocusbecauseofthe complexscheduling
required. In practice, there are severalapproachesto mitigate the
apparentunder-utilizationof product focus.One way is to designcells
that maximize the useof major equipmentwhile sacrificingusageon
lessexpensiveperipheralequipment.
Product focus requires a wider range of employee skills and
knowledge.This mayplacelargetrainingburdenson firms that convert
from processfocus.However, the teamwork and job enrichmentthat
result reducesturnover. Processfocus, on the other hand, allows
concentrationon processskills, and highly complex and technical
processes
sometimesneed this concentration.
Process-focused
organizationstlpically haveverylong throughput
times. As a result,they cannot respondquickly to changesin product
mix, volume, or specialrequirements.Many process-focused
plants
counter this with extensiveinventories, even though inventory is
expensiveand rarelyreduces
the responsetime on customizedproducts.
Productfocusallowsfirms to eliminatefinished-goodsinventorywhile
improving delivery performanceand reliability.
Processfocusis more flexible,at leastin theory.However,several
meansexistto achievegood flexibility in product-focusedlayouts.For
example,the useof small-scale,mobile equipmentcan allow product
focusedcellsto be formed,disassembled,
and re-formednewproducts.
Product focusgenerallyachieveshigh quality levels.This results
from quick feedback,good communication, easycoordination, and
high commitment. Processfocussometimesmayhaveaqualityadv^nt^ge
for complexor technicalprocesses.
Productfocusis mostcompatiblewith newerapproaches
basedon
teamwork and empowerment.Processfocuslendsitself to traditional
commandand control managementstyles,often requiringa substantial
hierarchyto dealwith increasedcoordinationand complexiry.
The conceptsoffocus and keymanufacturingtasksareinterrelated.
Focusidentifiesthe most important dimensionsand optimizesthem.
The businessaddresses
a narrowermarket, but addresses
it very well.
The key manufacturingtasksstatewhat manufacturing must do well to
survive in the market.
Processelementsarethe equipment,people,and operationsthat add
valueto aproduct.They direcdytransformmaterials,information, andparts.
O perati ons strategy sum m ary
A sound operations strategy addressesfour areas:mission,?rlcess,
i nfr astruct ure, andfa ci I i ties (physical infrastructure). The site mission

58

FacilitiesPlanning

states, in a few paragraphs,the purpose of the site. It identifies


customers, products, and processes.It defines one to three key
in the marketplace.
manufacturingtasksthat directly correlateto success
The mission statementalso might addressimportant externalissues
suchasenvironmentalpolicy.The remainderof the operationsstrateg'y
summary flows from the mission statement.It stateshow the firm
intends to achievethe key manufacfuringtasks.
Infrastructure supportsthe processbut doesnot directly affect the
product.Non-physicalinfrastructurecoversa wide varietyof elements.
It refersto peopleand information systems.Examplesare:scheduling
systems,training operations,personneldepartments,and tool design
capability.
Physicalinfrastructure,is tangible and is generallysynonymous
with facilities. Buildings, utility systems,roads, and docks are not
directly in the processstream;rather, they support all processes.
eachmajor topic at a policy level.Few
A good summaryaddresses
companieshaveastrategysummarysufficientfor facility designpurposes.
For suchpurposes,thoseelementsof strategyand structurethat relate
to facilitiesneed to be emphasized.For example,compensationsystems
havemajor effectson org anizatronalbehaviorbut little consequencefor
the facility plan.
Figure 3.16 providesa structurefor a strategystatement.Such a
statementnormallyconsistsofone to fourpagessummarizingthefirm's
intentions for eachstructuralelement.Figure 3.77 is the statementfor
CosmosProducts.
the facilitiesplanner
The absence
ofan effectivesummarypresents
with difficult options:
'proceed without a summary;
'guide managementasthey developa stratery;
' write a summarybasedon an idea of what it should say;or
' write a summarybasedon what probablywill happen.
Development ofa strategysummaryrelieson all ofthe information
collectedduring the first task group. Even this may be insufficientfor
a completestatement.Strategicdevelopmentis a high-level task that
almost everyaspectof the business.
encompasses
ldentifying operations strategy
"Identi$'Operations
Figure3.18is theprocedurediagramforTask03.10,
Strategy."Block 1 ofthe diagrambeginswith the assemblyofinformation
in a form suitable for a report or presentation.The operationsstrateg))
outline,Block 2, is alsoneeded.
Block 3, the current position summary, shows the company's

The Macro-Space-Plan

59

presentstatus.A managementteam should assistwith this step or at


leastconcurthat the summaryreflectsthe company'scurrentsifuation.
Blocks4through 6 determinemanagement's
readiness
forchange.
It is not enough for management,or certainindividuals,to expressa
need for change.The managementteam also must be capableof
carryingthrough with change.The success
of a spaceplan dependson
the organization'sability to supportit. For example,a cellularspaceplan
that dependson kanbanproduction control and small lot sizesneeds

TechTools
strategyandstructure
Keylssues
2.5 Qulity Capability
2.6 T$hnology Level

1.0 Site Mission


L l SiteFoils

.1.2 Products
' 1.3 Maikets
. Volus
' Gaglaphy
1.4 Multi-Site Integration
1.5 Ky Mmufacturing Tmks
1.6 Extemal StrategicIssues
1.7 Political
1.8 Enviromental
I.9 Comunity Involvement

-ll

-t
2.0 Process
2.1 Production
Mode(s)
.Prcject
. Fuclional
.Cellula
. Toyota
. Line
. Continuou
2.2 Proess

Scale

2.3 Setup/Lot Size


2.4

Capacity
. tad
.Tnck
' lag
. R*de

^-N-IW7\
1]\ \All\Z
--

- Z1\

3.0 Infrastructure
3.1 QualityApproach
. Quality Poli@
. qdity
at Sou@
3.2

Persomel Policies
. Tshtril Skill Depth
. Tohniel Skill B@dth
. Ifferpmnal Skills
. Employmnt Sffily
. CompeNtion
. Tnidng
'PerfomeMffircnt
. Safety
. Erhi6

3.3 Organization
. Fwtional
. Producl
. Othq
. Dpth

Structure

3.4 Orgmiation
.Exploitiv
.B@rcntic
. Consultatiw
. Pdicipativ

Style

3.6 Production Control


. Mrke{coiders
, Makb-tcstck
.Physicallink
. Br@dn
. Keban
. MRP
. Reorlcr Point
3.7 SupplierPolicies
. SlEtiooc.iteria
. Single / Multiple Soltffi
. Conm Time HoriaN
. Scheduliry Appr@h
. ShippitrgPolici6

@
4.0 Facilities
4.1 Site Focus
. Prcduct
.Pffi
. I{arket
. Cpgnphic
. Other

3.5 Acounting Policies


.Pffi
. J& C61itrg
. Aclivity-Based A@uilirg
. Overhqd Alletion
. Deision Critsia
. ItuowledgSaelnvestreots
.INqbryAwting

4.2

Site Ircation

4.3 Tmsportation

& Size
Accss

4.4 Utility Systems


4.5 Expmsion Policies
4.6 Nil Product Flexibility
4.7 New Proess Fluibility
4.8 Resle / DisposalPolicy
4.9 Haadous Waste Policy
4. I 0 Endromental Issues

Figure3.f6 - Strotegy ond Structure Key lssues

60

FacilitiesPlanning

rapid setup techniques and participative management.Management


may not have the wherewithal to adopt thesetechniques.
If managementhasan acceptablestrateg'ysumma{I, this summary
shouldbe usedin subsequent
spaceplanwork. Ifmanagementexpresses
a desirefor operationsstrategiesdifferent from current practices,their
readinessto makerequiredchangesmustbe evaluated.This is a difficult
and sensitivedecisionthat requiresyearsofexperiencein institutional
change.Designerswho lack such experienceshould seekcounselfrom
the managementteam or others in the organization.

Mlsslon

Sib #l ha Mo di$ind missiw @cpondilg


to our &o mjor tr8k6.
The* e:
Roll Product!- Supply qr ostoren with the
largd vriety of rcll prcdu* in or irdusry wilh
24-hour ship@t atd quality withh lhe top 20% in
our iidusry.
Produs- Supply high quality
Comercid
vinyl dcals ad ap,plqua b small dd nrdim sia
|mufamrcF.
OrigiMlity dd quality of artistic
d6ign is il itrtcgral pd of dr prcdud mix. We
expd b ship to'/o ofall orders wilhin twe{Ekr
at a reliability of 98ol.. Our products will @fom
to rEogEzad qualfty sbrdards.
At Cm
w q!@t to be a good ngighbor a|d
integnl pa of or muity.
Com6 shold b
lilM
6. sdbhctory mployers.

Procass
will striv for a
Roll Ploducte Cffic
produd-f@sod opcdion with the dctprid of
prinBry slittDg *trich seruc both Roll and
Cmial
opcroim. we will h.w a mix of large
in G@p T@tmlo$/
ard $utl slc cquipM
@lls. Rapd stup i5 a importart prioity for
equipdd slti@ ald opBlio. We will attqnpt
60% atd
d avFage cquipMt utiliation bwq
85%. we will add pr(Bs eprcity 6-12 mths
ahad of daMnd. Pffis
should harc a M
gEduly to
gability iDdsx of L4. We wil ffi
puitbd they re
highr bh@logj/ p|ffi
@NisM wifi dr f{w ffitcgy, @st justified ad
haw ad.q@ spport.
Producte Cm6
will triw for
Co||ercid
ptodud-foq8 witlin thc limits st by plrc
and
requimts.
This my diclate
mviourroal
physical *pmio
bawo silkscming ad
subsequd opcdi@. Prinary slitring nd sbet
cunirg wiU |@in p|lss
f@used. Our prlss
scale will be a mix of largc aDdsnEll @cpordmg
to th ordcr mix. Rapil stup is d important
priority o the ruller *ale, lw volme pre.
We will attqnpt o arcnge utili*io
of 807e90%

priffi
m larg$scale silks|q
aDd50olc?0% d
dlFi equipMt. We will add snBll-scale equipmot
in advd@ of del@d dd brgFscale equipmd
wfio dqMnd is prc@. All cquipM
will haw a
midmm oapability index of 1.4. we will strive for
fte laK sd highd t4hDly
lwel on large{ca.le
silksHing.

Intraslructure
C('ffi
will triw for a produd.focue4
shallw, multatiw
ard infonna.l orgeiz*i@. We
will gradully move Mrds
a ptticipatire
ffi+aed
org&i4i@
ovc the M five yec.
Our Ming
s)ffi
shqld a@mmodat
aciivity-bded 6ting using @st &iveB for
overlsd allstio.
Wc will u* prcj* mirg for
c@ial
work ud p|1ss @sting for roll
products. We @ogniz the limitatioE of
omtiooal
mmtirg
systans for maagmt
dsisic.
Prcduaio ontrol will us MRP-ty?
produ* dd supplieN.
schcdrli4 for mcial
We *i[ u$ krnbd s]ffi
for inbrul schcduling
produd will b
of 6ll opediG.
Cfficial
sidly mkefrrder.
Roll prodrd will u$ strEll
6"i"hd goods st@ls for the highct volw
E0o/oof
lim itans. Tlrc mining
20% of lw-volme rcll
produc wiu b6 trEde ro or&r. Unusually large
or&rs ofrcll pJoduG will have c{mdd deliverid
ald be rade to or&r.
At Cffi
we will trirc br l@g-bm
reldidBhip! wilh rcliable $ppli6.
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aDd @$ in tld order.
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requic only limired capability for nw prcduc{s
and prms.
Significa*ly difrpr@t prws,
such a a esting openrioo" sbotrld hare a separate
sib.

Figure3.17 - Physicollnfrastructure Stdternent

The Macro-Space-Plan

61

An organizationmay not want changeor may not be positioned


for change.If so, the operationsstrateg.y
summaryshouldidentify the
approachthat is most likely to be adoptedin practice.
If the organizatron desiresand is ready for significant change,
initiating a strategicdebateis a good idea.This debateshouldconclude
with a proposedoperationsstrategJsummarythat will help the space
plan designercarryout the new strategyduring the facilitiesplan.

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Figure3. I 8 - Tosk 3.10, ldentify Operotions Strotegy d Structure

62

FacilitiesPlanning

One sub-task of Task 03.10 is the identification of focus


opportunities. The conceptoffocus appliesto spaceplans, organi.zatron
,t-rrr.tur"r, and other elements of the enterprise. Developing an
appropriate strategy for facility planning means identifying the most
uppropriut. focus-for the facilities at each level. This is not a final
unalyris. Rather, it guides and gives preferred directions to space
planners as they proceedwith their work.
The flo- piocesschartsfrom Task 03.03 can help sort this out'
Figure 3.19 showsthe processchartsfor the manufactureof cosmetic

m l
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Figure3.19 - Task?,03, ProductProcessChort

The Macro-Space-Plan

63

containers.The principal operationsare injection molding, assembly,


transferprinting, and packaging.
There are four basiccontainers.Each has varietiesof color and
print. Becausecolor and print changeovers
arefast and easy,the plant
considersonly containerstylesdifferent products.
Processelementsusuallytouchthe product.At CosmosProducts,
peopleassemble,
lathesturn, and molding machinesconvertpowdered
resin to solid components.The selection,arrangement,and operation
of these and similar elementsare part of processdesign. A purely
processfocus would group the molding machinesinto a molding
department,printing into a print department,and assemblyinto an
assemblydepartment.Each departmentwould perform operationson
all four products.EnvelopeA showshow assemblyoperationsmight fit
into an assemblydepartment.
Envelope B showshow all operationsfor a single product would
be coordinated.
Sometimesfocusing purely on product is impractical. Instead,
group technologycellsmight be used,wherebya seriesof operationsfor
severalproductstakesplacein a singlecell. EnvelopeC showshow these
operationsmight be coordinated.
Various mixed approachesare common. For example,process
focusmight be usedfor receiving,shipping,and molding, while other
operationsmight havea product focus.
Figure 3.20 shows the proceduresfor identifying focus
opportunities.The first is preparationofprocesschartsfor all products.
This maybe doneon paper,or, forlarge numbersofproducts,forms of
computer analysiscan be used.
Next, productsthat are candidatesfor a plant-within-plant are
identified. These would have enough volume to justi$r separate
equipment,people,andinfrastrucrure.Any suchproductsshouldbe set
asideand removedfrom further consideration.A plant-within-plant
(PWP) is a self-containedproductionfacilitywithin the wallsof a larger
facility. Ideally, a PWP is completely independent with its own
supporting infrastructure.
We then searchfor products(or components)that have similar
operation "strings"-troups of operations that can use the same
equipment, the samepeople,and perhapsthe sametooling. Is there
adequatevolume to justiS, dedicatingequipment,people,space,and
infrastructureto this group?If so, theseproductsor componentsmust
be removed from further consideration and assignedto a group
technology(GT) cell.
This procedurecontinuesuntil the only remainingproductsand

64

FacilitiesPlanning

operationsare thosetoo small and varied for dedicatedplants or GT


cells are then developedfor these items. An
cells. Process-focused
alternativeis a job-shop departmentsimilar to a prototype shop.
Some space plans involve a great number of products and
components,perhapsthousandsor tensofthousands.In thesesituations,
practicalitymay not allow a detailedanalysisat this point in the macro-

Slngle Protucts \
th Adeou.te Volum

Process

Scale I

A.o

Thefe

'Slrlngs'0f

Slmila.

Figure3.20 -Proceduresfor ldentifying FocusOpportunities

The Macro-Space-Plan

65

space-planproject. The objective for this sub-task is to identi$'


opportunities,not to make decisions.
For CosmosProducts,the two distinct productlines-roll products
and commercial products-separated naturally into focused factories.
However, the slit-and-sheetoperationservedboth product lines. Many
log rolls, when slit, becamestock for both product lines. The narrow
widths necessaryfor roll products are a natural byproduct of slitting for
the wider commercial items. Maintenance, quality, and severalother
functions cannotbe split economically.For this reason,the designteam's
aim becametwo semi-focusedfactorieswithin the same facility, i.e.,
plants-within-plant. Severalfunctionalareasserveboth focusedfactories.
Roll productoperationslend themselveswell to GT cells.However,
the large number of items precludesa complete GT analysisat the
macro-space-plan
level.The teamthereforedevelopeda compositecell
for roll operations,with the intention of analyzingtheprocessin greater
detail and designingGT sub-cellsat the next designlevel.
In commercialproducts,the silk-screenoperationscall for tight
environmentalcontrol.In addition, the existingsilk-screenpressesuse
large-scale,high-technologyequipment.The team decidedto put two
compositecellsin the commercialarea.The first compositecellwould
include silk-screen and any related operations in the controlled
environment. A secondcompositecell would have post-silk-screen
operations such as thermal die-cut, pick-and-peel, and packaging.
These smaller-scale
processes
would be arrangedinto GT cells.
Designing the space plan
With adequateinformation and an agreed-uponstrateg-y,the actual
spaceplan can be designed.The activity to this point may have
consumedas much as half of the time and resourcesavailableto the
project. Nevertheless,these expenditureswere good investments.
Managers from all areashave new perspectives.The factual data has
tempered emotions. As the spaceplans develop, debate should be
constructiveand rational.The final selectionwill enjoy wide support
thanks to management'sbroaderunderstandingof both businessand
technicalissues.
Defining space plan cells and processes
Task03.11,orthe definitionofspaceplanningunits
(SPUs),is the most
fundamentaland important task in spaceplanning. It establishesthe
organizationof spaceand must fit with a correspondingorg anizationof
peopleand processes.
Moreover, all subsequentwork flows from this
task. An omission or error invalidatesall of the work that follows.

66

FacilitiesPlanning

A procedurechart for this taskis in figure 3.21. Blocks 1 through


3 call for assembling deliverablesfrom all previous tasks. Block 4
reviewsoperationsstrategy.If the strategystatementfavors a processfocused(functional)spaceplan,plannersshouldproceedto Block5 and
skip Blocks 11 through 23.
In Block 5, functional and support cells for the spaceplan are
identified by examining the cell definition summary (fig. 3.22), the
spaceanalysis,the infrastructurechecklist,the processcharts,and the

@"r:il* @gi;l
@i:$*ii: Pf*treu*

Figure3.21 - Tosk3. I I, DefineSPUsd Processes

The Macro-Space-Plan

67

organizairon chart. We look for activities, people, or equipment that


will require space.For eachsuch item, a cell could be defined, or the
item could be combinedwith others into an SPU. Generally.ren to
thirty SPUs should be identified
In the SPU definition summaV, the spaceplanners should
identiSreach SPU with a name and number and show those that are
included. The spaceplanner may also specifyexclusions.The columns

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Figure3.22 - Cell Definition Summary

68

FacilitiesPlanning

that showthe sourceof the celldefinitionshouldbe examined(e.g.,does


this activity show up on the organizationchart, processchart, or both?).
If the operationsstrategysummarycalls for a product-focused
spaceplan (line, cellular, or Toyota), support cells still need to be
identified. However, a product-focusedspaceplan may absorbmany
indirect activitieswithin the product-focusedcells.For example,in an
cellseachhad one ofseven
electronicsplant, assembly-integrate-test
testengineers,and processengineerssatin
major products.Schedulers,
the cells. A subsequentorganizationrealignment had these people
report to cell managersrather than functional managers.
If the plan's strategycalls for product focus, planners should
oroceed to Block 11 to decide whether a current cell definition is
iatisfactory. If the factory has previously operated with productfocusedcells, rearrangingthem may be all that is needed.Suitable
"IdentiS,
definitions may have been developedduring Task 03.10,
Focus Opportunities." Now, additional product-focusedcells should
be defined.If the current definition is unsatisfactory,the next step is
Block 13.
For a product-focusedspaceplan,the plannercandefineproductfocusedcells at the macro- or micro-level.Defining work cellsat the
macro-levelis satisfactoryif the likely result is a manageablenumber
and if the effort reouiredis reasonable.Sometimesthis is not the case.
For example,an adiquatedefinition might requirean extensivegroup
technologyanalysis,
which is inappropriateat the macro-level.Or there
might be many smallcellsthat aredifficult to arrange.If so,the planner
should considerusing one or more compositecel1s.
A compositecell consistsof severalsmallercells.In the Cosmos
Products example,post-screenoperationsand roll operationslend
themselvesto cellularmanufacture.Designingthe individual cellsand
deciding which products go in them is a prolonged, detailed, and
difficult taskthat, in this case, hasbeenpostponeduntil the next design
level.Therefore,post-screenoperationsand roll operationshavebeen
A group
defined ascompositecells.This wasnot absolutelynecessary.
technologyanalysismight havebeenconductedat this macro-levelto
identify families and define the subcells.
If composite cells are not used at the macro-level,Blocks 14
through 16 arethe next step.Plannersevaluatethe numberofproducts
and selectan appropriateanalysistool. For a smallnumberofproducts,
twenfy or less,the plannersshouldgo to Block 20, chart the processfor
each,and then usethe processchartsin Blocks 18 and 19. In Block 18,
the spaceplanneridentifiespreliminarypart families;in Block 19, the
cellsare defined.

The Macro-Space-Plan

69

For a moderatenumberofproducts,lessthan 100 but more than


twenfy, production flow analysisis used.The processthen movesto
Block 18 for defining product familiesand Block 19 for defining the
correspondingcells.
(more than 100) will probably require a
_ Y""y products
classificationand coding analysis.This is an extensiveundertakingbut
one with significantbenefits.
After defining SPUs, it is time ro review the processesfor
improvement. The processanalysisat this level may be general.
Examining the processfurther maybe done during the detailingof the
layout at the micro-level.
In Block 7, the space planner determines key equipment
requirements.This is not alwaysa completelist; rather, it identifies
equipment that occupiessignificant spaceor needssignificant
1aj9r
funding. In Block 8, capaciryis checked. Normally, this lapaciry
analysisis confined to key equipmentor known bottlenecks.piocess
charts for anysignificantprocessrevisionsand a list of key equipment
might alsobe helpful.
When complete, a cell definition summary is in place. Cell
definition should include everyspaceor featurenecessary
ior the ner"
plant. It is not alwaysan elaboratedocument.Everyoneinvolvedshould
know what eachSPU conrainsand what it will not contain.These are
the building blocksfor the new layout.
Becausecell definition is so crucial ro the remaining activities,
plannersshouldcirculateit widely for commenrand input. In addition,
decision-makers
must approveitbefore spaceplanningcango forward.

Cosmoscell and processdefinition


Part of the cell definition for cosmos Productsis illustratedin figure
3.22.The operationalcellscomedirectlyfrom the focusstudy ofrask
03.11. other cellsarederivedfrom the existingprocess.h"rt, and the
physical infrastructure checklist.
For example,SPU 01 is silk-screenoperations.It includes silkscreenprinting, drlang, baking, and humidifying and excludesscreen
preparationand subsequentoperations.The team createdthis sPU from
the existing spacediagram and alsofrom the existingprocesschart.
Cell04 is post-screenoperations.It includesthermal die-cutting,
pick-and-peel, masking, labeling, inspection, and packaging. Th1
existingspaceplan had no areawith this label.This spu was derived
from the processchartsand the strategystatement.
Figure 3.23 is the revisedprocesssheetfor cosmos'smulti-color
commercialfamily of products.comparing this illustrarion to figure

70

FacilitiesPlanning

3.8 revealsthat the valueaddedindex (VAI) hasincreasedfrom 0.20 to


0.30. The number of elements has decreasedfrom 78 to 50.
Improvementsofthis magnitude(30 to 50 percent)arenot uncommon
in layout-reengineeringprojects.The dotted envelopesin figure 3'23
representthe cells where the processactivities occur. Most of the

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Figure 3.23 - Revised Process For Multi-Color Die Cut Product

The Macro-Space-Plan

71

processimprovementsat cosmos arefrom the eliminationoftransport,


storage'and delay elements,which are renderedunnecessarywhen
processes
occur in the samelocation.This is the power of a productfocusedspaceplan.
Materialflow analysis
In Task 03.12,the analystusesinformationgatheredearlierto calculate
materialflow berweeneachcombinationof SPU pairs.Additional data
may be neededfor this calculationto establishthe affinitiesassociated
with material flow. Figure 3.24 showsthe procedurefor this analysis.
In manufacturing, material flow is usually an important factor in
layout. For non-manufacturingspaceplans,materialho* -"y not be
relevant,and this task probablywill not apply.Berweenthe extremes,
the relative importance of material flow for establishingaffinities will
vary considerably.
Material flowvaluesareone of two inputs for affinitv develooment.
As spaceplandesignprogresses
andseveraloptionsareunderconsideration,
the material flow analysiscan assistin evaluatingtheseoptions. Later,
flow calculationsprovide a basisfor handling tyri.- design.
From the P-Vsummary,processcharrsand observaiion(Block 1)
materials are classified into manageablegroups (Block 2). This
classificationassistsin developinga common unit for measuringflow,
the equivalentflow unit (EFU). A classificationsummaryis one of the
deliverablesfor Task 03.72.
Usually these groups number less than twenty-five. They are
basedon material-handlingcharacteristics.
strucruraishapesmight be
one group in a metal-working factory. It would include steel and
aluminum shapesthat areten to twenty feet in length. Another group
might be small parts-items defined aslessthan four ounces"ttd l.tt
than three incheson any dimension.
In Block 3 of the procedure,plannerschoosean EFU. This is a
two-part measure:material-unitsper time-unit suchaspailetsper day
(metalworking); cartons per hour (grocery distributionj; tor* p* d,iy
(steelfoundry); or totesper day (electronics).
When there is one type of material,this step is easy.Ituses the
normal unit such astons or pieces.such situationr "r. rare, however.
Most layoutsdealwith a wide rangeof materialmovement.
Materials also may change form. A sheet metal cabinet for
computersbeginsasa flat sheetthat is difficult to handle.cutting and
forming increasesthe difficulry and bulk by an order of magnilude.
Paint makes it delicateand susceptibleto damage.packagiirgthen
allows it to be nestedand stacked,rendering it lesi delicate."

72

FacilitiesPlanning

Figure 3.25 illustratesthese changesin a quantified schematic


The linesrepresentmovement,and theirwidth represents
diagram.
flow
the flow rate in equivalentpallets per week. The flow rate in units per
week is constantthroughoutthe process.However,the changein size,
features, delicacy, and packaging changesthe equivalent flow as it
movesfrom one ooerationto the next.

5
Oala Source
. ProcessChafrs
. P-V Oata
MRP Databaae
. RoutingOataba6e
. Obaervation
. Handlin0Records
. Work Sampling
. Schedul Estimates
. opinion

Extaol Data

Figure3.24 -Task3.l2, AnalyzeMaterial Flow

The Macro-Space-Plan

73

The sourceof data is determinedin Block 4 of Fig. 3.24. For


simple flow situations, the P-v analysisand processcharts provide all
the necessaryinformation. In complex situations, the proiess charts
may be too many or too complex; sometimesmovestake place that are
not in the official process.These must be identified from other data
sourcessuch as the MRP database,material handling records,direct

0.6 EFU/Day

1 . 0E F U / D a y

Stacked Sheots
On Pallot

5.0 EFU/Day

Sheared Blanks, Each


Item On Separate Pallst

8.0 EFU/Day

Punch6d and Formed,


Non-Stackable

4 0 . 0E F U / D a y

Weldd Cabinets

60.0 EFU/Day

SusceotableTo
PaintDamage

3 0 . 0E F U D a y

3 0 . 0E F U / D a y
To Customer

Figure3.25 - Changesln Material Flow

74

FacilitiesPlanning

observation,or random samplingasoutlined in Block 5.


Block 6 marks the extractionof data.Again, for simple situations,
For each
only the processchartsand the P-V information are necessary.
move
will
if
a
similar
determines
chart,
the
planner
on
the
process
move
flow
unit
determines
the
existwhenthe new SPUsareused.He or shethen
and the number of flow units per day requiredto meet the salesforecast.
Other data sourcesmay need significant manipulation. Each
spaceplan project is uniquewith respectto flow data.Experienceand
common senseare the main guides.
Block 7 formats the data, usually on a comPuter spreadsheetor
In Block 8,the flowis calibratedusingtheAEIOLIXconventions
database.
(seefig.2.9).This is doneon a rankedbargraphwiththe SPUpairsalong
one axisand flowrates on the other.The rating shouldbedonemanually.
The affinity distribution in figure 2.10 should be used only as a guide,
becauseother factors also are involved. For example,discontinuitiesin
the curve naturally divide one rating from another. A{finity pairs that
"IJ"
rating.
havezero flow betweenthem get a
The procedureforTask03.12is illustratedbytheCosmosproject.
Basedon the information from Block 1, the materialswereclassifiedas
follows:
Log Ro llrThese vinyl stock rolls are36 incheslong and abott 12
inchesin diameter.They weigh about 200 pounds.
SIit Rolts-Vinyl stock rolls are rolls that have been slit and
rewoundon smallercores.They rangefrom 6 to 20 inchesin length and
lessthan 5 inchesin diameter.Weights are lessthan 40 pounds.
Roll PacLages-:fhesearepackedroll productssimilar to cellophane
tapeor maskingtape. The largestareabout5 inchesin diameterand 4
inchesin length. Most are much smaller.
Sbeets-Theselargesheetsofvinyl stockor decalmaterial,average24
inchesby 60 inchesand remainflat throughout the processand shipping.
PackagedSheerr-These are decal sheetspackagedin corrugated
boxes.The boxesand packing significantlyincreasetheir volume but
reducethe delicacyrequiredin handling.
Much ofthe materialhandlingin the plant is doneusinghandcarts
with four-wheelcastors,soa handcartwasusedasan EFU. This offered
severaladvantages. It was easyto visualizethe handcart being used for
all materials and to developconversionfactorsfrom that vision. In the
newlayout,handcartsundoubtedlywouldremainthe primarymeansof
movement.
Table 3.1 is the output of Block 7 and the deliverablefor Block 9
on the procedurediagram. This table showsthe material flow analysis
are at the top left. Next to
for CosmosProducts.The materialclasses

The Macro-Space-Plan

EFU=Equivalent
HandCarts
LogRolls 0.500
SlitRolls 0.071
RollPackages
0.004
Sheets
0.167
Packaged
Sheets 0.250
(A)

(B)

From
-To Unirs
01-02
01-04 SHTS
01-05 SHTS
01-08
Q1-12
01-13
01-14
01-15
02-11
03-04
O3-05 SLITS
03-06
03-08 PKGS
03-10 PMAT
03-12
03-13
03-14
03-15
04-09 SHTS
o4-11
04-12
04-'13
o4-14
04-15
05-06 SLITS
05-07 LOGS
05-09 LOGS
05-13
05-14
05-15
07-10 LOGS
07-12
08-09 PKGS
08-12
08-13
09-10
09-12
10-14
11-12
11-13
12-13

(C)
Fwd
Units
/Day

(D)
(E)
(F) (c) (H) fl)
(J) (K) (D (M)
Rev
Tot Flo Flo Flol N_F N_FTot Tot
Units EFU EFUsVow Num N-F Vow NumNumVow
lDay Fact /Day Rtg Rtg Ratio Rtg Rtg Scr Rtg

u0
t2
69.0
t2
u0
u0
u0
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uo
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23.4 0.50 11.7 l 2
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0.1 0 1
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u0
0.50
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0.01 19.2 A 4
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0.17

11.5
'11.5

TABLE 3.1

1.25 A
4 2.00 E
1.25 A
4 3.25 A
125 E
3 2.75 E
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 |
21.00 I
1.25 |
21.00 |
1.25 |
21.00
|25
|
21.00 |
1.25 E
31.50 |
1.25 A
4 2.00 E
125 E
3 2.13 E
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 |
2 3.50 A
1.25 U
0 0.63 |
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 |
2 i.00 |
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 E
3 3.38 A
1.25 |
21.00 |
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.250
1050 0
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 |
2 2.25 E
1.25 |
2 2.25 E
1.25 U
0 0.63 |
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 0
1 1.75 E
1.25 0
I0.50 0
1.25 |
2 3.50 A
1.25 0
1 0.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 E
31.50 |
1.25 |
21.00 I
1.25 0
10.50 0
1.25 0
10.50 0

75

76

FacilitiesPlanning

eachclassdescriptoris the EFU conversionfactor,which convertsthe


materialunit into an EFU. Each conversionfactor is the inverseof the
number of flow units that fit onto the cart. A cart usuallycarriesnvo log
rolls, for example,so its conversionfactor is 0.5. The SPU pairs arein
column A of table 3.1. Column B shows the flow units-slit rolls,
sheets,etc. Columns C and D indicatethe flow rate.
Pathsshouldbespecifiedusingtwo numericalSPU identifiers.In the
Cosmosexample,03 refersto roll operations,and06 refersto intermediate
storage.The flowpath betweenthem is 03 to 06.To avoidduplicationand
possibleerrors,plannersshoulduseonly the forwardpath-the SPU with
the lowest number followed by each SPU numbered above it. When
materialmovesfrom a higher numberedSPU to a lower numberedSPU,
it is called reverseflow. The total material flow is the sum of the forward
and reverseflows. Column F in the Cosmos model is the flow totals
multiplied by the EFU factor.This resultis the averageflow ratein EFUs
per day. Column G showsthe vowel rating for eachflow path.
Figure3.26showsthe flow calibrationfor CosmosProducts.This
is Block 8 on the procedurechart and is typical ofa product focused
layout. It has a small number of high flow ratesand many SPU pairs
layoutshavea much broaderdistribution
with zeroflow. Process-focused
of flows commensuratewith their complexnatures.

03>08 0B>09 04>09 05>07 07>10 01>04 01>05 05>06 03>05 03>r0

From-To SPUS

Figure 3.25 - Moteriol Flow Colibrotion

05>09

The Macro-Space-Plan

77

Id entifyi ng non -fl ow affi n ities


Material flow is only one of many factors that give rise to affinities.
other factorsareintangible and more difficult to quantifr. Examplesof
thesefactorsare:personalcommunication;the needto transferperionnel
betweencellsor departments;movementto and from the cafeteriaor
rest rooms; quality feedback;joint teamwork communications;access
by outsidevisitorsl RF communicationsrequirement;and other sitespecificneeds.
Figure 3-27 showsa chart for recordingnon-flow affinities that arso
may be used to documenr flow affinitie, J, total affinities. Diagonals
representeachSPU.When they cross,they form a diamond. In the upper
half of the diamond, the affiniry rating is recordedusing the vowel or

Figure?.27 - Affinity Chor-t

78

FacilitiesPlanning

number scaleshown in figure 2.9.The lower half of the diamond is the


place to record the primary factor(s)that gaverise to the affinity.
These non-flow affinities are independent of material flow
requirements.The problemlies in capturingthem. In Task 03.14 they
aremergedwith affinities for an overallor total affinity rating. A survey,
consensusmeeting,or personalevaluationmay alsobe used.
from each
representatives
A consensusmeeting that assembles
departmentor SPU is usuallythe bestapproachfor accomplishingTask
03.13.The analystactsasfacilitator.Using the affinity chart of figure
3.27,he or sheexplainsthe needfor affinity ratings,the chart, and the
desireddistribution.The group considerseachpair of SPUs,one at a
the relationships.
time, and discusses
in figure 2.9' they decide on a rating.
conventions
the
Using
Initially, these discussionsare rather long. After five to ten ratings,
however, the group will begin to agree readily. A scribe records the
ratings and keepsthe group focusedby displayingthe current SPU pair
arise'Thesemayresultin constraints
on cards.Frequently,corollaryissues
or evenrevisionsof the SPU definition.
meetingemergefeelingthat theyhave
Participantsin a consensus
been part of the overall project. This is important. When they seehow
their input led directly to a sPaceplan, they will have increased
commitment to the spaceplans that finally emerge.
Another methodofidentifying non-flow affinitiesinvolvessending
in eachdepartment.The questionnaire
questionnairesto representatives
asksthem to list other departments,areas,andpeoplethat must be near
each other. The resultsare then assembled,interpreted,and ratings
developedusing the scaleand conventionsin figure 2.9. This method
is effective for large projects with fifty or more SPUs and many
affinities. However, it does not allow the participants to develop a
common understandingthrough discussion.The participantsmay not
trust the judgment of the person who intelprets the surveys and
corollaryissuesmay not be brought out.
A third method is personalevaluation,which usesa singlejudge
to determineaffinities.He or shemust haveintimate knowledgeofthe
operations.This often is the analyst,but he or shemay alsobe a strong
leader,perhapsthe plant manageror CEO. This is a quick method and
may be effective for small projects. This, however, does not build
consensusand may be divisive.Corollary issuesmay remain hidden.
Merging affinities
Two setsofaffinities nowexist.The developmentofflowaffinitiesused
a quantitative approach.Non-flow affinities by their nature preclude a

The Macro-Space-Plan

79

quantitativeapproachandwereidentifiedby a consensus
or someother
non-quantitativeapproach.Thesemust nowbe mergedinto a singleset
of affinities (fig.3.28). This is Task 03.14.
A spreadsheet
createdby hand or computer is usuallythe most
straightforward method of merging. Table i.2 is an extension of the
spreadsheetin table 3.1. These columns are put in after columns
A through D.
Column E: Vowel Non-Flow Rating (Enter Manuallv)
Column F: Numeric Non-Flow Rati"g (Enter tr,t""u"ity;
Column G: FlodNon-Flow Ratio(Enter Manually)
Column H: Merged Score:Col. Ax Col. F + Col. p x (f - Col. F)
Column I: Merged Vowel Rating (Enter Manually)
Planners should add rows for all remaining combinations of
SPUs,sortthe rowsin themergedscorecolumn (col. u) in descending
order,andplot the mergedscoreson a rankedbar chart.From the chart.

EFU=Equivalent
HandCarts
LogRolls
0.500
SlitRolls
0.071
RollPackages
0.004
Sheets
u.lo/
Packaged
Sheets 0.250
(Bl

(ct

(Dl

From
-To

Units

Fwd
Units/
Day

Rev
Units/
Day

03-08
08-09
04-09
05-07
07-10
01-04
01-05
05-06
03-05
03_10
05-09

PKGS
PKGS
SHTS
LOGS
LOGS
SHTS
SHTS
SLITS
SLITS
PMAT
LOGS

(A)

2134.0
21234.0
69.0
zJ.4

23.4
69.0
Aqn

46.0

46.0
46.0

TABLE 3.2

(El

(Ft
Tot
EFU EFUs/
Fact Day
0.01
0.01
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.17
0.17
0.11
0.11
0.25
0.50

19.2
19.2
17.3
11.7
11.7
11.5
11.5
10.1
5.1
1.8
0.1

(ct tH)
Flo Flo
VowNum
Rtg Rtg
A
A

4
4

t r J
t

t
t
t
t
o
o
o

2
2
2
2
1
1
1

80

FacilitiesPlanning

they should assigna mergedvowel rating (Col. I).


Deciding the relative importance of flow and non-flow factors
dependson the industry,process,andotherinfluences.Heavyindustries
such as steel or shipbuilding warrant a flodnon-flow ratio up to 2.0.
Office areasand industriesthat dependheavilyon personalcontact may
haveratios aslow as 0.5.

3
D e t e r mi n e F l o w /
N o n - F l o wR a t i o

4
M e r g e U s i n OW e i g h t e d
AvergaeTechnique

Prepare Atfinity
D i s t r i b u t a o nB a r c h a i l

8
D e livera b le i
. Merged Affinity Chari

Or
. M e r g e dA f f i n i t yL i 6 t

Figure3.28- Tosk 03.14,Merge Affinities

The Macro-Space-Plan

81

Generally,the sameflodnon-flowratio shouldbe usedfor all the


affinities on the spaceplan. Occasionally,however, specific affinities
may haveto be modified for specialcircumstances.
Next, the total affinities must be rated. When assigning the
mergedvowel rating, the analystshould considertwo factors. First, he
or she should strive for a workable distribution of ratings similar to
those shown in figure 2.9,\n addition, a searchfor natural breaksor
discontinuities in the distribution avoidshaving nearly identical scores
with different ratings.Accuracyis not paramountin this process.
Developing a configuration diagram
In Task 03.15, merged ratings are used to develop a configuration
diagram.The configurationdiagramis the firstofthe derivedelements.
It comesfrom cell definitions,affinities,and experience.
The graphics
work may be done on a CAD system or other software. However,
manual developmentis straightforward and often quicker.
To developthe affinitydiagram, the analystplacesthe A affinities
and their associatedSPU symbolsfirst, then addsthe E affinities.At
this point, rearrangingthe diagramis desirable.Next, the I affinities are
addedand the diagram is rearrangedagain. He or shefinisheswith the
O affinities, which usually will have little effect on the diagram..
Striving for short distancesbetweenthe As and Es with minimal
crossing is a worthwhile goal. Multiple crossingsmight create traffic
congestionon the final spaceplan. Lower value affinities probably will
havelonger distances.The high valueA and E affinities will have short
distances.Attempting to fit this diagraminto a buiiding environment at
this point is not advised.someexcellentarrangementsmaybeovedooked.
Figure 3.29 illustrates the diagram developed for the Cosmos
project. Step 1 featuresthe SPU symbols.Step 2 shows the A and E
affinities in an undesirablearrangement.Step3 showsthe rearrangement
of the A and E affinities and the addition of the I affinities. Another
rearrangementis illustratedin Step4. Finally, in Step5, the affinitieshave
been rearanged again,and the O af{inities added.
The Cosmosconfigurationdiagramin figure 3.29 is only one of
many possible diagrams that uses this combination of SPUs and
affinities.It can be mirrored or rotated.There may be other positions
for the SPUs that give the same or better results. Some of these
variationswill fit the building better than others.However, it is best not
to jump aheadand anticipatethe shapeofthe building. It is worthwhile
to ask severalpeople to develop diagrams, thereby ensuring a wide
selectionof possibilities.

FacilitiesPlanning

82

u,
o q)
'- q)
(ul

:
!
!

(U
or

CD

c
(E

(!

o
E

ru@
06

<E
oE
olc
(6iF

v
(L<

IiiT"--l!"i.!.i,

fti$$il
\:r:1ilr
Iiiitt
tiirit
lt:t

E
= e@o

\t-

c
(!

o'=

o
.E o
o)

/k

gE@

(!

o E,o
!
E

oUr

v-;
(Do-

/d

Fa
FaFigure3.29 - Affinity Diogram

The Macro-Space-Plan

B3

Space calculation
Spaceis the third fundamental element of a spaceplan. It is a limited
resource;there is only so much spaceunder a roof, on a site, or in a
department.Whether the spaceis land on a site or spacein a building,
it is usually expensive
Although spaceis three-dimensional, most spaceplans ignore
the vertical dimension. This is acceptablein all but a few situations.
Most layouts attempt to optimize the useof spaceaswell as its
arrangement.A complete spaceplan requiresnot only the location of
SPUs, but their size and shapeaswell. The spaceoccupiedby SPUs
usually prevents the designer from honoring all affinities

tr
o

H s F F = S . s : ! : F F p p ! E E . e
+? . C. o o o F\ 2 FI a a a a a -Eo i b 6 h9 a Eo

l Z f
=
o

c(o c (oc (!F F


;i

c
;i

c(o C(o C (! c c c
cg o

c
o

F c o
o o ;r

9
@ E

l
^
r
6 o 9 ! { o o R P o o l * o o , ^

-E

..,

o o = F a t s f r i F F ; i t r } . , & . . F d - aI
o
s

- o

E , E E g F F E S E E F g SEE S F E
c!

R
H
_ ES
o oer .A
i- w
= . :0 (So .
, f ix bEboSP3 RR R
i *g o3 .R. b3
z

tE

' Es EH Ho q *Eg' ' ,' f{i '


F ?3*Fat.Pu

He

oE**6Ei v"

r F{ EEr Es Hc g xEq l H

f ,! E ? V , ? F = 8 6 : E 8 H #

, " GE P E 6 E # f 5 E E E d S {

e 5 8 8 3 8 8 b 8 8 P = s p s p e

TABLE 3.3

84

FacilitiesPlanning

simultaneously.
Benveenthem,itforcescompromisesaboveandbeyond
thosearrivedat in the configurationdiagram.The spaceneedsof SPUs
may distort evena neadyperfectdiagram.
Task03.16 calculates
sizeofthe requiredspacefor eachSPU,usually
in squarefeetor squaremeters.Calculationofspacerequirementsusesone
or more of six methods.These methods are:elementalcalculation.visual
estima ting, transformation,space
standards,
proportioning,or ratioforecas
ting.
Table 3.3 shows Cosmos Products' spacerequirementsand how the
analystsusedseveralmethodsfor the calculation.
Elementol colculotion
This method, illustratedin figure 3.30, startsat the most detailedlevel.Each
pieceof fumiture or equipmentassignedto an SPU is measured.These
dimensionsarethen addedtogetherfor the total amount of space.Spacefor
aisles,miscellaneous
storage,
or otherneedsarealsoindudedin thesum.This
addedspaceoften is a percentage
of the basicequipmentspace.
Elementalcalculationis simpleandstraightforward.However,it has
its limitations. For one, it takesconsiderabletime and effort. Uncertain
forecastscan make it difficult to determine how much furniture or
equipmentwilloccupythespace.Elementalestimatingisprimarilya shortterm methodology.Most industriesuse it for one to three yearsin the
future.Beyondthat, other methodsareequallyandperhapsmore reliable.

DevelopEquipment
lnformation
Capacity/Process/
Saleslnformation

Figure?,30 - Computing Spoce, Elementol Colculation

uollDurfls3 pns1l'atodg

ls 9e9'eg= 68eX 9rZ

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Suruueld aqt JI 'uer{I 's}ueruerrnbar&p-}uasard ot dn uoDerolp


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puu uorlf,npord ur sa8uzq3 'ertds palserrrro Surpnorualo sE r{f,ns
suorlrpuocSuqsrxeJoJapzr.u3qlsnul sluarursnfpy'spaauarrurySurrralord
ro3 srscqer{t sEler{} sesnpu" nds SuqsrxeuE roJ tuauarrnber aruds
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uonDutJolsuDJf
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eq plnor{s
s.reuuEdparuauadxeur'larla,t.oglalernJf,BaguBJlr'rauueld peruarradxo
uE Jo spuer{ aqr uI 'rFlrJJrp auof,ag lutu Arrnrf,E lseJeroC 'acuds
agr ldncro sualr IIutus lurru uaqru.snorJoquleq uEJ1rtnq 'sualr a8rel
ltay u lq patzurruopnds uE JoJInjasn,{:ensl SurtuurtsaFnsr1
'selrrrsnll
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98

ueg6-acedg-orceW
aqf

The Macro-Space-Plan

Figure 3.33 - Computing Space, Standard Dato

Handling\Storage43
34"/o

SecondaryProcess 30
23o/o

PrimaryProcess24
19"/o

StandardProportions
Of ExistingFacility

New Facility

Figure?.34 - Computing Space,Proportioning

87

88

FacilitiesPlanning

Proportioning
Certain typesofspacecalculationuseproportions effectively.The space
for a given SPU comes from the calculation of another space.For
example,aislesmightbe apercentage
ofproductionspace,or conference
room spacemay be a portion of office space.Figure 3.34 illustrates.
Proportioning works well when the history to support it exists.It
usually applies to only a few types of space,however. Proportioning
requireslittle effort.
Ratio forecasting
Ratio forecastinguseshistoricaltrendsto forecastspace.In this method,
businessparametersand spaceare correlatedover time. Such ratios may
changegraduallyover the years.The analystthen projectsthe trend of this
ratio into future yearsand usesthat projection to calculatespace.
Ratio forecasting,which is based on historical data, is most
appropriatefor long-term site plans.It haslimited usefor short-term
spacecalculations.

The spaceplan primitive


The next stepin the progressionis the spaceplan primitive, which involves
adding spaceto the configuration diagram(s). The spacerequirements
comefrom the calculationsandspacesummary(Task03.16).The Cosmos
Productsspaceplan primitive is illustratedin figure 3.35.
The spaceplan primitive begins with a configuration diagram.
Using an appropriate scale,designersplace a squareor rectanglewith
the SPUs calculated areanear each SPU symbol. In step 2, designers
either move eachspaceblockunderneath the SPU symbol or move the
SPU symbol over each space block. As the space plan primitive
develops,itwill haveto be stretchedto accommodatethe spacewithout
overlaps.The result should be a compact arrangementthat honors the
affinities as closely as possible. Although designers should begin
anticipating a building shapeat this time, they should not strive for a
final layout.

Constraints
Many factorsthat affecta macro-layoutdo not fit the conceptsof SPUs,
space,and affinities.These are constraints.Someexamplesare:
. Column spacingof 32 feet restricts the placement of aisles
and someequipment.
' High electricalload restricts the placement of heat treat
ovensto certain areaswith adequateelectrical service.
. A cold climate dictates that dock doors should not have

The Macro-Space-Plan

F o

E
5
c')O

.cU@

oa)
> Q
.=(U

coECD
{ o
s

o(U
=o_

5"u
v
Figure3.35 - CosmosSpaceplan primitive

89

90

FacilitiesPlanning

northern exposure.
' zoning requirementsspecifythat docksnot facethe street;
' floor loading restrictsthe placementof certainequipment;
' explosion hazard dictates that ahazatdouschemical room
havean explosionvent on an outsidewall; and
' the companypresidentrequestsa window for his office'
A form for identif ing constraints(Task03.19)is shownin figure3.36.
The SPUsarelistedon the left and acrossthe toP' major categoriesare

0l
a

E
o
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Figure3.35 - Constraint Summory

The Macro-Space-Plan

91

identified. Theseinclude: site conditions,utilities, handling methods,


personnel, proceduresand controls, shape rario, and oihers. The
accumulatedproject documentationfor each spu and categoryare
reviewed,and the constraintsare listed. A bullet or check associates
each constraintwith a particular sPU. some constraintsapply to all
SPUs. In this situation the bullet goes in rhe "general" rtw. The
following is a descriptionof CosmosProducts.orrftrairrts:
Aestheticy'The nafure of cosmos products is artistic. Therefore,
the aestheticsof the building and surroundingsis important. cosmos
wants to presentitself well to customersand other visitors. A pleasant
surroundingwill help aftractthe best commercialartists.The aesthetics
issueappliesto shippingand receivingareas,which areoften unsightly.It
alsoappliesto the artwork, administration,and employeeservice"areas.
TruckAccess-Thisis anothersite condition. Trucks need access
to both shippingandreceiving.cosmos is fortunatein this respect.The
site hasgood accesson both the north and south sides.
Forkrrucks--Handling in someareasusesforklift trucks.Adequate
aislewidths on the main aislesand selecteddepartrnentalaislesarenecessaq/.
c art s-s mallcartsconveymaterialsin manyareas.Here, narrower
aisleswill suffice.
EasyAccess-Thisis a personnelissue.Administration, employee
services,andmaintenanceall requireeasyandinviting access
forpeople.
PressLines-Aspect ratio refersto the relativelength and widtl of
SPUs. Silk-screenprinting operationsrequire a mini*mumlenqth to
accommodate
the long presslines.
Utilitier-Certain sPUs requirewater,sewer,and air conditioning.
Next, this constraint summaryand the spaceplan primitive will be
usedto preparespaceplan options.

Designingmacro-space-plans
plan primitive now must fit into a building outline. The
]h9.space
building may exist or it maybe a proposedstrucrure.
Preparingspaceplan optionsbeginswith overlayingthe building
_
with a spaceplan primitive. The spaceblocksare shapedto fii
:":]tl.
building walls, columns,and other featur.r. Th" constraints,r.--ury
should be consultedduring the placementof eachSpU.
F or eachspaceplan primitive, thereprobablywill be severalviable
_
layouts.All variationsof the primitives, including mirror imagesand
rotations,should be examined.
I_tmay be difficult to match space,honor constraints,and design
an orderly arrangement.In general,designersshould strive for clean,
rectangularareas.spacerequirementsmay have to be compromised.

FacilitiesPlanning

92

The original spacecalculationsare usually flexible within a reasonable


range-10 to 20 percent.
options(Option 1) from the Cosmos
One ofthe macro-space-plan
This option is based on the
3.37.
in
figure
project is illustrated
operationsstrategy,which calledfor a product-focusedspaceplan using
cellularmanufacturingtechniquesand focusedfactories.
buildinqs is now enclosedto
The soacebetweenthe two original
"requiremen;
and also to allow
space
increased
the
u..o--od"te

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o
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n o
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o

O
O

=3,(t
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6
o

=
6
t

-z

Figure3.?7 - Option I of the Mocro-SpocePlons


for the CosmosProject

The Macro-Space-Plan

93

improvedmaterialflow betweenthe buildingsand to the shipping and


receivingdocks.Each of the old buildings hasbecom. u ,.-ilfoi,rr.d
f?,:oty,with roll productson the left and commerciarproductson the
right. In the center are slit-and-sheetoperations,-hi.h serveboth
focusedfactories.servicefacilitiessuchasquality assurance,
employee
services,and maintenanceare also in u i.ntr"l location. Ariwork,
administration,and employeeservicesfacethe street.This satisfies
the
aestheticconstraints.

c
o

o
o
L

:a

N
a

6 q

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o
o
a

o
o
6
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o
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a

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o
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Figure?.38 - Option 2 of the Mocro-Spoceplans


for the Cosrnosproject

94

FacilitiesPlanning

Some Cosmos managershad reservationsabout the productfocused strategy adopted in Task 03.10. Therefore, an additional
approach
basedon continuing the process-focused
macro-space-plan
'n", pr.p"..d. The resultwasO ption2 (fig. 3.38),which mitigatedtheir
and disadvantages
.orri.rnr and demonstratedthe relativeadvantages
of processand product focus. It was preparedas a second,parallel
strategystatement
proJectstartingfrom Task03.10.The process-focused
produceda different set of sPUs, affinities,and spacerequirements.
Option 2 retainsthe aislesystemand many of the good features
of Ontion 1. Functional and semi-functionalareassuch as shipping,
They are
receiving,and artwork havemany of the samecharacteristics.
areas
storage
as
such
SPUs
often in the samelocation.Somefunctional
names,
need significantly more space.Processareas change their
characters,spacerequirements,and other characteristics.Option 2
needsabout 10 percent more spacethan option 1. This additional
spaceis in a building expansionon the eastside.
projects,therewill be threeto six
For most macro-space-planning
fundamentally different options and severalvariations. using the
existinglayout-or simply doing nothing*is alwaysan option' Even
when the existingspaceplan is no longerviable,it makesa convenient
baselineforgaugingimprovement.The Cosmosprojectteamdeveloped
severalother options,which are not includedin this book.
Aisles
Aisles present specialproblems.They should be straight and wide
.r,o.rgh fot two-way traffic. Usually, the best approachidentifies main
aislesas a separateSPU. Designersthen place them on the macrospace-plan.Departmental aisles,on the other hand, are within the
spacecalculationsfor each SPU. Aisles adjacentto walls are often
undesirablebecausethey serveonly one side.
An alternateapproachincludes all aislesas Part of the SPUs'
Designersthen place sPUs on the plan, recognizingthat those main
aislesgenerallywill follow the SPU boundaries.
ihe straightforwardCosmosspaceplansin figures3.37 and3'38
first method. Main aisleshavea separatecalculationand every
the
use
SPU is adjacentto a main aisle.A centralloop allowscontinuoustraffic
in both directions.A singledead-endaisleservesscreenprep and part
of the silk-screeningoperation.This aislesystemwill allow subsequent
layout changeswithout disturbing the basicflow pattern.

ldentifyingkey materialhandlingissues
Material handling and layout are intertwined. The best handling

The Macro-Space-Plan

95

systemdependson the spaceplan and the bestspaceplan may depend


on handiing methods.often, a layoutthat doesnotworkwitir manual
handling becomesviable with automated or conveyorizedhandling.
This presents a chicken-or-the-egg problem. Are handling
equipment and containers selectedbefore the rayout? Is the layout
designedfirst and the handling systemthen serected?
usually, the best
approach is to design the layout assuming conventionai p"rh"p,
manual handling. This optimizes material flow and often eliminates
the need for complex and expensivehandling systems.
particular handling issuesthat drasticaly affect space
.
lowever,
plan selectionmust be identified. For example,a pneumatictransport
systemhas different requirementsthan a systemthat usesforktrucks
for conveyingbulk material. one spaceplan might be the best for fork
truck handling, while another might be bestfotih. prr..r-atic system.
A spaceplan shouldbe designedand selectedbifore the handling
systemis finalized. To do this, however,may mean assuminga general
tlpe of handling systemprior to layout design.
To accomplishTask03.20, examine."ih ofthe proposedlayout
options and ask the following questions:
. What types of handling systemsareviable
for eachoption?
. Would a particular handling system
affect one layout option
more than another?
. Would a different handling systemallow
new layout options?
lf aparticular handling systemaffectsall layout opiior^ equally,
,
selectionofthat systemis not a key issue.In sucha case,the evaluation
ofthe options is the next stepin the spaceplan. Ifa particular handling
systemwould give one option a significant advantageover the others,
such selectionis a key issue.In such a case,furthir investigationis
recommended,perhapsaccompaniedby a preliminarydesignand cost
estimate for the handling system.This approachallows -"rr"g.rrrerrt
to selectthe bestlayout at the macro-levelwithout completelydeiigning
handling systemsfor all the options.

Decidingon the best spaceplan


Several vi-abfeoptions now exist for the macro-space-plan.Many
others probably have alreadybeen screenedout during ."ili", parts of
the designprocess.The designershould narrow the choice to ihr.. to
six significantly different options. Each option may haveseveralminor
variations.Management and othersinvolved in the project then decide
which to use.This is done for severalreasons:
' managementoften criticizes the engineering
staff for tunnel
vision. Engineersmay lock onto an ideaearlyin a project.A

96

FacilitiesPlanning

wide varietyofoptions showsthat the designeror designteam


has considereda wide range of possibilities;
' asking for a selectionfrom among options is usually more
palatablethan asking for approval ofa preordained design;
. the processof decision-making builds consensus'suPPort'
andionfidence. This Preventslater attemPts at redesignby
those who felt left out of the processland
' the decision processmay Seneratehybrid plans, which are
often superior to the original designs.
Figure 3.39 shows the procedure for evaluation. The spaceplan
"input" listed in Block 1. Block2 assemblesa decisionteam.
options arethe
In Block 4, the team reviews the project's original objectivesThese original objectives may be specific, directly measurable,and

SpacePlanA

Figure3.39 - Computing Space,VisualEstimotion

The Macro-Space-Plan

97

applicable to the evaluation, or they may be global and difficult to


measure.They may require sub-objectivesfor a good evaluation.The
information developedduring information gatheringmayhavemodifi ed
the objectives.The debatesduring the strategydevelopment also may
havechangedobjectives.The decisionteamadoptsthe originalobjectives
or revisesthem as appropriate.
Flowing from the objectivesaredecisioncriteria. These arefactors
that the team canevaluatedirectly-either qualitativelyor quantitatively.
They are the basisfor the decision.Examplesof decisionfactorsare:
material handling savings, improved communication, OSHA
compliance, improved teamwork, initial cost, operating cost, quality
enhancement,improved delivery reliabiliry, improved delivery speed,
and ability to use a particular technology.
A decisioncriterion may be a decideror a qualifier. Qralifiers are
golno-go criteria: a spaceplan meetsthe minimum requirementsor
not. Performancebeyondthe minimum createsno additionalbenefits.
Performance below the minimum disqualifies the space plan from
consideration.For example,OSHA compliancemight be a qualifier.
Layouts that meet the requirementsare acceptable.Layouts that go
beyond OSHA requirementsbring no perceivedadditionalbenefit.
Deciders bring additional benefits for each increment of
performance. Improved cost,for example,is usuallya decider.Option
B mayhave an operating cost advantageover Option A. Although both
spaceplansmeet the budgetedcostimprovementobjectives,Option B
is the preferredspaceplan on that dimension.
Block 3 containsthe tools for evaluation.In addition to macrospace-planning,thesetools apply to other levelsof facility planning.
Among the common tools for evaluationare: material flow analysis
(MFA), financial analysis,ranking, instinct, positive-negativeinteresting(PNI), decisiontree analysis,and weightedfactor analysis.
MFA examinesthe large-scalematerialmovementbetweenSPUs.
It developsa measureof associatedcost and difficulty. Improved
communication and coordination are corollary benefits of improved
material flow. Specific techniques in this category include transport
work, flow diagrams,and D-F plots. For the most part, these are
quantitativemethods.
Financial analysisincludes
costestimating,return on investment
(ROI), and payback.These methods are quantitativel however, they
often involve qualitative judgments aswell.
A simpleranhing,from most preferredto leastpreferred,is often
an effective tool. The ranking can use qualitative factors, quantitative
factors.or both.

98

FacilitiesPlanning

The gut-level reactionor instinctof knowledgeablepeople has


value.Although it should rarely be usedasa primary evaluationtool, it
may uncoverunseenopportunitiesor problems.
PNI analysisis a variation of the brainstorming technique. It
examineseach spaceplan factor, focusing first on the positive features
and then on negativefeatures.Finally, it focuseson those that are
neitherpositiveor negative-things that areinterestingor unique.This
analysis,was developedby Edward DeBono, an expert on thinking
processes.
It is simplebut effective.It often brings out hidden features
and builds teamwork and consensus.
Decisiontreeanalysisis usefulwhen a seriesof probableeventscan
affectthe decision.For example,which spaceplan is bestif a particular
contractis won and, afterward,the overallmarket contracts?It helps
evaluatethe cumulativeprobabilityofeach ofthe four possibleoutcomes.
Combined with financial analysis,it is a quantitativetool.
Weigbtedfactor
analysisbasesa decisionon a combinationof the
variousfactors,both qualitativeand quantitative.It is bestifthe factors
areindependent,but this is not alwayspossible.Somecompromisingof
this principle is acceptable.
Judgesfirst identi$, the factors,then decide
a weight for each,and, lastly,rate eachoption.
In addition to the tangible and intangible categories,straregic
issuesmay arise.These are usuallyqualitative.The consequences
of
strategic issues are often so far-reaching and so important they
overshadowall other factors.For example,Option A might usea new
technologv.This technologyshowsno immediatecostbenefit yet the
introduction potentially could revolutionize the industry and place a
firm far aheadofothers.ShouldOption A be selected?
This is a decision
for top managersand cannot be made lightly.
In weightedfactor analysis,thejudgesthat weigh the factorsmay
be different from those who rate the options. For example, top
managementmay weigh the factorsbut leaveratings to specialistsor
operatingpeople.
In physics,Heisenberg'suncertaintyprinciplestatesthat both the
position and state of certain sub-atomicparticlescannot be known.
Thit ir becausethe processof measurem.rridirtort, either the position
or state.A parallelphenomenonoccursin spaceplanning.The process
ofjudging and evaluationoften leadsto other options.Thus, someor
all of the spaceplans may changeasa resultof the evaluationprocess.
Or, a hybrid spaceplan that featuresthe best parts of severaloriginal
options may emerge.
Block 5 of the procedurediagramexaminesthe decisioncriteria
and available tools. Two to four tools appropriate for the evaluation

The Macro-Space-Plan

99

should be selected.
Block 6 evaluatesall options with respect to the identified
qualifiers.Any option that fails to meet a qualiS'ing criterion drops
from consideration.
Block 7 evaluatesthe optionswith respectto the decidercriteria.
New or hybrid options go on the list of availableoptions.
After evaluation,one option is selectedfor development.A
decisionsummaryrecappingthe decisionprocessshouldbe prepared.
The summaryand decisionmake up Block 10.

Evaluating
the Cosmosspaceplans
The Cosmosdesignteam and steeringcommitteemet to evaluatethe
proposedspaceplans.They decidedthat both the steeringcommitree
and design team should participate in the evaluation. They first
reviewedthe original projectobjectives.Thesecamefrom Task 03.01,
"Plan
Project":
' reducematerialhandling cost;
. reduceoperatingcosts;
. deliverproject under budget of$800,000;
' improve deliveryperformancel
. improve teamwork,communication,and quality;
' allow for new products; and
' accommodate1998 production.
From the original objectives,they derivedthesedecisioncriteria:
D
Material flow
D
Direct operatingcost
qD
Initial cost
D
Delivery
D
Communication
D
Teamwork
D
Qrality
D
New product adaptability
Meets 1998 production requirement
a_
OSHA/EPA Compliance
a_
"Q
A
notation designatesthe qualifiers.OSHA,/EPA compliance
is necessary
for anyspaceplan.Thosethat fail to meetthis qualification
are no longer considered.Similarly,the 1998 production requirement
is a qualifier. Initial cost is both a deciderand qualifier. A spaceplan
must meet the $800,000budgetlimitation to be considered;this is the
qualification.Initial costbelow$800,000is abenefit;this is the decider.
All the other criteria are deciders,denotedby a "D."

100

FacilitiesPlanning

The Cosmosteam chosePNI, MFA, cost estimating,payback,


and weighted factor analysisas the tools for evaluation.
They analyzedmaterialflowfirst andthen usedthe resultsto assist
with the costestimating.In Step 1 ofthe MFA, they developedthe flow
diagramsillustratedin figure 3.40.
These diagramsshow where the flow complexityfor the existing

I
Oprlon# I
P r o d u c l r F o c u s e dS p a c e P l d n

Optlon #3
Existlng Lagoul

Figure 3,40 - Moteriol Flow Evaluotion

The Macro-Space-Plan

101

layout is greatest.Option 2, a revisedfunctional layout, improves the flow


complexity and shortensflow distance.Option 1 improvescomplexity and
firther shortensthe total distance.The flow complexityindex (FCI) counts
the frequencyof flow crossingson the diagram. Option t has an index of
0, Option 2 has an FCI of 4, and Option 3 has an FCI of 6. Visual
examination of thesematerial flow chartsconfirms the increasingmaterial
flow complexity from Option 1 through Option 3.
Transportwork is the summation ofeach flow distancemultiplied
by the flow rate. The units for Cosmos are EFUs per day. Table 3.4 is
the spreadsheetused by the team to calculatedistance and transport

= HE
F=

o) (o
ro(f)

@
F

= fr'r

ro
(f)

F\ LO

l-- o)
OO)

st

OJ O)

l'-T.OOOlr)OC9$O)@N

o) t) g? c0 !9 9.f

r-. to

90

3EBES 5 ' O 9 f P P 9 > R S P


s ilF 5 = 5 = 3 a

o)
@
N

CD

dSooer>dgocid

ETSEq F e q K E c S E r e
q)O@stOO(oOOCD$
@
Nct
$cv)
$
N
C
!

(./)

V)@

lDa

EE5E= 3 = 9 - 3 3 i . 8 9
a<o<no-N(osNOJo_

o
D

Fr=fl=Y?QPiE

6-adY-f 6'a=3 &5


^Y ' a
o-

.= =
> =

C)

.^.^

d) ::.!l'
i
s-?r-!

c.TcD

*o

x . = 6 _6 _X h : i > ' =

q>

q o)

d66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
F

E
L

3 3 Ef

a--

ali.

*=zz
ciX.=.=.ESrn
(n@c'EE(JO_AA(nE_
s|r)ro@oo)(or'-o)oo)
==cbcbP+Li,6totrcb

TABLE 3.4

102

FacilitiesPlanning

The
work for Option 1. The other options havesimilar spreadsheets.
three options havetransportwork of 9,647,78,669,and 28,t31 EFUfeet per day respectively.
Another measure of material flow is the frequency count for
materialmoves.Option t has11 internal moves,Option 2has L4, and
Option 3has 2I. The total distancetraveledfor the two representative
productsis another measure.Options 1 through 3 have distancesof
L,026,7,723, and2,735feet,respectively.
The average
number of trips
per day is 119, 732, and !98.
This analysisassumesthat all trips use the EFU, an equivalent
handcart,asthe means.When implemented,the layoutactuallywilluse
severalmethods of handling. However, for estimating, the EF"[J
assumptionis a reasonableapproximation.
Figure3.41is agraphicdisplayoftheMFAresults. Basedon every
materialflow measure,Option f. is significantlybetter than Option 2.
Option 2 is significantlybetter than Option 3.
Financial analysis
Table 3.5 summarizesthe financialresultsfor the threeoptions.Option
3-the existinglayout-maintains the statusquo.For this reason,there
is no change in either savingsor costs.Option 3 thus provides the
baselinefor the financialanalysis.

2 5C0

7A
60

2.CC0

50
1 500

40
30

1,000

2A
500
10
0

IW(Fl EFU/Davr1000)
Ir ps/Dav
fulro
^nnua Cosl 1$)
FLI^ I UO

2n 131

,723
132
63 957

400

600

Figure3.41- Msteriol HondlingSummory

TheMacro-Space-Plan 103
The center building is the new constructionbetween the two
existingbuildings.The team estimatedthe costat $35 per squarefoot.
The eastextensionfor Option 2 will cost about $30 per squarefoot
becauseit doesnot haveloading docks.
Option 2 wlll need new equipment,valued at about $23,000,
which will cost $21,000 for installation. Option 3 requires more
equipment becauseof its cellular nature. Rearrangementcosts are
$45,000and $28,000,respectively,for Options 1 and 2.
The cellularapproachof Option l will requiresignificanttraining
and additionalconsultingfeeswhen comparedto Option 2. The team
alsoanticipateda more difficult start-up.
A contingencyof 15 percentthat allows for unplanned costsis
appliedto the implementationofboth newoprions.Either Option 1 or

Initial
CashOutflows
Description

Option 1
Amount

Option 2
Amount

Option 3
Amount

$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0

CenterBuilding
EastExtension
Equipment
Installation
Rearrangement
Training
Consulting
Startup
Contingencies

$161,000
$0
$176,000
$49,500
$45,000
$32,000
$43,500
$100,000
$91,050

$161,000
$307,800
$23,000
$7,800
$28,000
$0
$20,000
$45,000
$88,890

Total

$698,050

$681,490

AnnualInflows
Description

Option 1
Amount

Option 2
Amount

Increased
Sales
$750,000
Material
Handling
$22,885
DirectLabor
$132,000
Otherlndirect
$75,000
WorkingCapital
$140,000
Ouality
$230,000
Total
$1,349,885
InitialInflow
Inventory
Years-To-Payout

$750,000
qE FFA

$10,000
$37,500
$0
$20,000
$826,058

$1,750,000
0.23

TABLE 3.5

Option 3
Amount
$0
$0
$0

s0
$0
$0
$0

$0

$0

0.82

nla

104

FacilitiesPlanning

Option 2 will bring increasedsalesand production. The net profit for


this is estimatedat $750,000.
Material handling savingscome from the decreasein handling
and transport work. Using the data from the material flow analysis,the
teamestimatedcostsavingsof fi22,885peryearfor Option 1 and $8,558
dollarsperyearfor Option2. This assumes
four minutesofloading and
unloading for eachtrip. It assumesan averagetransportspeedof 150
feet per minute and an $18.50hourly labor cost. It also assumesthat
each move has an empty return trip.
Calculations for direct labor, quality, and other indirect labor
savingsarelessrigorous,but the teamdevelopedconservative
estimates
from their experiences.
Option t has a significantinventory reductionof ff7.75million.
This is a one-time savingsandlessenstheworking capitalrequired.The
intereston this, at 8 percent,amountsto $140,000per year.
The payoutfor Option 1 is 0.23 years.The payoutfor option 2 is
0.82 years. Both payoutsare quick. There is no payout for Option 3
becausethere is no initial investment.
An ROI analysiswould be more rigorous than the payout method.
However, the fast paybacksfor Options 1 and 2 indicate that the increased
complexityand effort requiredfor an ROI analysisis unnecessary.
The teamreviewedthe decisioncriteriato seeif the options met
all qualifiers. All three options met the regulatory qualifiers. All three
options met the budgetary qualifier. Only Options 1 and 2 will satisfr
1998 production requirements.This signifies that doing nothing,
Option 3, is not a viablecourseof action.Option 3, however,hasbeen
useful as a baselinefor improvementestimates.
Positi ve -n eg ative -i ntere sting
Having completed the quantitative analyses,the evaluationgroup then
rurnedto PNI analysis.Meetingwith a facilitator,theyfocusedon each
option and eachaspectin turn. They usedbrainstormingtechniquesto
develop the positive, negative,and interesting points for each option.
The resultsare in table 3.6.
Weighted factor analysis
With the quantitative and qualitative analysis complete, the team
rurned to weighted factor analysis,where analysis and opinion are
mergedinto a singledecision.
Figure 3.42 summarizesthe weighted factor results.The team
first reviewed each factor and confirmed the definition. Through
discussion,the membersreacheda consensuson the weights. Each

TheMacro-Space-Plan 105
factor had a weight betweenone and ten.
Operating cost, quality, and delivery receivedhigh weights (ten
and nine).Thesefactorshavethe most direct effectin the marketplace.
The group believedthey had the highest strategicimportance.
Material flow, communication,and teamwork receivedweights in
the sevento eightrange.Thesefactorsaresomewhatrelated.
Good material

PNlAnalysisSummary
Option 1
Positive

Option 2
Negative

BestMaterialHandling
Simplification
Neat & CleanGeometry
Less Inventory
Better Teamwork
FitsW/TOM
FasterThroughput

HighTrainingRequired
It MightNot Work
DifficultAdjustment
HigherRisk

Factar

Option 3
Interesting

Racnnnca

LessSpace
LessCost
FasterPayout
BestAnnualCost
Easier
Supervision
Employee
Involvement
NiceAisleSystem
UsesCurrentSoftware
w/Kanban
Production
Control
Option I
Positive
Reduced
Material
Handling
NiceAisleSystem
Neat& CleanGeometry
EasyPersonal
Adjustment
Lotsof Space

Option 3
Interesting
LowRisk
Allows Cellular
HighCost
TransitionLater
AllowsCellular
Procrastination
NoThroughput
lmprovement
MoreSpaceRequired
LowerPayout
HigherAnnualCost
I aqc Fmnlnrroo

Involvement
DoesNot Assit TOM
LessTeamwork

TABLE 3,6

106

FacilitiesPlanning

flow improvescommunicationand simplifiesoperations.It alsoreduces


interdepartmentalproblems.Betterflow andbettercommunicationenhance
teamwork.Material flow alsoties to operatingcost.
The team then examined material flow and compared the three
options. With quantitative data from the MFA, they quickly achieved
consensuson the ratings. Option 1 receivedan A for material flow,

t'oj""t'
fAcitir^/ Re-euaiueeeiu'

Weighted
Factor
Analysis
to

Oplion t1

Factor

Oplion l2

Option 13

g,

f2

l0tlrluNicA.TioN

14

F3

TeAt'twoeK

A zt

F)

NEW "?ODUCTE

u
e

u
u
u
e

12

e s

F4 rNiTlrX- 167

r s >ieecT o?ee-c61

32 I

24
7

10

3o

20

i6

AU/XLiTY

36

1g

u
u

t7

>tMEV

lo

4o

10

Totals

*
I

1q4

s4

Option al

o
o

o
6
12

o
o
o

r(

Option Descriplion

CELLUIJAQ

2 FUNCTlON/lt
3 EKST1N6

ef rzlqt,

{ore: cottBliueD acoaEa

tl.ATEAJALFLOW

Fl

Ay:
AL

cost't6?eoDucrS

\it:
lEol

iltnAF,)
f.TAYLO?

H,FOAD

Figure3.42 - Weighted Foctor Anolysis

Oplion 15

The Macro-Space-Plan

1O7

Option 2 receivedan I, and Option 3, the baseline,receiveda U. The


team repeatedthis processfor the other factors.
Delivery had somequantitativebasis.The number and length of
moves from the MFA indicated that delivery would improve under
Option 3, whereasdelivery perhapswould see slight improvement
under Option 2.
Qrality, new products,teamwork, and communicationhad no
quantitativeanalysis.Nevertheless,
discussionand a reviewof the PNI
analysisbrought a consensusamong the team members.
They then multiplied each factor weight by each raring and
totaledthe scorefor eachoption. Option 1 received194points,Option
2 received94 points, and Option 3 received18 points. From those
scores,the group concludedthat Option 1 was bestby alargemargin.
The team could have begun the weighted factor analysis by
weighing eachfactor individually and rating eachoption. They could
then averageand comparetheir resultsasa basisfor discussion.This is
a usefultechniquewhen it appearsthat individualshavewidely differing
views. Severalcomputer programs are availablefor this type of multil
factor decisionmaking,but the most important resultsderivefrom the
discussions.
In most situations,a manualcompilationlike that in figure
3.42 rs sufficient.

Conclusion
This completesthe discussionof macro-space-planning.
Many of the
methods apply to other levels of spaceplan design. Material flow
analysis,for example,is an important tool for Level 2, "Site Planning."
Weighted factor analysisappliesat all levels.
For most facility planning, the macro-space-planis the most
important planning level. It is where strateg.yis defined and the first
stepstoward implementationare taken. It is the level that usuallyhas
the greatestimpact on a firm's competitiveposition. For thesereasons
it hasbeen the sublectof the most subsrantialdiscussionin this book.

Chapter4
Micro-Space-Planning
and
Work Cell Design
Micro-space-planning,Level 4, is the next level of design detail.
Micro-space-planningdeterminesthe locationofequipment,furniture,
andworkstationsfor eachdepartmentor SPU ofthe macro-space-plan.
Processchartsand operationplans define how peopleand equipment
will work within the space(fig. a.1). The output is usually a twodimensionallayout for eachdepartmentor SPU. It may be helpful to
combine the spaceplans for eachSPU on a large drawing that overlays
the macro-space-plan.
Soundmicro-levelspaceplanningensuresthatworkflows smoothly
in eachSPU, promoting teamwork.It affectssupervision,o rganizational
learning,costs,inventory,quality,delivery,flexibility,andcoordination,
as well as many aspectsof the firm's cost structure.It provides an
opportunity to reengineerthe processes.
During this activity,collaborationwith supervisorsandworkers in
eachdepartmentis vital. The success
of the spaceplan dependslargely
on their cooperationbecauseit is their spaceand their work that will
change.Upper managementusuallyparticipateslessat this level than
at higher levels.
Micro-space-planningsometimesoccursbefore the large-scale
macro-space-plan
is designed,particularlyif only one areaneedsa new
spaceplan. Or, a designerm y wish to developan experimentalwork
cell to gain experienceand try out new ideas.Ifso, he or she should
review the parts of Chapter 2 that discusslevelsand phasing.
The approachto micro-layoutsdiscussed
in this chapteris similar
to that for macro-layouts.It has five major tasks,eachof which has a
correspondingprocedurediagramthat tellsthe designeror designteam

r 1 0 FacilitiesPlanning
fundamentalelements-SPUs,
how to do it. The macro-space-plan's
affinities, space,and constraints-still apply,yet there are significant
differences.This chapterexplainsthe tasksand procedures.
The model projectplan helpsdesignersorganizethis work, while
allowing them to look aheadand behind. Focusingon a detailedtask
also means stepping back to view the entire work cell design.This
where each
differs significantlyfrom designinga macro-space-plan,
task can be approachedas a relatively independent piece of work.

D l a m o n dE q u l p m e n t
Uacro Spacoplan

Figure4.1 - Workcell Operotions Plon

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

11' |

Work cells
Macro-space-planSPUsareoftenwork cells.Work cellsaresmall,selfcontained work units with severalmachines or operations. Their
equipment and peopleare situatedtogether in a compact,sequential
arrangement.Work cellsusuallyhavetwo to ten people and two to ten
to produce
operations.They perform all or most operationsnecessary
Here aresome
their productsor completea majorproductionsequence.
examples:
A manufacturerofjet-engine turbine bladesdecidedto usework
cells to prepare the intricate and delicate wax patterns for precision
investmentcastings.A molding machineproducedwax components.A
team of t\,vo to five people then assembledthe components into
patterns. They manually cleanededges,filled voids, and inspected
completed patterns. Within a few days of cell startup, defects and
rework declined 30 percent while productivity rose significantly.
Throughput went from severalweeks to one day.
The samemanufacturerofturbine bladesalsochoseto usecellsfor
processingraw castings.In the post-castingcell,tvvoto sevenpeoplecut
gatesand risers.They shot-blastedthe blades,ground flash,de-burred,
x-rayed and inspected.Throughput time went from months to days.
Qrality increaseddramatically. Productivity improved.
A maker of industrial air cleanersdecidedto use cells for final
assembly.Productivity increasedby 20 percent. Responsetime for
specialorderswent from weeks to hours. Finished-goodsinventory
declinedby 96 percent.The samemanufacturerthen linked aweldment
cell for cabinetsto the final assemblycells.This further reducedWIP
inventory and improved quality. The air cleaner manufacturer then
placedsheetmetal fabricationin a linked cell.Internal-partsshortages
disappeared.
WIP declinedfurther.
A firm that manufacturesmechanicalcontrol cableschoseto use
cellsfor final assembly.That companyreducedthe amount of finished
goodsby90 percentandimprovedqualityby60 percent.Workers in the
cell consistentlyproduced at I20 percentof the former work standard.
In addition, workers in the cell performed many tasks that indirect
employeespreviouslyaccomplished.
A manufacturerof HVAC equipment machinesand assembles
large gearboxes.The firm installed a machining cell and a linked
assemblycellandreducedfinishedgoodsby 80 percentwhileimproving
quality and productivity significantly. Responsetime for specialorders
went from weeks to twenty-four hours.
Many other industriesuse work cells with similar results.These
indude thosespecializingin electronics,steelcasting,structuralfabrication,

112

FacilitiesPlanning

plastics,and vinyl windows. Cells work with single products or many


products,in offices,hospitals,and serviceindustries.They are effective
wherevercoordinationof sequentialoperationsdominatesa process.
Cells can be classifiedby their range of productsand processes
(fig. 4.2), using the conceptof operationfocusdiscussedin Chapter 3
(seefigs" 3.79 and 3.20).These cell classifications
are:
only
a single product
that
produces
cell
DedicatedCell-Awork
with, perhaps,minor variation. It has multiple, sequentialprocesses.
Dedicatedcellshavea high degreeof productfocus.Sucha cell may be
found in the lower left region of the chart in fignre 4.2.
(GT) Cell-GT cellsproducea family ofrelated
GroupTechnologjt
products.They have similar, but not necessarilyidentical, processes.
Examples are the machining of similar shafts or the assemblyof
productswith many common parts. GT cellshavea moderatedegree
ofproduct focus.
Functional Cell-:lhese cells use a single process,such as heat
treat,that operateson a wide varietyof unrelatedproducts.Functional
cellsare processfocused.They may be found on the left in figure 4.2.
Project Cell-lhese cells produce a wide variety of unrelated
products using multiple processes.A small tool-and-die shop is,
effectively, a project work cell. Project cells have neither product nor
processfocus.
Project and functional cells are outside the common notion of
cellularoperations.Nevertheless,theycanachievesomeofthe advantages
of traditional cells.They usethe samedesignapproach.

Interpretingterminologyand conventions
Most businessoperationsprovide a variety of products and services.
Someproductsare for externalcustomerswhile othersgo to internal
customers.Although servicesareintangible,theirprovisionfollowsthe
sameprinciplesas a manufacturedproduct. In this chapter,for space
plan purposes,the term product may alsobe interpretedas service.
Also, the sizesof lots and containersin work cells have different
interpretationsin different industries.For example,the term large
container meansone thing to a personwho works in an electronics
plant, but it hasquite a differentmeaningto someonewith a heavysteel
background.It may haveno meaningat all to someonein the insurance
industry. Conventionsareusedas approximate,but well-understood,
terms that crossindustry boundaries.
The conventionusedin the examplesin this book are basedon
designproduction volum e. Singlepiecerefersto one item or a singleunit
ofproduction. Smallisa quantityofproduct equivalentto lessthan one

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

113

half-hour ofproduction.Mediumis a quantiryofproduct equalto or less


than four hours ofproduction. Largers a quantity ofproduct greater
than four hours of production.

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Figure4.2 - Workcell Focus,The Product-ProcessPlone

' t1 4

FacilitiesPlanning

The micro-leveltasks
The preferred approachto micro-layouts follows the pattern developed
in Chapter 3 for macro-layouts.Figure 4.3 is the model project.It has
five generally sequentialtasks:
' Task 04.01, "Analyze and SelectProducts";
'Task 04.02,"Design and Refine Process"l.
' Task 04.03, "SelectInfrastructureElements";
'Task 04.04,"Design Cell Layouts";and
. Task 04.05, "SelectCell Option."
Eachtaskhasa procedurediagramthat showsthe designstepsand their
Variousformsandaidshelpmakedesigndecisions.However,
sequences.
there are parts of eachtask that can have multiple options and many

04.o1
Analyze& Select Products

04.o2
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Select I nf rastructu re Elements

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04.o4
Design Cell Layouts

o4.o5
SelectOption

Figure4.3 - Micro-Loyout Model Project Plon

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

115

points where a particular line of inquiry appearsinfeasible.Multiple


designiterationsmay be necessary.
For example, the selectionof a particular product group appears
viable during Task 04.01, but the calculationof processtime during
Task 04.02 leads to the realization that the equipment has very low
utilization. A return to Task 04.01for aproductgroup revisionmay be
necessary.
Or, during the evaluationprocess,it maybecomeapparent
that a different option for production control offers certain advantages.
Productioncontrol is an infrastructureelementfrom Task 04.03.The
designerthen returnsto that task,specifiesa new option, and designs
an additionallayout.
Some micro-layouts fall outside the work cell classifications
mentioned earlier.They use SPUs and departmentswith many more
peopleand processes.
Suchoperationsaremore difficult to coordinate,
control, and supervise.They are often process-focused.
Non-cellular
micro-space-plans
requirelessrigor and effort in Tasks04.01 through
04.03. Otherwise,the samemodel project and task proceduresapply.
Compatibility of design elements
Severalblocksin the taskproceduresindude the question,"Compatibility
OK?" This is a signalto refer to a compatibility guide. Figure 4.4 is a
compatibilityguidefor the elementsof awork celldesignand shouldbe
read in the sameway asthe affinity chart. Shadedbullets indicate usual
compatibility between two elements.The examplein the lower right
shows that a small externallot sizeis compatible with a small external
containerand incompatiblewith medium andlargeexternalcontainers.
This guide should be consulted frequently for the first few work
cell designs,althoughexperienceddesignersmay not needto useit. It
is not infallible, however.There are occasionswhen a designwill use
elementsthat, under normal circumstances,
are incompatible.

Selectingthe products
Product selectionis the first and most fundamentaltask for work cell
design.It must be decidedwhich productseachSPU will process.This
determinesthe focus for the cell. All other design decisionsflow from
this task. The deliverablefor this task is a list of products for each cell
and a designproduction volume for eachproduct.
Decisions are basedpartially on how the products are processed.
A functional cell might processevery product. In a predominantly
functional spaceplan, a product may travel through many SPUs.In a
product-focusedwork cell, the products may stay in one cell.
During the macro-space-planning,products may have been

1 16

FacilitiesPlanning

assignedto a compositecell or designersmay have made a selection,


later. Task 04.01
knowing that further refinementwould be necessary
is the time when this should occur.
In most situations,
Product selectiongroupsproductsandprocesses.
to allow product focus,the groups should consistof similar products
.
that use a similar processand sequence
"SelectProducts."
Figure4.5 showsthe procedureforTask04.01,
Block 1 representsinput datafor productsand volumes.This datamay
havebeencollectedduring Task 03.02of a previouslypreparedmacro-

tlow To Read The


Compatlblllty cuide

Figure4.4 - Wo*cell Compotability Guide

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

't't7

space-plan,but more detail rr.raybe needed at this point. Block 2


representsinput data in the form of information about the current or
proposedprocesses.
Again, someofthis may havebeencollectedfor the
macro-space-plan,
but more detail may be neededat the micro-level.
In Block 3, a product profile and salesforecastis prepared for
individual products rather than product groups. However, if the variation
betweenproductsis minor, it is possibleto considerthem a singleproduct.
Blocks 4 through t help selec the methodology for product
groupingandselection.The basisfor this groupingvaries.In machining

To 04.02

Figure4.5 - Task 04.01- Select Products

118

FacilitiesPlanning

operations,similar size and featuressuch as round shafts or milled


shapesaremost likely the determiningfactors.In assemblyoperations,
part commonality is the criterion.
Three methodsexistto helpwith this selection:intuitive charting/
grouping, production flow analysis,and coding and classification.In
inruitive grouping, anexperiencedpersonor teamexaminesthe products,
often visually and perhaps with processcharts to bring out valuable
information. From the results,that personor team assignsproductsto
logical groups.This is a quick method that works well if there aretwenry
or fewerproductsor in instanceswhere a few productscan representa
larger population.
Experiencedshoppeopleoften think they can group many parts
complex
routings,usingonly their experienceand intuition. This
with
becomeslessandlesseffectivebeyondtwentydistinctproducts.Instead,
intuitive groupingshouldbe usedto designa protot)?e cellfor learning.
Product flow analysis(PFA) usescurrentroutingsand processes.
computeranalysis,or manual methods,parts that
With spreadsheets,
have similar routings are grouped. PFA is a powerful and fast method
if processesare consistent.Like intuitive grouping, it is most
are simple or productsfew. PFA begins
when processes
advantageous
with more than 100 products.
to lose effectiveness
a codenumber with
Coding and classification(C&C) associates
everyproduct andlor process.The codenumbercarriesinformation on
product featuresor processmethods.A databasemanagerthen sorts
and retrieves various combinations of codes to group the items
appropriately.Coding and classificationworks well evenwhen tensof
thousandsof items arein the productmix. It handlescomplexproducts
and orocesses.
Aithough C&C requires a major initial effort, the benefits are
commensuratewith the effort. It is a valuable method becauseit
Familiescanbeidentified
examinesthe databasefrom manyperspectives.
for purchasing and the issuanceof group purchaseorders. Design
featurescan be examinedand parts,tooling, and gaugesstandardized.
Cost driverscan alsobe identified and costsallocatedmore rationally.
Coding systemshavebeenthe subjectof much researchduring the
past thirty years.The advent of modern databasemanagershas made
thereis a significant
codingsystemsflexibleandeasierto use.Nevertheless,
element of art to their use. Coding systemscan be quite sophisticated.
Designers and planners should consult referencessuch as Salvendy's
HandbookOflndustriat Engineeringbeforeinvestingalargeeffort in a C&C
project.Experienceis a major factor in getting good results.
Block 4 asksif there are fewer than twenty products. If so, Block

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

119

5 recommendspreparing processcharts for each product and then


proceedingto Block 10.
If there are more than twenty products, but fewer than 100
products and fewer than t',arentyunique routings, a processchart for
eachrouting is necessary.
For twenty or more routings, a production
flow analysisis recommended.Ifthere aremorethan 100products,they
should be codedand classified.
The break points of twenty and 100 products are approximate.
When processes
aresimpleorproductsaresimilar,chartingor PFA can
be usedfor evenvery large mixes.
In Block L0, preliminary prt families are identified basedon rhe
previousanalysis.For assemblyoperations,theseareproductsthat usethe
sameparts.For machining,or otherequipment-intensive
operations,these
arepartsthat usethe sameequipmentand tooling. For services,theseare
productsthat havea common customerbaseor usesimilar skill sets.
At this point, it hasnot beendeterminedwhether the familiesof
equipment and peoplewill form a viable cell. A preliminary product
family might havetoo many or two few peopleto createan effectivecell.
The family might, or it might not, utilize the availableequipment
effectively.Proceedingthrough the analysiswill test the viability of the
currentfamily selection.Ifthe family doesnot appearviablear anytime,
optionsinclude:addingmoreproducts,splittingthefamily,ormodifring
the process.
The Diamond Equipment Company
Throughout this chapter,the activitiesof the Diamond Equipment
Companywill be usedasexamplesof how micro-space-planningtasks
and proceduresmay be accomplished.
Diamond manufacturesa varieryof specialpumps for chemicals
and hydrocarbonsand is reengineeringtheir facilities. During the
macro-space-planning,
the staffidentified fourteenproductgroupsfor
cellularmanufacturingusingthe intuitive method. Eachproductgroup
has a correspondingwork cell for assembly
One of Diamond's proposedwork cells assemblesdiaphragm
pumps.Theseproductsappearedto be a good selectionfor a work cell
becausethey usedmany common parts and the sametest equipment.
Their design characteristicswere similar. The total assemblyand
indirect labor originally usedfive to six persons.
The "A Team" was chosento designthis cell as its first project.
The team members included a supervisor,five workers from various
production departments,and an industrial engineerexperirnced in
spaceplanning systems.

120

FacilitiesPlanning

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Figure4.5 - Drowing of a typicol product

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

121

The initialproduct selectionwasstill tentative.The ATeam's first


task was to veri$r that selection.Team membershad the option of
dividing the diaphragmpump cell into severalcells.If necessary,
they
could add other pumps to the cell'sproduct family.
The team prepareda P-V analysis,including a drawing (fig. a.6)
of one tJpicalproduct. From the drawingsand other information, the
teamlearnedthat their proposedproductmix includedtwo pump sizes.
They alsodiscoveredthat threepressureratingsfor eachsizerequired
six different springs and three diaphragm materials required six
diaphragms.Electricalcomponentsfor eachpump were rhe same.
A forecastfor all proposedproductsis shown in figure 4.7. The
team chosea baselinedesignvolume for the work cell of eighty-eight
units per day. The product profile in figure 4.8 showsrelativevolumes
basedon recenthistory. The team decidedthat this product selection
was viable and proceededto Task 04.02,"Design The Process."
Diamond alsohasa machineshopwith twenty-sevenpeopleand
avarietyof numericalcontrol (NC) and conventionalequipment.The
machine shop usesvertical and horizontal machining centers,lathes,
drills, and secondaryequipment.
The machineshopmakescomponents
for all assemblyoperations.

2500

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500

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Figure4.7 - SalesHistorylForecastFor Diaphrogm Pump Workcell

122

FacilitiesPlanning

40%

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10v.

"st u9t -st $" $" n*t $" C "+" .+".dt .+" "d,t$" C dp"C C
Modol #

Figure4.8 - Product Profile for Diophrogm Pump Y{orkcell

At the macro-space-planlevel,the designersidentifiedthe machine


shop SPU asa compositecell.They assignedit a location and spacein
the facility. The M Team was chosento designwork cells within this
composite cell. Like the A Team, the M Team had an industrial
engineer,a supervisor,and five other members.
To simplify the analysis,the M Team performed a preliminary
product segregation.Team members identified high-volume items
theseitems
that ran on dedicatedequipment.They decidedto segregate
and anaLyzethem separately.
For the remaininglow-volumeitems,the teamutilized figure 4.5.
They found the information required in Blocks 1, and 2 of this task
procedure.They prepareda product profile and salesforecast.There
were twenty-sevenitems, so the team proceededto Block 6. Because
therewerefewer than 100items,the teamwent on Block 7. They found
twenty-six unique routings among their lwenty-seven items. The
proceduresuggestedproduction flow analysis.
To apply PFA, the team developed a matrix (fig. 4.9) that
correlated parts and processesbut did not show the sequenceof
operations.Part identifierswere listed on the left, equipmentor work
centersacrossthe top. The check marks in figure 4.9 show that,a
particularpart usesa particularwork center.

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

123

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Figure 4.9 - Production Flow Analysis

Initially, the matrix appearedto haveno identifiable pattern. The


prospectsfor finding viable work cells and part families did not seem
good.The teamexaminedthematrixfurther.Theysortedandrearranged
rows and columns.Gradually,structureemergedfrom apparentchaos;
the result is illustrated in figure 4.10. The shaded areasrepresent
machinegroupsand part familiesfor four work cells.
The upper left block is a manual machining cell with turning,
milling, and other equipment.The reamconsideredbreakingthis cell
into turning and milling cells.However,the productionvolume,seemed
insufficient.Moreover, the cell had a compatibleset of skills.

124

FacilitiesPlanning

The next block is an NC cell. It turns and mills shafts.This cell


sharesa heattreatfurnacewith the manualcell.The third cell mills and
drills basesand plates,usuallycastingsor weldments.
A fourth cellturns,mills, and drills largerotationalparts-mostly
castings-and sharesan NC drill with the third cell.
Two operationsfall outsidethe cells.Theseusea snaggrinderand
manual broach, which are low-cost machines.The team expectsto
ourchaseadditional such machines. Everv cell that recuires these
tperations will havea snaggrinder and broach,eventhough they will
sit idle much of the time.

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Figure 4.10 - Production FIow Analysis

o
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a
o
h

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

125

At present,the team has not consideredrevisingthe processes.


_
some operationscouldmovefrom NC to a manualprocesso.,ri.. '.r.rru.
Revisedprocessingcouldpresentinterestingpossibilitiesfor tightening
the relationshipbetweenproduct and processwithin eachcell.It mighi
relieve an overloaded cell. It might give additional work to an
underutilizedcell.

Gator Steel Foundry


Gator Steelis ajobbing foundry in norrhern Florida.Its specialty
is small-to-medium-sizedhigh-alloy steelcastings.Gator alsocastsin
mild steel.Many of Gator's castingsbecomewear surfacesfor earthmoving and logging equipment. The firm hasabout800 activecastings
and usesa varietyof molding processe
s.The work doneby its managers
and designersis an exampleofhow a companythat manufacturesmore
than 100 items with complexprocesses
accomplishedTask 04.01.
Management decidedto useC&C to rationalizeand standardize
the processeg.
They alsowanted to set up work cellsfor their molding
operations.After following the task procedureoutlined in figure 4.5,
they decided C&C was the mosr appropriatemethod for grouping
productsand processes
into cells.
Becauseof the complexityof the castingprocessand the product
range,Gator hired a consultantto help developan appropriatecoding
systemand carry out the analysis.He developeda polycodesystem,
wtrerebyeachdigit position representsthe samerype of information.
This contrastswith a monocodesystemwhere the digit information
variesbasedon the value of other digits. Such a polycoderequiresa
longer code number and more computer memory and storagespace.
However,polycodesareeasyto work with when conventionaldatabase
managersare used.
Gator's consulrantperformed the work on a PC using a wellknown databasemanager.The codecarriedinformation on both part
featuresand currentprocesses.
The consultantusedthe part featuresto
standardizeprocesses
and group parts into families.
Figure 4.11 illustratesa samplingof someof the 800 castingsand
their code numbers.The report headershowssequencenumbei, part
number,and name.It alsoshowsthe positionnumberfor eachcharacter
in the code number.The code number has the followins structure:
Position
Feature
01
Annual Usage
02
Lot Size
03
FinishedWeight
04
Material

126

FacilitiesPlanning
Heat Treatment
SmallestWindow Size
Length
ToleranceClass
Binder and Sand System
Molding Equipment
Flask Size
PiecesPer Mold
Number Of Cores
Core-Making Equipment

05
06
07
08
09
10
77
72
13
74

sEQ
T P A R T #

N A I { B

r"..Aa690 ciEvis

C A S T : N G G R O UP T E C H N O L O G Y
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Figure4.1I - Costing Coding and Classification

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

125

At present,the team has not consideredrevising the processes.


Someoperationscouldmovefrom NC to a manualpro..r, o.,ni.. .,r.rru.
Revisedprocessingcouldpresentinterestingpossibilitiesfor tightening
th_erelationshipbetweenproduct and processwithin eachcell.It might
relieve an overloaded cell. It might give additional work to an
underutilizedcell.

Gator Steel Foundry


Gator Steelis ajobbing foundry in northern Florida. Its specialry
is small-to-medium-sizedhigh-alloy steelcastings.Gator alsocastsin
mild steel.Many of Gator's castingsbecomewear surfacesfor earth-oyt.rg and loggingequipment.The firm hasabout800 activecastings
and usesa varietyofmolding processes.
The work doneby its managers
and designersis an exampleof how a companythat manufacturesmore
than 100 items with complexprocesses
accompl;shedTask 04.01.
Management decidedto useC&C to rationalizeand standardize
the processeg.
They alsowanted to set up work cellsfor their mording
operations.After following rhe task procedureoudined in figure 4.5,
they decided C&C was the mosr appropriare method for grouping
productsand processes
into cells.
Becauseof the complexityof the castingprocessand the product
range' Gator hired a consulrantto help developan appropriati coding
system and carry our the analysis.He developed a polyiode sysrem,
wherebyeachdigit position representsthe samer1,peof information.
This contrastswith a monocodesystemwhere tne digit information
variesbasedon the value of other digits. Such a polycoderequiresa
longer code number and more computer memory and ,torage space.
However,polycodesareeasyto work with when convention"ldat"base
managersare used.
Gator's consultantperformed the work on a PC using a wellknown databasemanager.The codecarriedinformation on both part
featuresand currentprocesses.
The consultantusedthe part featuresto
standardizeprocesses
and group parts into families.
Figure 4.11 illustratesa samplingof somecifthe 800 castingsand
their code numbers.The report headershowssequencenumbei, part
number,andname.It alsoshowsthe positionnumberfor eachcharacter
in the code number.The codenumter has the following structure:
Position
Feature
01
Annual Usage
02
Lot Size

03
04

FinishedWeight
Material

FacilitiesPlanning

126

Heat Treatment
SmallestWindow Size
Lengh
ToleranceClass
Binder and Sand System
Molding Equipment
Flask Size
PiecesPer Mold
Number Of Cores
Core-Making Equipment

05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14

SEQ
PART#
'

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2

CASTING GROUP TECHNOLOGY


POSITION
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 L 2 3 4

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Figure4.1| - Costing Coding ond Classification

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

127

15
SecondaryCore Equipment
76
Group TechnologyFamily Assignment
Initially, the analystcodedeachparr using only positions1 through 15.
Position 01 is the first characterof the codenumber.The number 3 in
that position representsan annualusageof201 up to 500 castings.4
representsannualusageof501 to 1,000 castings.
Position05 is for heattreatment.0representsn ormahzatrcnat1,600
to 7,675degrees.This is one of severalstandardheattreatmentsat Gator.
3 representsawater quenchfollowed by temperingat 800 degrees.
Position 10 showsthe tlpe of molding equipment.0is a Hunter
Matchplate molding machine with a24by 24 matchplate.4 represents
an OsborneJolt- Squeezemachinewith a 16 by 12 flask.
Other character positions described size, weight, and other
important characteristics.This information was vital for production
planning, scheduling,costing,and tooling design.
The analystthen checkedthe database
for obviousdiscrepancies.
For
example,certainmolding equipmentcolrespondsto ceftainsizeranges.A
retrievalon combinationsof charactersshowssuchinconsistencies.
Next, the analyst standardizedthe processes.Parts with similar
featuresnormally should haveuniform processes.
For example,highvolume parts should run on high-volume equipment. Any such
discrepancies
were corrected.
The analystthen beganto group parts around similar processes,
using characterposition 16 to identif,i eachfamily. He assignednine of
the parts in figure 4.77 to the H1 famlly.
This family haspartswith sufficientvolumefor aHunter automatic
molding machine.They use the sameflask size and have the same
material, allowing similar parts to run together and minimizing
changeovertime. FamiliesH0 and H3 alsorun on the Hunter equipment
but with alarger mold size.
The N2 famlly uses a no-bake binder system. The no-bake
processis more expensivethan greensandbut achievestightertolerances.
The toleranceclass,Position 08, is differenrfor castingsin family N2.
Only a small sample of parts has been shown. The complete
database,816 part numbers,fell into 14 families.The number of parts
in each family varied from 2 to 73.
In later steps,Gator Steeladdedprocesstime andother information
to their database.This allowed the staff to calculate^ver^geequipment
utilization and peoplerequirementsfor proposedwork cells.
All codenumbersin figure 4.l1are somewhatsimilar, and some
areevenidentical.This is becausethe castingsin the sampleardsimilar
in manyrespects.
Theyallhaveaboutthesamesizeandweight,andthey

128

FacilitiesPlanning

usethe samematerial.Theyhave simplecoresor no cores.Within each


GT family, the code numbers have even more similarity.
Yet, from the design engineer'sperspective,these castings are
quite different they have different names and functions and become
partsin different products.From a marketingperspective,the castings
also are different: they go to different industries and have different
customers.From a financial perspective,the products have different
pricing, overheads,and profit margins.

Designingthe process
Task 04.02 designsor redesignsthe cell's production process.This
often results in significant improvementsin productivity becauseit
ensuresthat the processsuitsthe work cell'spart family. It alsoforces
a critical review of the t1pe, size, and capacityof equipment and may
eliminate processelementsthat add no value.
This task is similar to some of the work in Task 03.11 at the
macro-levelbut with more detail.At the macro-level,the processwas
defined only asfar aswas necessaryto ensurea valid cell definition. All
equipment or processtimes may not have been identified, and the
designermay haverecognizedthat further refinementwas necessary.
Figure 4.12 showsthe task procedure.In Block 1, a preliminary
processand the equipmentrequiredfor it is selected.This often is an
to
existingprocess.For a completelynew product, it may be necessary
startwith a proposedprocess.This preliminaryselectionshould result
in a processchart and correspondingequipmentlist.
Block 2 refines the process.Non-value-added elements are
eliminated and other options for equipment scaleare explored.For
example,a preliminary processfor a steel fabrication cell needed a
sophisticatedcutoffsaw- alarge,high-volumepieceofequipment that
would servefive different cells.The processrefinement examined the
useoffive smaller bandsaws.Eachcellwould haveoneof the saws.This
eliminated five transport operations,reducedinventory and simplified
scheduling.Processscaleis a particularlyimportant issuewhen making
a transition from a functional to a cellular spaceplan.
Blocks 3 through 6 estimatesset-up, equipment, process,and
Traditional time
personneltimes.Figure4.13illustratesthe differences.
studyoften assumesthat personnel,process,and machinetimes arethe
same.This assumptioncomesfrom an underlyingsuppositionthat one
personoperatesa singlemachine,which often is invalid. Figure 4.13
showsthat, afteran initial setup, a personloadsthe machineand is then
idle while the machineoperates.That personthen unloadsthe machine
and inspectsthe part. The machineis idle during the inspection.The

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

129

processtime is the total throughput time for one part.


Disparities between person and machine times can generate
important productivity increases.
Where such disparityis significant,
peoplecanload a machineand then moveto anotherprocesswhile the
machineoperates.The longerthe processtime, the more advantageous
this becomes.
If set-upsvary significantly between parts, the setup time for
eachpart and eachoperationshouldbe estimated;otherwise,a blanket
set-up time for each operation may be sufficient. Consider the
possibilitiesfor improving set-up times.These estimatesdo not have
to be particulady accurate.Accuracyon the order ofplus or minus 20
percent is sufficient. These times should be documented on a
spreadsheet
similarto Table 4.1.

Figure4.12 - Designand RefineProcess

130

FacilitiesPlanning

T i m i n gT e c h n i q u e s
-Stopwatch Study
-Predetermined Systems (MTM)
'Experiencd OPinion
-Historical Data
-Equipment Specifications

10

15

20

25

30

Figure4.13- WorkcellTirnes

S/U per Day:


Units/Day:
Avail Min/Day:

2
88
420
PERUNIT

PERDAY
Sru
3.60
3.00
2.00
1,.75
2.00
0.00
2.00
1.00

Proc
Oper Mach
277.92 27t.92 27r.92
72I.44 121.44 121.44
77.44 77.44 77.44
1,92.72 1,92.7r 192.72
413.60 473.60 473.60
39.60 44.00 83.60
90.64 1320.007507.28
165.44 765.44 165.44

Sru
7.20
6.00
4.00
3.50
4.00
0.00
4.00
2.00

Station/Op
Head SubAssy
DiaphragmAssy
Body/Coil SubAs
Main Assy
ElectAssy
ElectTest
Flo/Press Test
Package

Oper Mach Proc


3.09 3.09 3.09
1.38 1.38 1.38
0.88 0.88 0.88
2.19 2.79 2.79
4.70 4.70 4.70
0.45 0.50 0.95
1.03 15.00 17.06
1.88 1.88 1.88

Totals

15.60 29.62 32.13 15.35 1372.80 2606.562827.44 30.70

PeopleReqd: 3.34767

TABLE 4.1

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

131

The time for eachcyclewhen the equipmentis busyandunavailable


for other work is then estimated.These times may be obtainedfrom
equipment specifications,stopwatch timing, existing standards,or
experience.The level of accuracynormally usedto setwork standardsis
not necessary.
Accuracyofplus or minus 15 percentis usuallysufficient.
How long is a personis occupiedduring an operationcycle?To
calculatepersonneltime, the samesourcesusedfor equipmenttimes are
available,and the required level of accuracyis similar.
Processtime is the time a part spendsin process,not including
queuingtime. Someprocesses
may havea curing or other wait, which
is alsopart of the processtime.
In situations where a processrequires constant attendance,
personnel,equipment,and processtimes may coincide.This alsomay
happen when very short cyclesprecludethe possibilrtyof a person
moving to anotheroperation.
Block 7 uses the time estimatesto calculatethe amount of
equipment and the number of peopleneededfor eachprocess.
Block 8 selectsthe externallot size.External lot sizeis the quantiry
of product produced after a changeoveror ser up of the cell. This is
usuallydifferent from internal lot size,.whichwill be discussedlater.
The form in figure 4.14 maybe usedas a guide for estimatingthe
external lot size. selecting an appropriatelot size requires intelligent
balancingofthree costfactors:set-upcosts,inventorycosts,andpiececosts.
It coststime, effort, and money to set up or changeequipment.
This set-up cost must then be spread over the numbei ol units
produced.For example,it may take two hours to setup a machineat a
cost of $10 per hour. The total set-up cost, then, is $20. If one
production unit is processed,
the setupcostper unit is $20. If two units
are processed,a cost of $10 is added to each unit. If 100 units are
processed,a cost of20 centsis addedto eachunit.
If set-up costswere the only factor, infinitely large lots would
be the result. Inventory costs are among the offsetting factors that
limit the maximum lot size. Larger lots call for more inventory.
Resourcesare expended to provide the spacefor that inventory,
which also needs working capital and insuranceagainst loss. It
requires tracking and support systemsto control it. Inventory also
can becomeobsoleteor damaged.
Piececostsare thosecoststhat remain constantregardlessof lot
size. They include direct labor, materials,and some overhead.The
more valuablethe material and labor in a product, the fasterstorageand
inventorycostsrise.
When selecting external lot size, there are severalprinciples to

132

FacilitiesPlanning

keepin mind:
1 . Most firms uselot sizesthat arcfar abovethe optimum. Designers
should not assumethat current lot sizesare realistic.

2. The total cost curveis usually{lat nearthe optimum. Therefore, a


significant variancefrom the theoretical optimum may have little
cost effect.For this reason,choosea convenientround number or
use a rule of thumb. Such a rule of thumb might be 0.5 daysof
production or a singlecustomerorder.

3 . Conventional accounting systemsoften disguise many storage


costs.These must be investigatedwith tenacity to make good
decisions.
4. Set-upreductioncanhavedramaticeffectson the shapeofthe total
cost curve.It may becomeso flat that the lot sizeissuebecomes
irrelevant. Be sure to consider the value and effects of set-up
reduction.
Diamond's A-team designs a process
The A Team at Diamond Equipment continued its work ceil
designproject.Figure 4.14 illustratesthe processchart for the original
processandlayout.Becausethe firm had organizeditselfalong functional
lines, this chart shows many moves,delays,and storages.The team
proposeda new processbasedon the sameequipmentbut in a cellular
arrangement.Figure 4.15 showsthis refined process.
Table 4.1 containsthe time estimates.From thesetimes,the team
calculatedthe peopleand equipmentrequirements.They assumedfour
set ups per day knowing this might changewhen the externallot sizes
were calculated.
The team then estimatedthe total set-up time within the cell at
15.35 minutes.The sum of all set-up times with the previouslayouts
was about 60 minutes.The team did not know exactlyhow to achieve
this reduction,eventhough teammembersbelieveditwas a reasonable
goal. The cost for a single set up for the new cell was $4.32. This
calculationis shown at the upper right in figtre 4.14.
The team next calculatedunit cost,which doesnot dependon set
up or lot size.Direct labor, taken from table 4.1, was 0.25 hours.The
labor ratewith overheadwas fi78.67.Unit costwas,therefore,fi56.77.
To determinestoragecost,theteamwentto Diamond'saccounting
department,where the annualcostsfor operatingthe finished goods

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

133

warehousewere identified.This annualwarehousecost,$236,901.00.


is in figure 4.74.Team membersdeterminedthe averagenumber of
diaphragmpumpsin the warehouseduring the previousyear,and they
determined the spacenecessaryfor each pump. They then assigned
0.003percentof the warehousecostto eachdiaphragmpump unit. The
cost for storing a singleunit for an entire yearwas ff15.32.

Unlt Cost

Sotup Cost

Item
Cost($)
Labor(Hours'Ratel...2.5*.1t.67= 4.85

Labor
(Hours'
e"tet...]5-1j.!..82

Material/Parts

Stup Scrap

4S.tG

llem

Overhead

Setup Materials

Olher:

Lost Produclion Prolit (ll @ 10006)_

Economic Lot Slze

Storage Cost
warehouse
Cost($)
Lease/capiral
charse................
....12.,.'l.gg.
:p.g
L a b o(fH o u r'sB a t e ) . . .. . . . . . . . 1 1 2 , O 2 O . O O
lnsurance................
6,o8,7.oo

ELS =

ELS= to4
Total unit cost
Piece

Setup

Storage

0.173
4_54.710
o.ot6
52L4-71o
7l_s4:71!_ o.osg
oo _54:zle_ o.o43
2l___54.71o o.o35
o.ozq
5!L42:o
7JL4.7_1_9_ o.ozs

54.

172z

$ st.ll

Tolal Cost/unil

Lot

Cost (g)

_9.o1o
o.o2o
oato
o.o4o
lnt g
o.ose
o.o69

Total

sq.(a3
s4.916
s4.7q7
54.7q3
53t_g_4
sq.7qt
54.8o4

Maintenance

16,5oo.oo

Tares.......,..............

3,4oo.Oo
13,154.OO

U t i l i r i e s....-.. . . . . . . . .
Obsofescence.........__

1,54O.OO

OTUQSubtota|..............

2,1oo.oo

% of Warehouse/Unit.

276.qO1.OO
O.OO37o
t.Zl

U h i ct o s l ' I n l e r n a l

A n n u a f W a r e h o u s e C o s t / U n i t . . . . _1. 5 . 3 2

54.
54.
125 15o
175
LotSize(Unils)

2oo

225

Figure4,14 - Lot SizeAnalysis

25o

275

134

FacilitiesPlanning

day.This is equivalent to t9 ,360 units per year.Using this figure, the


set-up cost, and the unit storage cost, they calculated the theoretic
economiclot size(ELS). The ELS was 104 units, or gre^terthan one
day'sproduction.The teamknew that it had probablynot identified all
the storagecost and that total cost curvesare often flat near the ELS.

Irems 1-g 8 6l-75

Items5A E 58

srk

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i Hrs
Slore
Wks
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l5 MIn

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oulbound oueue
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L o t S i z e = 1 0 4U n l t s
Times Are Clock/Calendar Fon Lot

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1 7 6 x l O A - 4 7 4M h
outbound oueue
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l B 0 l x l 0 0 - 1 8 0 1M 1 n
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05 Dags
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war-

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Figure4,15 - ProcessChort for the Original Processond Loyout

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

135

This meantthat awide rangeoflot sizesbrought almostthe samecosts.


They calculatedtotal costfor a rangeof lot sizesthat spannedthe
ELS. Theyplotted them at the bottom offigure 4.14.This confirmed
that a lot sizeofhalfthe ELS increasedthe unit priceby only two cents.

3o

i sq g'o

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Figure4,15 - ProcessChort forthe Refned processond Layout

136

Planning
Facilities

selecteda lot sizeof forty-four units.This is onehalf-dayofproduction,


two set-upsper day. Basedon the conventionsoutlined eadierin this
chapter,this is a medium lot size.
They used tvvoset ups per day for the spreadsheetof table 4.1.
They alsoverified that the cell neededfour people.

Planningcell infrastructure
Task 4.03 selectsinfrastructureelements;the procedureis illustrated in
fi.gure4.77. Infrastructureelementssupport Processwithout directly
touchingor contributingto productcreation.Someinfrastructureelements
aretangibleand somearenot. The followinginfrastructure elementsmay
be consideredthe minimum for adequatework cell design:
'external containersl
'internal containers;
' externalmaterialhandling;
' internal materialhandling;
' externalproduction control;
' internal production controll
' internal lot size(transferbatch);
' equipmentbalancemethod;
' peoplebalancemethod;
' quality assurance;
'supervision;
' compensationsystem;and
' operatorassignmentsand skills.
Theseinfrastructureelementsarean essentialpart of the work cell
design.If a designteam or designerdoes not selectthem, operators
must do it ad hoc. Their selectionseldomrequiresextensiveanalysis;
however,it doesrequirecarefulthought and experience.Each element
must fit with the othersinto an integrated,well-functioning system.
The first stepofthe taskprocedureis the selectionofthe external
containersand the identification of the size and type of container.
Materials and products move to and from the cell in these external
containers.Containersbringing material to the cell can differ from
thoseremoving products.
Containerscanprotecttheir contents.They canimprovehandling
characteristicsand convert small units to larger handling units. They
can assistwith visualcontrol of materials.
The conventionsdescribedearlierin this chaptermay be usedto
classifycontainersas single-piece,small, medium, or large.
Containers should neverbe larger than the lot size.Thus, large or
medium containers should not be specified for a small lot size. This

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

137

medium containersshould not be specifiedfor a small lot size.This


samesort of incompatibility can occurwith other designelements.
After the containerselection,the structureofits route and the qype
of handling equipmentthat will be usedare specified.This is Block 2
of the task. Handling often changessignificantlywhen manufacturers
move from functional to cellular layouts. The new system must
accommodatesmallerloadsand more frequentmoves.This affectsthe
container route structure and the type of equipment employed.

Figure4,17 - Tosk 04.03- ldentify lnfrastructure Elemenrs

138

FacilitiesPlanning

Figure 4.18 shows the basic routt structures available.(A) is a


direct route structure,where material movesfrom its origin directly to
its destination. Such a structure fits well with large lots and functional
layouts. Full loads for the equipment employed are necessary.Fork
trucks moving pallets usually operate on a direct route structure.
In (B), d channelroute structureis shown. Channel structuresfit
with smallercontainersand less-than-firllloads.The equipment moves
alonga fixed route.At eachstopit picksup loadsoriginating at that point
anddropsoffthose destinedforthatpoint. Citybusesusesucha structure.
For situationswhere control of movement and material is critical,
a central system (C) works well. All loads move first to a central
location. A second move takes them to their destination. Central
systemsworkwell where sorting or storagetakesplace.FederalExpress
useda nationwide central systemfor m anyye rs.Manywarehousesand
distributorsuse centralsystems.
A s is illustrated in (D). This structure works well with long
distancesand partial loads.Loads move first to a terminal. They then
move to a secondterminal,often on different equipment,and then on
to their destination.Airlines and long-distancetruckers often use a
terminal system.
Selectionof equipmentis, for the most part, basedon experience.
The equipment must be compatiblewith route structure,containers,
and flow rate. For example,fork trucks work bestwith high flow rates,
variable routes, direct structures, and large containers. Conveyors
usually suit high flow rates,fixed routes, and direct structures.

Externalproductioncontrol
Five basicm ethods-direct link, broadcast,
kanban,materialrequirements
p lanning (M RP), andreorderp oint (ROP)-are availablefor coordinating
production. This is Block 3 in figue 4.17.
Direct link
havea physicallink. Product movesfrom
With direct linkage, processes
the first to the secondprocesswithout queues,buffers,or delays.The
processes
start and stop together.They operatewith identicallot sizes,
usuallysingle-piece.There is no WIP betweenthem.
Direct link is only feasiblewhen processesare balancedand
require about the sametime per cycle.The processes
must be capable
of synchronization, have the sameproducts, and be co-located.
Broadcast
A broadcastsystemis slightly more flexible than direct link. In this

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

139

system, a scheduledictates the rate and product mix for the final
operation. The same schedule is applied to upstream operations,
which make their componentsin the sameorder (the line set order)
as the final operation.They deliver thesecomponentsjust aheadof
the scheduledassemblytime. Co-location is not necessary;
however,
the capability to make the samelot size-usually a single piece-is.
Broadcastsystemsoften are seenwhere subassemblyoperationsfeed
assemblylines.
Kanban
Kanbansystemsusea smallmixed stock.The stockpoint is often at the
producingwork center.This stockhasenoughofeachitem for afew hours
to a few daysofproduction. usersoftheseitemspull smallquantitiesfrom
the stock frequently.They signalthe producing work centerat the rime
theymakeeachwithdrawal.sometimesthis signaldeviceis a card,hence
the useof the word kanban,which is Japanese
for card.
At the producing work center,peopletrack the incoming cards
and observestock levels.They then scheduletheir production to
minimize changeovereffortswhile replenishingthe stocks.Kanban
systemssenseand respondto changingdemandvery quickly. They
operatewith very low inventoriesand need short set-upsand small
lot sizes.It is unnecessary
to coordinateproduction exactly.A work
center may feed and draw from many other work centers. The
system is simple and does not need computers or sophisticated
communicationsequipment. Kanban is often a good choice for
coordinatingwork cells.
Material reguirements planning (MRp)
MRP systemsusecomputersto scheduleand track production.They
alsocanplan capacity,collectcosts,and providemany other functions.
A basicMRP systemhasdatabaseswith
the followinginformation:bills
of materials,routings,inventoqf,and lead times for eachoperation.
The systemworksfrom a forecastofend-productdemandand the
above information. It produces a schedulefor each work center.
Feedbackupdatesthe systemasexecutiontakesplace.MRP systemsare
very flexibleand canschedulevirtually anyrypeof shopor operation.In
theory, a modern MRP systemis almost the ultimate in scheduling.
Practiceis somewhatdifferent. To work correctlv.bills of material
must be almostperfect.Routingsmust be current.Inventory accuracy
must be 99 percentor better. Lead times must be realistic.variation
from leadtimes must be minimal, and the forecastmust be reasonably
accurate.Such conditionsrarelyexist.

140

FacilitiesPlanning

Reorder point ROP)


ROP systemsmaintain a significant stock of each item. As users
withdraw items,the remainingstockdeclines.When the stockreaches
apre-determinedlevel-the reorderpoint-a signalinitiates apurchase
order or shop order to replacethe stock.Ideally, the remaining stock
lastsuntil the replacementquantity arrives.ROP systemsare simple.
They canoperatemanually,semi-manually,or with a computer.When
demandis steadyand replenishmenttimes do notvary, ROP systems
work well. These conditionsrarelyexist.
ROP systemsare superficiallysimilar to kanban.They differ in
the following ways:
1. ROP systemsgeneratea replenishmentsignalonly at the reorder
point. Kanban systemsgeneratea replenishmentsignalwith each
withdrawal.

2 . Comparedto ROP systems,kanbansystemsoperatewith frequent


replenishmentsand small lot sizes.

3 . ROP systemsusuallytakedaysorweeksfor a replenishmentsignal.


The feedbackfor a kanbanwithdrawal is verv fast. often minutes or
hours.
4. ROP systemsusually have a separatewarehouseor scheduling
system.Producingworkersusuallyoperatea kanbansystem.
5. ROP systemsworkwell for small,low-costitemssuchashardware,
where simplicity of operationovercomesthe inherent inefficiency
of the system.
There is a hierarchyof methods:
7. direct link;
2. broadcast;
3. kanban:
-.

material requirementsplanning; and

) . reorderpoint.

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

14'l

Whe n conditionsallow, directlink is the most desirablemethod. ROP


is the leastdesirable.As work cellsarebeing planned,it is best to use
a systemashigh in the hierarchyaspossible.Use ROP onlyundervery
specialconditions. Work cells generallywork best with direct link,
broadcast,and kanbansystems.
Within a faciliry or work cell, severalof thesesystemsmay exist at
the sametime. Kanban may work for certainpro..rr., and products,
and MRP for others.Kanban might be usedinternally and MRP for
purchaseditems.
Over time, the system may change.A process-focusedplant
might initially have an MRP system.Management may begin to
connectoperationswith kanbansystemsfor selectedproducts.With a
new spaceplan, operationswould consolidatein work cells or have
direct linkage.
Block 5 of Task 04.03 identifies internal production control,
which addresses
the issueof coordinatingprocesses
within the work
cell. It helps operatorsdecidewhat to make and what operation ro
perform next.The selectionof an internal production control method
usuallytiesto the selectionofbalancemethods.Within the cell,several
production control methodsmay be usedfor different partsof the cell.
Part of the discussionof external production control applies
internally. Direct link, broadcast,and kanban often work well within
cells. MRP and ROP usually work only in functional or processfocusedwork cells.
Circulation is also a viable option. This method uses mobile
operatorsto carryaproductor transfera batchthrough eachoperation.
Ifthe cell requiresseveraloperators,they follow eachother around the
cell.Circulation alsobalancespeople.Becauseeachoperatordoesevery
job, he or she alwayshas the sameworkload.
Here are someguidelinesfor applying the methods to internal
production control:
. usedirect link for balancedand synchronizedoperations.
' use kanban where the cell has short processtimes, heavy
equipmentuse,or long distancesbetweenoperations.
' use circulation for portable products where distancesare
short. There also should be inherent equipment balanceor
excesscapacrtyon someequipment.
After the internal production control is identified, the internal lot size
is identified. This is Block 6 in figure 4.17.The internal lot size,also
known as the transferbatch size,is the number of units processedat
eachoperationbeforetransferto the next operation.
The internal lot sizeusuallyis smallerthan the externallot sizein

142

FacilitiesPlanning

work flows more quickly,


a work cell. This brings many advantages:
the amount of\MIP is smaller,quality feedbackis rapid, and response
time is fast.
The smallestinternal lot size consistentwith certain limiting
factorsis desirable.The ideal internal lot sizeis one-piece.
Equipment batchingis one factor that might limit selectionof a
small or one-pieceinternal lot size. Some equipment may need a
significant batch for proper or efficient operation.For example, arotary
wearand to
shot-blastmachinemay needmanypartsto avoidexcessive
offset a long cycletime. A machiningfixture may be designedto hold
severalwork pieces.
Cycle time and transfertime alsomay be limiting factors.Some
equipment,for example,may havea veryfastcycleof, say, 0.1 minutes.
The time to move a singlework pieceto and from the equipmentmay
approachthis cycletime. In suchsituations,operatorsspendso much
time transferringone-piecelots that their efficienry dropsand equipment
utilization is unacceptablylow. In this case,transferringin batchesof
twenty pieceswould give a cycle time per batch of two minutes.
The workload on equipmentin a cell must havesomedegreeof
balance.This improvescell productivity and equipment utTlizatronand
smootheswork flow. Block 8 identifiesthe equipmentbalancemethod.
Balance can be static or dynamic. Static balancemeans that
equipment times for eachoperation,averagedover the entire product
rnix, are similar or the same. Static balancepreventsone or more
operationsfrom becominga bottleneckwhen other operationsare not
the cell
beingutilized.A high degreeofstatic balanceis necessarywhen
containsmore than one pieceof high-cost or critical equipment.For
workbenches,typewriters,or otherlow-costequipment,it matterslittle
if there is low utilization.
Dynamic balanceis the balancebetvveenoperationsfrom work
pieceto workpiece.The processtime for operationsm ayvary.Differences
in product may causethis, or the processmay v^ry inherently.
Dynamic imbalance can reduce throughput of the entire cell
becauseof interferencebetweenoperations.For example,operation 1
hascompletedaworkpiecebutoperation2 cannotacceptitimmediately.
At other times, operation2 maybe readyfor the next work piecebut
operation 1 is not finished.This reducescapacityof the cell and can
occur evenwhen the averagebalanceappearsgood.
There arethreemethodsfor correctingstaticor dynamicimbalance:
queuing,inherent, and excessequipment. Queuingusesshort queues
betweenoperations.This ensuresthat downstreamoperationsalways
have a work supply and that upstream operations always have a

Micro-Space-Planning
andWorkCellDesign

't43

destination for their work. Qreuing can compensatefor dynamic


imbalance, but it cannot compensatefor long-term staticimbalance.
The inberentmetbodemploys processeswith low processtime
variability and identicalprocesstimes.Thus, the balanceis inherent in
processselection and does not need a compensatingmechanism.
Inherent balanceusuallyis difficult to achieve.
Excess
equipmezluses
suqpluscapacityto compensatefor imbalance.
In this method, the work cell is designedaround high-cost or critical
equipment.Low costor secondaryequipmentwith surpluscapacityis
sized and selected.The consequenceof imbalance,idle equipment,
then can do little harm. This method is alsousefulwhere utilization of
peopleis more important than equipmentutilization.
Block 9 identifiesinternal containers,basedon the conventions
mentioned previously.while internal containershave a somewhat
different role than the externalcontainers,their purposeis the same.If
the internal lot sizeis greaterthan single-piece,the containershould
match it. This facilitatestransferand makesit easyto rrackinternallots.
A work cell should havesomemeansto ensurethat eachprson
in it has aboutthe samework time and effort level.This is the iisue of
balancingpeople in the cell (Block 11). The availablemethods are:
queuing,circulation,fixed assignment,and float.
Qreuing not only balancesequipment,it also balancespeople.
The method works well with short processtimes and varied product
mix and may be usedwith fixed or floating task assignments.
Circulation applieswhen there are either very short or very long
internal idle times and is basedon the differencebetweenthe person
time and the equipmenttime. with a very short internal idle time, the
personremainswith his work piece.with a verylong internalidle time,
fifteen secondsor more, the personinitiatesthe proiessfor a particular
piece,picks up the previouspiece,and then movesto the next process.
It is a "leapfrog"procedure.The next personto arrivesubstitutesa new
work piecefor that just completedand moveson with it.
Circulation also works well when there is excesscapacity on
secondaryequipment.Here, the secondaryequipmentmay remainidle
for much of the time.
To be effective, circulation must have short travel distancesand
peoplewho are competentin all the processes.
As a balancingtool, fixed assignmentrequiresinherentlybalanced
processes.
one operatorhasa fixedworkstation.Fixedassignmentoften
is usedwith queuingfor equipment balanceand production control.
The floating system for people balance assignsan operator a
primary and secondarytask.The secondarytaskmay be a primary task

144

FacilitiesPlanning

for a neighboring operator.Each operatorperforms the primary task


until signaledto move to the secondary.This signalmay be as simple
asa verbal call for assistancefrom a neighboring operatorwho is falling
behind. Qreues can be an effectivesignal.A queuethat becomestoo
short or too long is the signalfor one or more peopleto move to their
long queues'
secondarytasks.They then work down the unnecessarily
This method callsfor skilledpeople,teamwork,and team spirit. It can
be highly satis$/ingfor the team members.
method(s)to employis done in
Deciding which qualityassurance
shouldbe an integralpart of
Block 12 of figure4.77. @,ality assurance
the process.Three approachesare available:inherent, inspect/reject,
and SPC/TQI4.
The inherentapproachensuresquality by selectingprocessesthat
inherently producefew or no defects.There is little point in elaborate
quality inspection when defectsare negligible and inconsequential.
This situation is rare, but it does occur. The inspect/rejectmethod
introducesa formal inspectionfor quality. When defectsoccur, the
product is repairedor scrapped.This is often used with a separate
inspectiondepartmentand a policing approach.
The preferred quality assurancemethods :usetotal quality
nxanagernent(TqlVI) often combined with statistical?rocesscontrol
and
(SPC). In this method, the workers monitor their own processes
quality. The emphasisis on prevention and processcontrol. TQIVI/
SPC works especiallywell in a cellularenvironment.
Inspection points, procedures,and quality standardsshould be
specified.This is an integral part of cell design and should not be
assignedto an outsidequality department.
As part of the cell design,operatorsshould be assignedto tasks
(Block 14). Task assignmentsmay be fixed, floating, or circulatory.A
fixed task assignmentallocatesan operatorto a particularworkstation
"one
person-one machine"
or set of tasks. This is the traditional
approach. If the entire cell has fixed assignments,there must be
inherent balance.
Floating task assignmentsgive an operator a primary set of tasks
and a secondaryset.As the workloadfluctuates,the operatormay move
from the primary to the secondary.For example,operator1 may have
a set of tasksthat, on average,occupy 80 percentof his or her time.
operator 2, immediately adjacent,has a primary set of tasks that
overloadhim or her by 10 percent.In that situation,operator1 might
be given a secondaryassignmentto assistopetatot2 from time to time.
Operator mobility and a task designthat allows for assistanceare
A mechanismfor signalingthe assisting
integralto a floatingassignment.

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

145

operatorwhen it is time to chanlietasksis alsonecessary.


The signal can
be a verbalrequest,a markeron a queue,lights, or someother method.
The circulation method balancesequipment and peoplewithin
the cell, but it alsotells the operatorwhich task to perform.
A particularwork cell may useone or all of the abovemethodsof
assigningtasksto operators.The assignmentbeginswith the refined
processchart and the elementtimes spreadsheet.
For eachoperation,it
must be determinedwhether a person'stime or the process'stime will
govern. For example, alarge differential that allows a person to move
to anotheroperationshouldusethe former. Thesetimes are noted on
the processchart.
Next, planners divide the total times for all elements by the
number of workers. This is the number of minutes of work for each
personif the work is perfectlybalanced.It shouldbe usedasa targetfor
assigningtasks. Then, the maximum work for any one person is
determined.This is the availabletime in one day dividedby the design
volume; it is also the averagecycle time for the cell.
The tasksare then assigned.Those that occupymore than one
person'stime aredivided, and thosethat occupysignificantlylessthan
one person's time are combined. When dividing and combining,
designerslook first at adjacenttasksand then for thosethat might occur
on oppositesidesof a U-shapedcell. When severaltasksare assigned
to the sameperson,that personmust havethe ability to movebetween
them on the layout.
Eachpersonmust havecompatibletasks.One wayis to concentrate
specialskills suchaswelding capabiliry.While full cross-training is the
ideal, there will be occasionswhen the cell will have to workwithout a
full set ofcross-trainedpeople.
The final step in Task 04.03 is identii'ing the methods of
supervisionand compensation.Supervisionin a work cell can enhance
or disrupt the cell's performance.This issueis especiallyimportant
when making the transition from conventionalto cellularm anufacturing.
Two methods of supervisionare: command and control and selfmanagedteams.
Commandand controlisthe traditional approachdevelopedfrom
the Roman Legions,the Prussianarmy,and the Industrial Revolution.
Supervisorsthink and give orders; workers follow the orders without
question. The systemworks well for fielding a massivearmy of rabble.
In industry,it canbe effectivefor simpletasksthat useuneducatedand
unskilled workers.
The most successfulorganizationsin many fields of endeavor,
includingthe United Statesarmy,no longeruseunquestionedobedience

146

FacilitiesPlanning

asa guiding principle. Suchorganizatiorlsnearly alwaysusesomelevel


of empowermentand participation.
A methodology that usesempowerment and participation is the
self managedwork team,alsoreferredto asa cyberneticwork team. Such
teamsorganizeand executetheir own activities.This, however,requires
experience,training, and appropriatemanagement.
Many wdrk cellsrequire a certainlevel of teamwork for maximum
effectivenessltherefore, properly designedwork cells fit nicely with
cyberneticwork teams.They can enhanceteamworkand the feelingof
team responsibiliry.
Cells that require teamwork for proper functioning areineffective
do not allowthem
ifteam membersreceiveno training,and supervisors
to make the mistakesthat team developmentrequires.Management
with no training and little temperament
sometimesassignssupervisors
for teamwork. Even with proper training and coachingit takes a team
three to eighteen months to mature fully.
In some organizations,managementis unwilling to dedicatethe
resourcesand patiencerequiredfor team-basedcells.In this situation,
the cell designersshould recognizethis reality and design their work
cells to function with conventional approachesto supervision.
Compensationaffectsquality, productivity, and teamwork.While
compensationsystemsva!/, most firms useone or a combinationofthe
following types: hourly or salarywages, individual incentives, group
incentives,pay-for-knowledge,and hybrid systems.
Hourly or salary wagesis the traditional compensation system.
People receive pay for the hours they spend at work, or they receivea
fixed pay eachperiod with an expectationthat theywill spenda certain
minimum number of hours at work. This works reasonablywell in
almost all situationsbut dependson other factorsfor motivation. It is
team spirit, self actualization,or fear of punishment that motivates
peopleto be productive,learnmore abouttheirjobs, and carryout their
work with quality.
Combinedbourly zaageand salarysystemsoften pay workers by the
hour and managerswith a salary.This approachsetsup a two-tier class
system that may causefriction and rivalry within the organization.
peoplearefamiliarwith thesesystems,and they often are
Nevertheless,
a reasonablechoice.
All-salarysystemsareagoodchoicefor teamenvironments.Here,
everyoneis on salary.This helps reduce the divisive classstructure of
managersversusworkers. Since the salaryis largely independentof
incrementalcell output, productivityand quality incentivesmust comd
from teamwork and self-actualization.

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

147

Individual incentives
base'allor part of a person'spay directly on
his or her task output. Such systemsreward output quantiry, but they
often inhibit teamwork and usually have a negativeimpact on quality.
They reward job knowledge only for the task at hand. Individual
incentive systemswork well only where narrow jobs require a single
worker. They require a processwith high intrinsic qualiry or a product
that is easilyinspectedfor quality.
Someofthe difficultieswith individual incentivesdisappearwith
a group incentivesystem,where membersof small teamsreceivethe
samepay basedon the team'soutput. This encouragesteamwork and
allowspeopleto expandtheirjob knowledgewithin the team. However,
group incentivesrarely help promote quality. In fact, they sometimes
encourageconspiratorialbehavior.
Where the work environment requires significant skills, a
palt-for-knowledgesystemmay be appropriate. In this system, people
receivehourly wagesor a salarybasedon the range and depth of their
skills andknowledge.This systemfits well in manycellularenvironments
where team efforts and cross-functionalskills are required.
Pay-for-knowledgesystemsare not easy to implement. Such
systemscan causeteamwork dysfunction as members vie for job
experiencethat will enhancetheir pay. Productivity and quality may
becomesecondaryconsiderations.
Somefirms may attempt to usehybrid systemsof compensation
with a baseline pay rate dependent on seniority or job position.
Superimposedon the basepay areincentivesfor productivity, quality,
and skills. Such systemsare complex, often generatingunintended
consequences.
Individuals may attempt to manipulatethe systemto
maximizetheir pay.
Space plan designers should understand the effects and
consequences
of compensationon the operationof their facility. For
example,a team-basedcellularstrucrureis unlikely to work well in an
individual incentive environment. Pay-for-knowledgesystemshave
little purposein a functional facility.
The work cell operations plan
As infrastructureelementsarechosen,designersmustbeginto visualize
a layout. All the infrastructureelementsconnectwith eachother aswell
asproduct selection,process,and spaceplan.
Figure 4.18 shows a work cell operationsplan. This form is a
convenient place to document infrastructuredecisions.It is also a
reminder of the fulI range of choicesfor eachelement.The'operator
assignmentand skill matrix area shows job assignmentsand skill

148

FacilitiesPlanning

requirementsfor eachoperator.Operatorsarelisted alongthe left side,


skill categoriesand operationsacrossthe top. For eachoperator,a solid
eachprimaryoperationandprimaryskill requirement;
bullet represents
an unfilled bullet representssecondaryskills and operations.
The A-teom se/ecfs infrostructure elements
The A Team has completedproduct selectionand defined its process

In
O
O
DA

Exlernal P.oductlon
Control

Exlernal
Lot Slze
Our
O
SinglPiec
O- Small<1.5Hours
Itz
Msdium<4.0 Hou's
tr
Lars6

e,o6sn1, Pi6C

ln
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1,,,"_l

tr
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oul
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O

ryq: iMeLF

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P".pt"8"t""*

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Ercass
P6opr.

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Dioct Link
cncularion
xanoan
PushSchgdul

cncdilbn

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|
I
I

Channel
T.rminal

Internal Lot Size


/
D
O

singre eiece
Small <1.5 Hours
M.drum <..0 Hours

l o * " '

Quallty Assurance

II

B"r""*I f|
I_Eq"ifi""t
h'ffi'&h6

lp,io?KTQUCK

|
I

Operalor Asslgnments & S k l l l

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o

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tnspccra ne;ccr

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F
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I

fflfft",g'#,(cyb'noric)
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commande conror

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Incntiv.
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u*'u'
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ot

lnternal Contalnets

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? ?:x"j"j"
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Figure4.18 - Workcell OperationsPlan

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

149

for the assemblyof diaphragm pumps. Figure 4.18 is its work cell
operationsplan. The team has selecteda medium externallot size of
forty-four pieces.This is the lot sizefor finishedpumps, but the team
membersrealizedthat purchaseditemsanditemsfrom other departments
may come to the cell in largerlots. Figure 4.18 reflectsthis.
The team decidedto packagethe pumpsin cartons,which will be
placed on pallets, a single lot for each pallet. This is the outbound
container.It is a medium container,consistentwith the medium lot
size.Inbound materialalsocomeson pallets,most ofwhich will hold
partsfor more than four hoursofproduction. The inbound palletsare,
therefore,large.
For externalmaterial handling, the cell needsmedium and large
equipment correspondingto the containersize.The team decidedto use
forktrucks forboth inbound and outboundhandling.Becauseforktrucks
carry ^ full load (one pallet), the ream selecteda direct roure structure.
Other possibleroute structuresare shown in Figure 4.19.
The kanbanmethodwasselectedfor both inbound and outbound
externalproduction control. Occasionally,the cell will make special
orders.The teamdecidedto usethe kanbanand directlink methodsfor
internal production control.
The cell will balanceequipmentwith queuingand excesscapaciry.
The teamdecidednot to usecontainers
internallysincethe assemblies
and
componentsareeasyto handle,and the internallot sizeis singlepiece.
Peoplein the cell will balancetheir work load using queuingand
_
float systems.
is inherentin someoperations,although
Qralityassurance
the electricaland flow testsare inspect/reject.
The four peoplein the cellwill operateasacyberneticwork teamand
usekanbansignalsfor cell management.
Compensationis hourly/salary.

Designinga spaceplan

Task 04.04, "Design Cell Layouts," (fig. 4.20) arrangesequipment,


people, and other physical elementsof the work cell. As noted in
Chapter 2, every spaceplan has four fundamental elements(SPUs,
affinities, space, and constraints). At the micro-level, using the
fundamentalsis usuallysimple and straightforward(seefig. 4.2I).
SPUsin the micro-space-planareusuallyworkstations,equipment,
or other significantfeatures.Thesearederivedfrom the equipmentlist
or processchart.Diamond'sA Team identified the ten SPUsshownin
the affinity chart of figure 4.27.
Affinities are straightforward at the micro-level. Examining the
processchartsand work cell operationsplan usuallywill identify them.
Using simplejudgments, spaceplannersnote the affinities and their

150

FacilitiesPlanning

underlying reasonson the affinity charc Typically, there will be many


A and E affinities and few I and O affinities. With experience,on
simple micro-space-plans,a designermay move directly from the
processchart to a layout.
Space,the third fundamentalelement, is also important. The
designerusuallymoves
directlyfrom a configurationdiagramto a scaled

tr
tr
(u

@.9
rlfi

@=4"="-(D
//

!9

,vs,

\\
Y-.

('

o
o
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o
Figure4.19 - Moteriol HondlinsRoute Structure

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

15.1

spaceplan. Occasionally,equipmenttemplatesmay be superimposed


on the configuration diagram. Highly flexible SPUs,such asstaging or
queuing areas,can be sizedasthe designproceeds.
Becausethe focusofmicro-space-planningis limited and specific,
a formal constraint summary seldom is necessary.Knowledge of
equipment and processis sufficient to incorporateconstraintsas the
designersproceedwith the spaceplan.
Work cellshapes
As the layout progresses,
it will probablytake on one of severalclassic
shapes.Among the most commonshapesarestraightline,serpentine,
(J,
and innerted-U. Henry Ford's original assemblyline was straight line

Figure4.20 - Task 04.04- Design Cell Loyouts

152

FacilitiesPlanning

(fig. a.22). The work product moves from one end to the other in a
straightline. It passesor stopsat eachworkstation.When Henry Ford
and CharlesSorensenfirst devisedthis arrangement,theyweresolving
a material flowproblem. Manyparts went into a relativelysmallproduct
where a large number ofpeople worked at short-cycletasks.A straightline cell is still well suitedto suchsituations.
Straight-line arrangementsdo not allow easycommunication
betweenpeople.Balanceis difficult becausethe opportunity to float is
limited. Once balanceis achieved,it is difficult to maintain if the line
speedor product mix changes.Long, thin line arrangementsareoften

Reason
Matenlal Flow
<UwEDPeO?Le

C o n fi g u r a t i o n
Diagram

SpacePlan
ffilnrennol
Head Assemblg

K6nb6n Oue@s

_,._,._._._._.._.._.i lYain

S t o c k l n gA 1 s 1 e

Bodg/Coll Assemblu

N15 tU

Inbosd
Rolle.
ConveUof

Roller *
Convegor

Dlsph.sgm
Assmblg

Stoc ng Alsle
Elect.lcal
AssemblU

Figure4.21 - DiophragmWo*cell SpacePlon

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

153

difficult to fit into existing buildings and macro-layouts.


Serpentinecells (fig. 4.23) takelong production lines and weave
them back and forth to fit building and layout fearures.Such an
arrangementis morecompactthan the straightline cell.It allowsbetter
communicationand somewhatbetter zone floating.
Serpentine cells sacrificethe ideal material flows of the straight
line arrangement.They offer lessstorageat the line.
U-shaped cells (fig. 4.24) arehighly flexible becausethey allow
peopleto rearrangetheirworkpatterns easily.Theyworkwith floating
assignments,
circulation,and fixed assignments.
As volume or product
mix changes,it is easyto alter the number of people or their work
assignments.It alsois easyfor peoplein the cell to communicate.
Material flow is sometimesmore difficult in a U-shaped cell
becausematerial must be brought to the interior of the U. ttrit
arrangementmay not work well for intensiveassemblyworkwith many
different parts and significanton-line storage.
U-shape cells are limited in size. As the U becomeslarger,
communicationbetweenworkersdiminishes.The ability for workersto
assisteachother and interchangejobs alsodiminishes.

r
T
r

Features
MultlpleMaterialEntry Polnts
Good Materlal Flow
Short Distances
Dlffcult PeopleBalance
Poor Flexlbility
PoorCommunicatlon
Dlffcult Macro Layout

Figure4.22 - Stroight Line Cells

154

FacilitiesPlanning

The inverse U (fig. 4.25) is a variation that allows more line


good communicationbut is lessflexiblethan the
storageand reasonably
cell.
U-shaped
Actual cellscan havemanyvariationsand combinationsof these
basicshapes.When the amountofwork requiredon a product dictates
manyworkstations,it maybebestto link a seriesofcells,whereeachcell
ofthe smaller,
feedsthe next.Within eachcell,manyofthe advantages
self-containedoperationstill exist.
Micro-space-planning for teams
Teams, in their various forms, are one of the most important
developments in the American work place since the Industrial
Revolution.Their freewheelingstructuresuitscurrent needsfor wide
information exchange.They pool the knowledgeof all members.
Teamscanreplacemonetarymotivationwith intrinsicmotivation.
They can fulfill the higher needsof Maslow's Hierarchy: social,selfesteem,and self-actualizatron.
Teams come in a great variety. They may be temporary or
permanentand mayinclude membersfrom alllevelsofthe organization.
Cross-functionalteamsbring peopletogetherfrom different parts of

|,ii{.i

Fetuns
SevaEl Enlrba
Good Mat rbl Flow
Short Dldancs
Whhln Zores
Eagy To Bll.nca
G@d FLxlHllty
Falr Communlcallon
Eaay Macro Lryout
Accommdales
Ma1ry Pr@esa

Itreqohr i.r*td,

Figure4.23 - SerpentineCells

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

Features
High PeopleFlexlblllty
EasyBalance/Rebalance
Good Communlcatlon
Good MaterialFlow
Short Dlstances
SingleMaterlalEntry Polnt
Good QualltyFeedback
Multi-skllledOperators

Figure 4.24 - U-Shaped Cells

ffi*.ril

ffi ft ffi
ffi t l
ffil
lffi
ffi
ffi

Featules
Good Communlcatlon
Good Materla! Flow
Short Dlstances
Multlple Materla! Enlry Polnt

tffi
u

Figure4.25 - lnverseU-ShopedCells

155

156

FacilitiesPlanning

fu nctio nally oriented or ganizations.Problem- solving teams assemble


to delve into a particularproblem or seriesof problems.Work teams
function togetherin their daily tasks.
Work teams are especiallyimportant from the facility planning
A spaceplan canpromoteor inhibit teamwork.Conversely,
perspective.
closeteamwork is essentialfor the proper functioning of many space
plans.If a spaceplan dependenton teamworkis designed,the designer
shouldensurethat the teamworkcapabilitieswill be in placeto support
it. Otherwise,the spaceplan will not perform effectively.Conversely,
a firm that attemptsto use teamsin an environmentwhere tasksand
peopleare isolatedand independentwill find the efforts difficult and
disappointing.
Cellular operations fit especiallywell with work teams where a
smallgroup,usuallytwoto tenpersons,workstogetherinthe samearea.
Often theseteamsare self-managed.With minimal direction from a
supervisor,they plan and conducttheir own work.
The membersof a self-managedwork team (SMWT) must be
interpersonaland managerialskills. Such
trained to acquirenecessary
teamsgo through a dynamic,but predictable,growth cyclebeforethey
are effective.During this mafuration,they need skilled coachingand
patiencefrom management.
Work cellsthat effectivelypromoteteamworkhavecertainfeatures.
Among theseare:freedomofmovement,visualcontrol,visualfreedom,
conversational proximity, and bulletin boards.
To assisteach other with normal work and interruptions, to
communicate,andto cross-train,membersofteam-orientedwork cells
must be able to move between tasks. Conveyors,walls, and other
equipment can make such movement difficult. Without freedom of
mloement,membersfall back on a one-person,one-task mentality.
Production can declineand teamworkfail. Therefore,obstructionsto
movementwithin the cell should be minimal.
hasmany
In a work cell,visualcontrol of inventoryand resources
It is simpleand accurate.Everyteammemberhasthe same
advantages.
information.
Eachmembercantakeappropriateactionto correctimbalaucesor
variations.Visual control takesmany forms-kanban boards,queues,
and personnellocations.Te am memberscanseedelaysandunbalanced
work, cananticipateupcomingjobs,and canidentify andcorrectquality
problems. Such control requires clear lines of sight. It requires
mechanismssuch as kanbanflags,warning lights, and queues.These
should be built into the work cell design.
Visual communicationsbuild trust. Team membersshould be

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

157

able to see each other and all operations.A clear view of the total
operation gives every member the meansfor controlling the overall
process.Partitions, walls, and large equipment interfere with both
teamwork and processcontrol.
Ongoing interactionis integral to teamwork.Members must be
ableto converseduring their work. This callsfor an areasmall enough
for effectiveconversation.It alsorequiresa reasonableambient noise
level. while hand signals and electronic communications are parttal
substitutes,face-to-faceconversationis far better.
Effective teams use bulletin boards for many purposes.Bulletin
boardshelp ateamcommunicatewith itse$ with oth.t ihiftr, andwith the
outsideworld. Prominent spacefor a bulletin board shouldbe provided.
The A-Teom designs o spoce plon
From the processchart in figure4.r4 and the work cell operationsplan
in figure 4.18, the team identified ten SPUs. These are on the
configuration diagram. Using judgment and consensus,the team
membersdevelopedthe appropriateaffinities,most of which resurted
from materialflow or sharediobs.
Following the procedure for Task 04.04, they developedthe
configurationdiagramrn figure4.2L
Finally, usingtemplatesfor the equipmentandworkbenches,the
team membersprepareda layout. They sizedconveyorsand queuing
areasastheywent, fitting theseflexibleelementsinto areasbefweenthe
mainworkstations.Theygraduallymovedand arrangedthe spus to fit
inside the area designatedon the micro-space-plan.They allowed
clearancefor movement of people.They positioned shelvingon the
perimeterto avoid blocking visualcommunication.

Selectingthe best plan


In Task 04.05, a selectionis made from among the micro-layout
options.There may be a number of good alternativesfor eachtask and
procedure,alongwith severalviable product groups and severalgood
processoptions.There may be many waysto coordinate,control, and
supervisea work cell.
At the micro-level,designiterationis more significantthan at the
higherlevels.Eachalrernativeaffectsdesigndecisions.The resultcould
be an infinite number of design options. The designeror leaderof a
designteamwill makedecisionsaboutthem asthe plan proceeds.Many
options will be eliminated. Eventually, two to five fundamentally
different designswill be decidedupon tlat givesthe evaluationteam a
good selectionand wide choice.

r58

FacilitiesPlanning

Selectiontools for the micro-space-plan


Severalsectionsin Chapter3 discussthe evaluationof faciliry options,
describinga rangeof tools to usein evaluatingand selectingan option.
At the micro-level,the sametools are available.
In practice, micro-level evaluation is simpler and more
straightforwardthan evaluationat higher levels.The rangeof issuesis
morelimited, the materialflowis moreobvious,and mistakesareeasier
to correct.Socio-technicalconsiderationsand other intangible issues
dominate the selection.These intangibles are less amenableto
engineeringand financialanalysis.
For light assemblyor other easy-to-changework cells, the
of a less than
evaluationcan be quite informal. The consequences
sucha decision
ootimal decisionarenot severe.In thesecircumstances,
uit r"lly can becomea valuablelearningexperience.
For the abovereasons,although material flow analysisor fi nancial
methodssometimesareused,selectiontoolsnormallyarelimited to the
following:
' simplified cost estimates;
'PNI analysis;
' simulation;and
' weighted factor analysis.
In many situations,a simplified cost estimateand PNI analysis
bring strong consensusand further work is unnecessary.
Simulationis valuablein certainsituationsand hasa specialplace
in the evaluationof work cells.It testsproposedchangeson existing
systemsand predicts the performanceof new systems.It condenses
to a few minutesor slowsa rapid processfor study.It
lengthy processes
can experiment where actual physical experimentation is difficult,
expensive,dangerous,or impractical.
Computer simulationusessoftwareto createa model for a realor
proposed system.A simulation analyst then subjectsthe model to
variousinputs and constraintsand studiesthe results.These statistical
canbe repeatedhundredsor thousandsof times.Almost any
processes
statisticcan comeiro- " simulationmodel. Examplesare:equipment
utilization, throughput time, deliverytime, and labor hours.
Computer simulation softwareusesanimation to depict system
operationvisually.Patientsmovethrough a hospital complex.Products
advanceacrossthe factoryfloor. Peoplego from taskto task.Animation
presents simulation results dramatically and effectively. It reveals
problemsor effectsthat would be unseenin pure statisticaloutput.
Simulation is most valuableto companieswith largeinvestmerits
that are difficult to modify or change.An exampleis a paper mill where

Micro-Space-Planning
and Work Cell Design

159

very large machinesare on specializedfoundations. Once in place,


rearrangementis almostimpossible.If a processis easyto change,such
as a task in a light assemblycell, it may be easierto experimentin real
life than to build a simulation.
Simulation cannot model creativity, teamwork, and motivation,
which are among the most important benefitsof work cells.Specific
mechanismsthat result from these effects cannot be foretold and
therefore cannot be simulated effectively.
Weighted factor analysiscan assistwith more difficult decisions
and is probably the most universaland versatiledecision tool. The
evaluationprocedureis the sameasthat for Task 03.2Lat the macrolevel(seeChap. 3).

TheA-Teom'sfinol micro-spoce-plon
The spaceplan in figare 4.27 is not the only one the A Team
designed.There wereseveralother good options.Team membersused
weighted factor analysisto make their decision.
Team members discussedusing simulation but decided they
could build the actualwork cell fasterthan they could build a simulation
model.They alsoreasonedthat if the cell did not work asexpected,they
couldeasilychange
orredesignit. Theyknewthe experienceofthework
team would be invaluablein any suchredesign.
Betweenthe cell and the finished goodswarehouse,the kanban
systemis used.The cell operateswith an averageof two lots per day;
however, it can accommodate special lots at any time. As the team
works on improved setups, the cell may reducelot sizesor evenshift to
make-to-order. The team draws material and parts from upstream
suppliersand the machineshop using a kanbansystem.
Eachworker setsup his or her own area,changingfixtures,tools,
and the partson their benches.The work teamfor this work cell is made
up of four members,who havevarioustasks.
"Wilson"
subassembles
heads,bodies,and coils.He placesthese
subassemblieson a grav\tyroller conveyorthat takes them to Taylor's
main assemblystation. Wilson usesmarkings on the roller conveyorto
determinethe speedofhis work. Whenworkbuilds up on the conveyor,
he can switch to restocking or other activities.
'Taylor"
subassembles
diaphragmsoneat atime. He then assembles
eachdiaphragmwith abody/coil subassembly
andthe headsubassembly.
Taylor placeshis completedwork in the queuespacebetweenhis station
and Washington'selectricalassemblystation.When the queueis full,
T aylor assists"Washington. "
Washington hasthe longestseriesof tasks.He must perform all

160

FacilitiesPlanning

electricalassembly.He placeshis finishedproduct in the queueareaat


"Davis"
with
his left. In the eventthat he fills this queue,he can assist
electricaltesting.
Davis performs the electrical and flow tests and packagesthe
completedpumps.He beginsby transferringa unit from Washington's
outbound queueto the electricaltest fixture. He removesthe unit that
hasjust completedthe electricaltestandplacesthe incoming unit in the
test fixture. He records test results on the previous unit while the
electricaltest goesthrough an automaticcycle.Davis then placesthe
completed unit in the queue between electrical and flow test and
removesone of four units that has been through the flow test. He
replacesthis unit with the upcoming unit in the flow test queue.
Davis transfersthe unit he hasjust removedfrom the flow test to
the packingtable.He packsthe unit andplacesit on an outboundpallet.
SinceDavis'swork doesnot fillthe total designcycletime, he alsoassists
Washington with maintaining the proper stock of electricalparts.
At intervals,a fork truck arrives.The driver removesanycompleted
outbound palletsand leaveskanbancards.These cardsbecomethe basis
. Theytellthe teamwhatmodelswereremoved
forthe nextday'sschedule
from finished-goodsstoragethe previousday.The work team arranges
these cards on a kanban board. The information on the board tells
memberswhich pump models havelow inventory and which have full
kanban stocks.They plan their scheduleto replenishstocks.They also
plan the scheduleto minimize set-up time by grouping similar models.
At the workday's end, the team meets. They review their
performanceand plan the next day'sproduction.They alsochecktheir
inbound stocksto ensurethat parts will be available.They may have a
problem-solvingmeetingto addressqualiry or other problems.

Conclusion
This chapterdemonstratedhowto plan spaceat the micro-level,Level
4. The discussion included important new develoPmentsin the
workplace-work cells,teams,and operationsfocus.
This chapteralsooffersthe tools (modelprojectplan, procedures,
techniques)to prepareviable micro-space-plans.In the beginning,
following these plans and proceduresexplicitly and pedantically will
a designteam
resultin the generationofgood designs.With experience,
less
formally.
may usethem
The next chapter covers the final level of space planning,
workstation design,including how to placetools and equipmenqhow
to optimize the individual'sefficiencyand effectivenessland how to
minimize CarpalTunnel Syndromeand similar occupationalhazatds.

Chapter5
WorkstationDesign:
Writtenby
The Sub-Micro-Space-Plan
WilliamNelson

Sub-micro,orworkstation,designis the final spaceplanninglevel.This


is where the firm adds value to its product. The process involves
examining tasks,operators,and tools; allocating tasks between the
operatorsand machinesland selectingor designingtools and fixtures.
During the process,optimum physicalarrangementsare developed.
Classicalworkstation designfocusedon the output of individual
workstationswith singleoperators.Today's designrequiresa broader
view. An optimum workstation design considers: productiviry,
integration, operator comfort, operator variety, and safety.
Productivity is the efficient transformation of materials and data
into a product or service.It is the primary reasonfor a workstation to
exist and, as such,is a primary designconsideration.
Integration-technical, psychological, and social-fits the
workstation into a larger production system. Tecbnicalintegration
allowsthe occupant(s)of the workstation to perform work at a speed
and in a manner that fits with prior and subsequentprocesses.
Psychologicalintegration allows the workstation to meet the
psychologicalneedsof the operatorso that he or shehassomecontrol
over his or her effort. It givesmeaning to the work. socialintegration
in the workstation design allowsthe operatorto meshwell with other
peoplein the productionsystem.
Operator comfort is important. Comfortableoperatorsareinclined
to work better. They are more likely to ensurequality output and are
more likely to remain in their jobs. Perhaps more importantly,

162

FacilitiesPlanning

comfortable workstations are less likely to damage the human body


with cumulative traumas such as calpal tunnel syndrome.
Most workstationsrarelyaccommodateoperatorsasindividuals.
Yet, the workplace is awashwith a wide mix of diverse individuals,
genJers,and races.Sound designbasedon operatorvariety provides
easyadjustmentsto accommodateeachoperator-shift to shift andtask
to task.This is the designer'schallenge.
The contemporaryregulatoryclimate demandsmore attention to
safery and health. In addition, the legal and insurance system can
imposeseverefines on employersthat ignore the safetyand health of
workers. Cumulative trauma disorder(CTD) has becomeone of the
most important areasof occupationalhealth.PreventingCTD is often
an important factor in workstation design.
Integration, comfort, variefy, and safety are often seen as
incompatible with productivity. However, productivity rarely needsto
be sacrificedto attain theseother design goals.A safe,comfortable
workstation that fits well into the larger production systemis usually
highly productive.
In this chapter,severalareasthatprovide the necessarybackground
knowledgeforworkstation designwill be reviewed.Theseare:allocation
offunctions, motion economy,ergonomics,andworker selection.This
knowledge will then be applied in a structured and systematicway. A
modelprojectplan similarto the plansin otherchaptersis provided,and
an example from Diamond Products illustrates the application.
The information in this chapter demonstrateshow to design
workstations that optimize productivity, integratewith one another,
and improve the work experience.Such workstations contribute to
the overall goal-ensuring a productive, comfortable, safe, and
healthy workplace.
Allocation of functions
Allocation of functionsdividesworkbetween peopleand machines.It
determines, to a large extent, the quality of the operator'swork
experience.A well-thought-out allocationoptimizesthe interactionof
peopleand machineelements.
In spaceplanning, allocation occursat severallevels.During the
macro-space-planning,a processis selectedthat implicitly allocates
many functions.During the work cell design(Level 4), the processis
refined and more explicit allocations are made. At the workstation
design level, spaceplanners should review theseprevious allocations.
In a human-machinesystem,one or more equipment displays
show the operatorthe internal equipmentstatus.He or sheprocesses

WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan

163

the information and makes decisions.Using motor responses,the


operator alters control settingsto changethe machine. Continuing
observationallows the determination of the effect of altering controls.
Figure 5.1 illustrates.
Person-machinesystemsarepervasivein everydaylife.For example,
the driverofan automobiledepresses
the accelerator.
He or sheobseryes
the speedometerdisplayto ascertainproper speed.If the speedneeds
adjusting, the driver modifies the depressionof the accelerator.
Achievement of systemgoalsnecessitates
the driver'sattention. A lapse
may result in flashing red or blue lights in the rearview display. These
lights signif' a failure to achieveat leastone systemgoal-maintenance
of speedat or below the postedlimit.
In the above example, the system designers allocated speed
control to the person. Cruise control reassignsthis function under
favorable conditions, lessening the driver's workload and achieving
another systemgoal-avoiding speedingcitations.
An allocation has three objectives:
. achievesystemgoals;
. give the worker a coherent set of functionsl and
. provide the worker with a reasonableworkload.
Some designerstend to allocate functions to people whenever a
mechanizedsolution is not readily apparent.Sometimes,what may
seemto be an over-allocationofwork to a personin the end provides
variety and job enrichment. The variety may prevent injuries from
repetitive motion and reduce the cost of workers' compensation
insuranceand claims.This is an exampleof an apparentlyless-thanoptimum local systemactually bringing increasedperformanceto ^
larger businesssystem.
Other designers and managers have an inordinate faith in
automation. They inappropriately allocatefu nctions to machines;that
is, they over-automate.
Automation, or predominantly mechanicalallocation, has many
benefitsandmanydrawbacl.rs.
NASA sindustryworkshopon automation
reported by Boehm-Davis, Curry, Wiener, and Harrison (1983)
identified five problems associatedwith automation:
1. Newly automatedsystemsseldom provide all anticipated benefits.
2. Failure of automated equipment reducescredibility. Operators
may not rely on equipmentthey do not trust.
3. Automation often increasesthe need for training. The user must
learn to operate the equipment in both automated and manual

164

FacilitiesPlanning

$
tl
\r

Figure5.1 - An Exompleof o Percon-MochineSystern

plan
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space

165

modesbecause
the equipmentmay fail at somelaterdate.Increased
complexity,common to automatedsystems,alsomay increasethe
training time.
4.

Systemdesignersseldom anticipateproblems createdby the automation. They havefocusedmainly on the benefitsof the new system.

5. Automation may transform operatorsinto monitors rather than


systemcontrollers.As a result,the operatormay not be preparedto
take control suddenlyif the systemfails.
Awide rangeofallocationoptionsshouldbe considered.This prevenrs
the designerfrom latching onto an initial conceptand ignoring others.

Motion economy
Motion economy helps achieveproductivity and reduce CTD. It
shortensthe human time and effort requiredto accomplisha task.The
principlesof motion economy(fig. 5.2) list stepsand proceduresthat
simpli$, and improve manual work.
The fourth principle, bodysegmentclass,classifiesmovement with
bodyjoints. Each movementafter class1 involvesbody partsfrom the
previousclass(es),
and more of the bodyparticipatesin ihe motion. It
is desirableto accomplishtaskswith the lowestpossiblemotion class.
The best way to do ihis is to place everythingn.", the operator.In
addition, items should be close together, lightweight, and easily
positionedat the end of the motion.
To applythe principlesof motion economy,iteration or synthesis
may be used. Iteration involves examining an existing or prorog?e
workstation, analyzingrhemotions,identi$ringandimplementingimprovements, and reanalyzingthe work. Severalrepetitions may be necessary.
Synthesisuses predetermined time standard systemssuch as
methods-time-measuremenr
(MTM) and avoidsprotoryping. These
systemsrefer activities to a standard set of well-defined elemental
motions and associated
executiontimes.
The conceptof motion economyhas limitations. Both iterative
and synthetic methods assumeworkers are not fatigued. Performance
can abateovertime due to an activity'sdemands.Motion economyalso
does not accountfor physicallimitations or differencesin operators.
Moreover,a movementthat appearsineffectivefrom a motion economy
perspectiveactuallymay prevent fatigue and possibleinjury from static
postureloading.To overcometheselimitations, ergonomicprinciples
should be applied.

166

FacilitiesPlanning

1.0 us of HumanBodv
The trc hards shouH begin 6 rell 6
@mpbte their mtiore at th6 sare tim.
Th6 trc handssh@H ml be idb at the sam
tire x@pt durirE .est psrbds.
Motiore ol th6 arro shouu be madein opposite
and symretriEl dirctiore and shouH be made
simultffiously
Hand mtioN shouldbe @nfimd to the lore3t
clssification with which it is possibleto porfom
the rcrk salblactorily
Morentum shouh be mpbyed to sist the
rcrker wherever poasble, ard it shdld be
redred to a minimumil it must b ovemm
by mslil
efiort.
Sruth @ntiMus mtions ol the hards ar6
pf6rabb to zigzag mtioG or straight-lim
rctioN involvingsuddena.d shap chares in
direclion.
Ballistb mvemnts ilg faster.66ir. atd
mr6 ffirale thil BstrHd(fxation) or
'ontElld mvomnla.
Rhythmis esntid to ihs s|mih ard
iltomatic perbmam ol il oporatbn, ard the
rcrk should be dmngd to psmil6sy and
naturalrhythmwhoBvsr possblo.

2.0 Arrangrmnt of,wort Plac


There shouH be a definitand txd pl@ lor all
t@b and materials.
Tmls. malariab. and @ntmls stuld b6 locald
do* in and dicctly in foni ol th opralor.
Gravity hodbiB ard @ntaimB shilld b usd
whGnoverposible.
Dm dglivorsshouldba usd whonevor
rebh.
Matrialsand t@ls shouH bo bcatd to psmit
the bost sequem of mibre.
Provisiore shoH be madefor adeflate
@nditioB for sirE. G@d ilbminationis th
first .eqJiGrenl br Eatistacloryvigual
pgrGption.

. The heightot the rcrkpl@ and the char


shouldpElenbly be arangod so that altemats
sittingard standir at mrk are esily po$ible.
. A chair of th6 type and hightto pomit good
postuc chouldba provktdfor evary rcrksr.
a. Deslcn of Tools and Equlpmefi
. The hard6 shouH be Blievd of all mrk that
mn be dom mE advantagsusly by a jb. a
fixtum,or a foot oparalBddevice.
. Trc or m6 t6b shouldb6 ombimd
wh6mv6r posible.
. Tmls and materialsshouu bE prepositbred
wherevr poasblg.
. Wher6eeh firEer porloms sre spocific
mvemnt, such I in typewriting,the load
with the
shouldb6 dbtrihrted in a@rdre
inhoEnt capsities of th6 fnge6.
. Hardl$. such c thos u$d on crilks ard
large$rcudrivec, sheH pemit 6 much of
the sud@ of the handto @m in ontact with
ths handls posible. Thb is panicularlytrue
whanconsirerabl6tor is ererted in usirE the
handl6.For light asrbly rcrk ths $rewdrivsr
hardle 8hsH be s shapdthal it is small6rat
the bottomthil at th lop.
. LevsE. ffibars.
ard handwhsls EhouHbe
locded in srch posilirB that th opralor@
msipulate them with th lesl charu6 in body
pGitbn and with th3 gca!6Et ffihanicd
advantagg.

Body slgment qassGs


:ls.

Body S.gm.ni.

Sody Jolnt
$uckl

;inqd

Vrist

{and, Fingm

:tbw
ihould.r

orm, Hand, Fingoc


,ppd Am, For.am, Hand,
:inoffi

Figure 5.2 - Principles of Motion Economy

Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study ofwork asit relatesto the human body and its
limits. The usualgoalis maximizingoutputwithout physicallyharming
the operator. To achieve this goal, designers adapt tasks and the
and
workstation to individuals, not vice versa.Physiology,biomecbanics,
anthropometricsarethe areasof ergonomicsmost useful to the designer
of workstations.
Physiology
In somerespects,the body is analogousto an automobile.In the human

WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan

167

machine,muscles areboth cylindersand pistons,andbonesandjoints are


the gears.The musclesoxidizenutrients (fuel) and give up energy,while
generatingmetabolicbyproducts(waste).Physiotogystudiesthis process.
Two categoriesof physiological demands usually are relevant
during work: static and dynamic.Most activitiescombine static and
dynamic postures.While some musclegroups have a static posture,
othershavedynamicpostures.
Staticwork occurswhen the body is in a stationaryposition for an
extendedperiod.The musculoskeletafsystem
is unsuitedfor proionged
static work becausethe body cannot supply fresh nutrients to the
stressedtissues.In addition,wasteproductsremainat the stressedsite.
Musclesand tendonscanbecomeinflamed.Even at staticloadsaslow
as 30 percent of maximum strength, fatigue developsrapidly.
In dynamic work, the body is in motion. Nutrients and waste
productsmoveto andfrom the muscles.Consequently,the musclescan
work for extended periods if the maximum load on the body is
significantlylessthan the maximum staticcapability.Enduranceusually
limits dynamic work when loads are not extreme.
Usually, tasksshould not require operatorsto exert more than 30
percentoftheir maximummuscleforcein aprolongedorrepetitiveway.
A1l muscularexertionsbeyond50 percentofthe maximum levelshould
be avoided.
Biomechanics
Biomechanicsis the study of mechanicalforcesin human movement,
including the interaction berween individuals and their physical
environment.Biomechanicalprinciplesprimarily areusedto minimize
damageto muscles,joints, and tissues.This damagemay comefrom a
one-time force,suchaslifting an objectthat is too heavyor moving an
object from an awlaarardposition. Damage also can come from an
accumulationof small,repetitiveforces-CTD.
There are three actionsin the work place that can causedamage:
extremejointmovements,excessive
force,andhigtrlyrepetitivemovements.
Extremejoint movements,suchasbending the wrist, amplify the
forcesplacedon thejoint. They maypreventthe operatorfrom appb'rng
maximum force and increasedamagethat resultsfrom the force that the
operatordoesuse.
Excessive
forceusedforlifting, squeezing,orpushingis aprimary
causeofinjury. Often, suchexcessiveforce combineswith repetition or
extremejoint movement. A need for excessiveforce does not always
arisefrom a workstation's design:it may come from poor maintenance
of tools and equipment or from operator practice or ignorance.

168

FacilitiesPlanning

the damagingeffectof muscularforces.The


Repetitionincreases
more frequent and constantthe repetition, the greaterthe damage.
Even the small forceof operatinga keyboardcanproducethe debilitating
effectsof carpaltunnel syndrome.
Frgure5.3recommendsmethodsfor reducingandavoidingtheseactiors.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry studies the dimensions,weights, and strengths of
human body segments.Anthropometric data aid in designing the
workstation to the operator'sdimensions.
Anthropometry usesstatic (structural) and dynamic (functional)

1.0 Extngm Jolnt llovemnts


. Alter the tml or @ntrol- bendthe lool or handle
instoadot ths wrist
. Move the part- rctate ihe part in fronl of the
rcrlcr to keep the wrist straight
. Moveth6 Wo|ker- chare the rcrke/s position
relativeto th6 pad
. Avoil eaching above shouHerlevel
. Avoid rerching behindthe body
. Ksp dbore cbss to the sides
. Plm th6 rcrk aca abod 2'4' bebw the
elbow whsn standingor satd in m erccl
m8$16
. For prcise or delicatet6ks, d# the
rcfisurfae 4'-8" aboveelbow hight.
. For heavy manual6smbly, pl@ the
rcrksurtac 415' bbw ehow height.
. Slad yourdsigntromthe.rcrkirEpointwherc
th6 haffi sGtr mst ot tnetrum
2.0
Excsslv Force
. K@pt.tgdttiru dges sharp and t@ls wll
maintaired.
. SDred Fo@- Altomat6 hands,us l6voG
iBtead ol hJtlom.
. lrcroe Mehani:dAdvantags- Us strcrE8r
mu*le groupeand bng hatdlos
. Us ji$ and ftdus whsmver possibls
. Solect glovs @efully. They m rd@ gri)
streruth up to l50/6.
5.O Rptltlv Movemnt
. Tsk Enlargmnt- Giw rc*ere largerand
mG viliodt4ks andi|m&qyclotim.
. Mshanizatior Usa sD6cialtools with Etchets
or Dorer drivE,
Automatbr Allocal6 Ropetitivlo mhimg
Give the opstdor a mutra! poqluB.
Allow vilialion ot mthod to prevnta static
pGhJE lor enandod perir&.
Pemit sevralrcrkir posiliore
jobs to rcdue rcPelition
Re-sqEE
4.O PhYsblooy
. Allow sff p*irE of rcrk when po$ible
. Allow frequeni rest lor mst ac{ivmu$les
. Starl mw emdoy@s at a sbrer rate
5.0 Hand Tools

.
.
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.
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Provile handles
DasignFor minimummslil
etfort
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Berd ihs t6l ard mt the wrist
K@p the olioclive reight ol th t@l low
Alignthe t@l @nter ol gravity and th 6nler ol
the g.6Fing har|d
Ue pbtol grip6ryhenth tml ais i8 horizontal
Us straiShtSrip6whn ths t@l ab b vertical
Us tnggsr leveE nther than trigger hJtlore.
oesiqn sp6cialus tmb it mdd
06sign tmh for u$ by either hand
Us A Minimm handlelenqthOl 4'
Uss propersize griFEwhich mmmodate
diffoEnt size hands
Springbad plieG and sis
Us mn-porcus, rcn-slip, and rcn-@.ductivo
snps
T@ls shouHreigh les lhil 9 lbs
Suspendheavyor awkwardt@ls

6.0 Posltbn
Use a standing position when:
. Krc Cbilffi
ls Unavailable
. ThaOpoBlorLiftsMorethil 10 Pounds
o Thereare high, low, or 6rt6Idod reachs
. The OperatorExrtsDowNard tors
(wrappingand packing)
. Th6 OperatorNedsirobility
Use A svstand position when:
. Rspsliliveoporatbre have frequent rerches
beyondzoms 1
. The Operalorperlom both sining and
standingtasks
. The T8k RquiBs Pmbngd Static E fort
Use a sitting positbn when:
. lt6ro for a rcpetitivo,short cycle re in saled
rcft3p@.
. Handsrcrk ls$ than 6' abov6lhs surl@
. L4ge lo@ is mt required
; Hardlins reiSht b les tha 10 lbs
. Th t6k is fine asmbry orwriting
. Th opratorre6ds body stabilityand
eqlililxilm
. Th6 isk reqjiros prtrise f@t @nlrol
hs

extended tire

in a

Figure5.3 - Principlesof Ergonomics

Plan
WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space

169

measurements.Staticdimensionsarethe measurements
betweenspecific
anatomical landmarks. Examples include stature, arm length, and
shoulderbreadth.Dynamic dimensionsrelateto functional movement.
Both measurementsare important. For example, static data might
represent a person's reach when his or her shoulders and trunk are
stationary.Dynamic measurementwouldadd the length ofthat person's
reach from extended shoulders and trunk. In many cases, static
dimensionsmaybeadaptedto a specificproblem.Dynamic dimensions,
on the other hand, arebetter representations
ofreality.
The basis of the data should always be kept in mind. Does it
include clothing and shoes?What specific population was included?
What aboutthosewith disabilities?Designersshoulduseintuition and
experienceaswell as raw data.
Classicaldesignconsidered
the averagemalethe standard.Today's
designersmay needto considereveryonefrom the smallestfemaleup to
the largestmale.Different ethnic populationsshouldalsobe included.
The rangeof anthropometricdata is great.Designersmust determine
which criteria apply to the problem at hand.
Dimensions for severalgroups of males and femalesare given in
table5.1. How theywere takenis shownin figure 5.4. Severalof these
data groups were basedon U.S. Air Force flying personnel;therefore,
very large and very small people probably are not represented.
There arefour constraintsofergonomic anthropometry: clearance,
reach,posture,and strength.Clearanceprovidgs adequateclearancefor
those in the workstation. This includesheadroom,elbow room, leg
room, and handle spaceon a hand tool.
Clearancesare designedfor the maximum. For example, if the
tallest person in a group has clearance,shorter peoplewill have it also.
Figure 5.5 shows severaltypical workplace clearances.In most of the
examples,three valuesin inches are given. The first is the minimum
normal clearance,the secondis the clearancewith normal clothing, and
the third is the clearancerequired with heavywinter clothing.
Reachingis a commonworkplaceactivity.Workers reachfor parts,
tools,andcontrols.Reachconsffaintsdeterminethe maximum acceptable
distanceof the item-an exampleof designingfor the minimum. If the
individual with the shortestreachcangrasp,thosewith longer reachcan
alsograsp.The distancesin figure 5.4 include static reaches.Figure 5.6
showsreachzones thatvary accordingto difficulty.
Postural constraints often are difficult to identify becausethey
dependon the sizeofthe person,his or her position,and the equipment
dimensions.The height of a work surface,for example,dependson the
height ofthe worker and the height ofthe worker's chair. With postural

17O

FacilitiesPlanning

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237 ,5

Workstation
Design:
TheSub-Micro-Space
Plan

Figure5.4 - Typicol Anthropometric Dirnensions

EE

Dimonsions ln Inch6s
Minimum/Rccommond6dHcavt
Ctothing
Adaoled Fromr Mccormick. 1064

't7
20
21

96

Figure5.5 - Typicol Work Clearance

'17'l

172

FacilitiesPlanning

constraints, designing for the extremesis the common methodolog'y.


Figure 5.6 showsseveralposturaldimensions.
Strength requiresfocuson the minimum in one situation and the
maximum in others. It depends on the direction of force and the
position of the operator, as well as the strength of the individual
operator. Experience and a conservativeapproachwill help to ensure
that the operator'sstrength limits are not exceeded.For a straight lift
under ideal conditions,an operatorshould neverlift a weight of more
than fifry-one pounds.

Z o n eH 1
445 si

HorizontalReachZones

Vertical Reach Zones


Figure5.6 - ReochZones

WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Spaceplan

173

Specialtopics
severalspecifictopics ariserepeatedlyin the ergonomicsofworkstation
design. Among these are band tools,material ltandling, zuorkpositions,
and seating.In addition to the discussionbelow, figure 5.3 contains
principles that apply to theseareas.
Hand tool selection,design,and use are important elementsof
manyworkstationdesigns.The useofthe correcthandtools contributes
to productivity and quality and can prevent CTD and other injuries.
Almost everyworkplacerequiressomeform ofmaterial handling.
Injuries causedby maneuveringmaterialsmanually cost industrieswell
over $15 billion annuallyin direct expenses.
The indirect costs^re an
estimatedat $60 to fi75billion. Productivitylossesfrom poor handling
methods are probably even greater. Any tasks that require manual
material handling should be carefully reviewed.Refer to the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH) Revised
Lifting Equation (1991).
Operatorsmay sit, stand,or both. Work positionsthat combine
sitting and standingpermit operatorsto shift their postures.This helps
reducemusclefatiguefromprolonged staticeffort. Figure5.7 summarizes
the relationship between severalworkplace variables and preferred
seatingpositions.

Heavy Load/Forces

lntermittent
Work

.A)

Extended
workEnvelop.
XQrc
VariableTasks
Variable Surface Height

RepetitiveMovement

X,

\ B

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PSXI
lDxBxc/
/nVn\

/n\

Fine Manipulation

XO)
ru,

IE Position
A Sland

B Sil/Stand

Stand. Chair Available

D sil

Figure5.7 -Work Positions

174

FacilitiesPlanning

have studied seatsextensively,and most designers


Researchers
experiencewith seats.In general,a seatthat is
broad,
practical
have
comfortablefor the taskand positionsthe armsproperly is ergonomically
satisfactory.
Only the mostimportant ergonomicfactorsin workstationdesign
havebeen covered.Lighting, vibration, temperature,noise,and shift
work also affect the design. For further information, see Salvendy's
Handbook of Human Factors and McCormick's Human Factors In
E ngineering and D esign.
Worker selection
The physicaldemandsofeveryjob differ, asdo the physical,mental, and
ofeachpersonthat performsajob. For optitemperamentalcharacteristics
and capabilitiesshould match.
mum performance,thesecharacteristics
An employer should identify characteristicsrequired for eachjob
and identifr minimum criteria for thosewho might be selectedfor it.
This will ensurean appropriatematch.In somecases,the identification
may resultin ajob redesignto accommodatea larger
of characteristics
At minimum, employersshouldensure
partofthe availablecandidates.
that the peoplein a particularjob do not incur physicalharm because
of a mismatchbetweenjob requirementsand worker characteristics.
The Americanswith DisabilitiesAct (ADA) is anotherreasonto
perform this analysis.This act requiresemployersto accommodate,
within reason,peoplewith disabilitieswho can perform the essential
functionsof ajob. To do so meansthat the essentialfunctionsand the
worker characteristics
neededto perform them must be identified.

The workstationspaceplan
The tasksfor preparinga workstationareillustratedin figure 5.8. Task
05.01setsout aplanfor the designproject.The planincludesidentifying
A
participantsin the designprojectaswell astasksand their sequence.
level.
works
well
at
this
simple and informal plan usually
thesefundamentalspaceplanelements:
The modelprojectplanuses
SPUs,affinities,space,and constraints.SPUsincludeoperators,tools,
parts,and machineelements.Affinities evolvefrom the movementof
parts,movementof hands,and the necessityfor observation,and other
indirect factors.Each SPU requiresspace,but in aworkstation,vertical
spaceis more important than it is at other levels.Constraintshave a
different quality. They now include an operator's dimensional and
physiologicallimits and,possibly,regulatorylimits. Processconstraints
may play an important role.
information.
bring togetherthe necessary
In Task 05.02,designers

WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
Plan

175

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Figure 5.8 - Workstation Model'Project

This includesa layoutofthe area,a processchartfor the overallprocess,


information on the peoplewho willwork at the station,partslists,tool
lists,andequipmentlists.Iftheworkstation designfollowsa celldesign,
much ofthe necessaryinformation
may aheadyexist.Ifnot, itwill have
to be obtained or generated. Chapter 4 shows how to acquire this
information.

176

FacilitiesPlanning

Next, a detailed processchart for,workstation ^ctivity is created


(Task 05.03). Figure 5.9 is the workstation processfor the head
subassemblyof the diaphragmpump describedin Chapter 4. The celllevel chart identified this subassemblyasa single operation. Now, it is
exploded into the next level of detail, and each component and each
operation that usesa separatetool or instrument are documented. In
serviceenvironments, information items go into the chart.
T able5 .2 includesalist ofparts and tools for the headsubassembly.
This spreadsheetis the heart of the layout analysis.As the design
proceeds,the other information and calculationswill be described.
Task 05.04 allocatesfunctions to people or machines.For the
head subassembly,most functions go to the operator. The design
volume is eighty-eight pumps per dayor about elevenpumps each hour.

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WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space
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177

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178

FacilitiesPlanning

judgment,
Moreover, two sizesmakeup this volume.In the designer's
automationwasimpracticalat this volume.The onlymachineassignment
is the tightening of fittings. The operatorusesan air wrench to do this.
Tasls 05.05through 05.08addressaffinities.Most affinitiesarise
reaching,
grasping,and moving.The operatormayinteractin this
from
manner with parts, tools, or controls. A reach, followed by a grasp, is
one of the most common workplace activities.Operatorsreach and
grasp parts, tools and controls. Frequency, handling difficulty, and
weight affect the reach affinity.
Affinities also arisefrom other factors.The operatormay need to
see objectsor displays,sothey shouldbewithin the operator'svisualfield.
Someitems aremore important than others.For example,an emergency
cutoffcontrol is usedonly infrequentlybut is veryimportant. Developing
affinities alsoinvolves:the amount of accuraryrequired,duration ofuse,
safety,the amount of force required, and operatorpreferences.
The various tools, parts, displays, and controls compete for
locationscloseto the operatorandwithin his or her optimum visualand
reachzones.These zoneshavelimits.
Figure 5.6 shows the horizontal and vertical zones for a typical
"H"
"V'
or
for horizontal or
operator. These are designatedwith an
vertical.Designersthen canassignitems to both ahorizontd.andvertical
znne accordingto their relativeaffinity needsand the spaceavailable.
Horizontal affinity znne 1 (H1) is closestto the operator and can
be reachedcomfortablywhen elbowsareon the work surface.The zone
archis about 15 to 17 inchesfrom the surfaceedge.A line extending45
degreesfrom the shouldersbounds the zone laterally. This zone is the
most comfortable,offering the leaststressand quickestaccesstime. It
should be reservedfor the tasks and items with the highest priority.
Horiznntal affinity zone 2 (H2) is the area an operator can
comfortably reachby extendingan arm with his or her trunk stationary.
The zone arcis about27 inchesfrom the work surfaceedge.It endswhen
the arm is at 45 degreesabovethe horizontal plane. This zone requires
minimal accesstime. However, extensivetime in this position leadsto
rapid fatigue and upper musculoskeletalstress.Use this zone for light
objectsthat the operatorcan graspeasilybefore returning to zone H1.
Horizontal affinity zone 3 (H3) is reachedby extending an arm
with full trunk flexion. The arc is about 42 to 44 inches from the work
surface edge. It ends when the arm reaches45 degrees above the
horizontal plane.This zone has significantlygreateraccesstime and
correspondingreduction in efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness.
Operators must move their headsto seethe task, a movement that
interrupts concentration.This zone should be used for infrequent

WorkstationDesign:TheSub-Micro-SpacePlan17g
reacheswith low priority.
Horizo ntal affinity zone 4 (H 4) require s fu ll bo dy movem ent and,
possibly,one or two side steps.The operator expendsconsiderable
energ'yto reachthis zone.Accesstime is significantly greaterthan other
zones.It should only be used for taskswith the lowest priority.
Vertical affinity zone ! (V1) extends from the work surftce to
about 10 to 16 inchesabovethe seatpan. It is aboutheartlevel,hasthe
lowest accesstime, and is the most comfortable.It shouldbe usedfor
taskswith the highestprioriry.
Vertical affinity zone 2 (V2) begins where zone VI ends. It
extendsto the operator'sshoulders,about 16 to 24 inches abovethe
work surface.This zoneis usedfor items and tasksthat supportprimary
tasks.Accesstime is minimal, but extensivetime in this zone causes
early fatigue and musculoskeletalstress.
Vertical affinity zone3 (V3) extendsfrom the baseof znneY2 to
the maximum reachlevel.It may require upper trunk movement aswell
as head movement,which reducesconcentrationand increasesaccess
time. Using this zone interrupts vision and forces the operator to
refocus. It is the least efficient vertical affinity zone and should be
reservedfor taskswith the lowest priority.
The first task for affinity development concerns reaches and
frequency.From the initial information, designersshould compile a list
ofitems. In table5.2, this list is in column B. Next, designersshoulduse
P-V information, the processchart,and bills of materialsto determine
the number of times eachday an operatorreacheseachitem. In table
5.2, this is column I. The frequenciesderivefrom the quantity per unit
(column C) and the expecteddaily production (Column D).
Column J is an affinity rating that uses the 0 to 4 weighted
numeric scale.The rating is identified on a rankedbar graph,a process
similar to that used for rating material flow affinities discussedin
chapter 3. To construct this graph, the spreadsheeton column I is
sorted in descendingorder. Column I is plotted on the vertical axis
while the identifiing number, column A, is plotted on the horizontal
axis.The next stepinvolvesassigning0 to 4 or AEIOU to the affinities
and recordingthem in columnJ of the spreadsheet.
The weight of eachobject, if significant, addsto the difficulty of
a reach.Column K lists the weight carried for eachitem, which is then
rated by the coresponding affinities (column L). Difficulty of a reachgraspalsodependson the shape,size,and delicacyof eachitem. This
affinity is rated in column M. For the diaphragm pump, the valvesare
particularly small and delicate. Consequently, they carry a handling
affinity of 4. Small washers carrya 3 affinity.

180

FacilitiesPlanning

For the head subassemblyof the diaphragm pump; no other


affiniry factors were identified. In different situations, this category
could include the necessityto seegaugesor controls.It could include
many factors peculiar to each circumstance.Using the proceduresfor
Task03.14 outlined in chapter3, affinitiesaremerged.Attheworkstation
level,this is Task 05.09.Eachaffinity is assigneda ratingweight.Table
5.2 showstheseweights at lower left. Each affinity rating is multiplied
by the correspondingweight and placedin column O. Next, the values
in column O areplotted on a rankedbar graph,and the total affinities
are rated and areplacedin column P.
Task 05.10calculatesthe spacefor eachitem in the list. Table 5 .2
has dimensional information in columns F through H. Column E
showsa containercode.For example,the BN1 containeris an openfront partsbin with dimensionsof 6 inchesby 7.5 inchesby 12 inches.
The spreadsheetformula calculateshorrzontal spaceand placesit in
column R. The face areafor each item is shown in column S. The
formula adds20 percentfor unusablespaceand clearances.
Task 05.11 assignseachitem an affinity zone.This balancesthe
need for affinity with availablespace.Starting with the highest value
affinities,eachitem is assignedto the most desirablezone.For the head
subassembly,zone H1V1 was reservedfor the work fixture and
surroundingwork space.The lower middle sectionof table 5.2 shows
the approximatespaceavailablein eachzone.Becausethe total amount
of spaceneededexceedsthe spaceavailablein all the V1 zones,the
designersuse an elevatedshelf in zoneH2V2 to storesomeparts.
In this situation,horizontalspacedominates.In other situations,
suchasin an aircraft cockpit, the vertical spacemight dominate. For this
example,affinitiesbetweenelementsother than the operatorhavebeen
ignored.Suchaffinitiesmight haveimportancein specialsituations.In
such cases,designersdevelop an affinity diagram like that used in
Chapters3 and 4.
Task 05.13 createsspaceplan options. One option for the head
subassembly
is in figure 5.10.The designersusedfigure 5.7 to selecta
headsand
for
position the operator.In this case,the operatorassembles
bodies.The operatoralsostocksmaterialand occasionallyassistsother
peoplein the work cell. The sit and standposition offers mobility but
alsoallowsrest and variation.
eitherofthe two
Figure5.10showshowthe operatorcanassemble
This
pump sizeswithout set-up.
precludesbatching.At completion,
the parts go on a roller conveyor at the operator's left. The roller
conveyor and one-part container are in Zone 4, outside the usual
afftnity zones.The operatorusestheseonly oncefor eachitem. A swivel

Workstation
Design:TheSub-Micro-Space
Plan

181

seatpreventsawlanrardbending for both reaches.


A secondroller conveyorfeedsparts for the body assembly.This
assemblyoccursat the workstation to the operator'sleft. It also carries
the completedbody assemblies.
The operator'sairwrench hangson a tool balance.An adjustable
task light reduces glare. Adjustable height on the bench and seat
accommodatesall operators. The operator stocks material from the
back side of the bench,which is adjacentto aisleand storageareas.
Task 5.14 is the evaluationof the spaceplan.The evaluationtools
from Chapter 3 should be used.

Figure5,10 - Worlstotion

182

FacilitiesPlanning

Summaly
A well-thought-out workstation optimizes productivity both within
itself and in the larger production system. It improves the work
experiencefor everyone.It ensurescontinuedhealth and safety.Such
workstations are an essentialpart of a wodd-class operationsstrateg'y.
A structuredand systematicapproachwill ensureconsistentand highquality workstation design.

Chapter6
Written by
Site Planning Arild
Eng

and Location Amundsen

the location,acquisition,and planning of sites.


This chapterdiscusses
These are Levels 7 and2 in figure 2.I. At the global level, Level 1,
managementdecidesthe approximategeographiclocation for the
the scopeandrangeofactivity
site(s).Suchdecisionsnecessarilyinclude
on eachsite,aswell asscaleissues.They includeintegration-how the
sitesrelate to eachother and the outsideworld. First, a desirableregion
or areafor the site is located.Management then finds specific site
candidates,makesa selection,and negotiatesthe acquisition.
The supra-level,Level2, includesplanningthelocationof buildings
on the site. Other significant site featuressuch as utiliry lines, roads,
railways,and greenareasarealsopositioned. Zoningand neighborhood
issuesareexamined,andfuture expansionsanddevelopmentareexplored.
Becausesitesareso permanentand expensive,suchdecisionsare
both long-rangeand strategic.Only top managementhasthe authority
and responsibilityfor such decisions.Industrial engineerscan assist
management with these decisions by gathering facts, framing the
issues,and guiding the debate.They also can composesignificantly
different and important options and provide the tools for evaluation.
Ideally, site location and planning proceduresshould occur
sequentiallyandbeforeotherfacilitiesplanning(seeFig. 2.7).However,
this may not happen.Management akeadymay havepurchaseda site,
or an older, existing site may need replanning. Designers may have to
rationalizethe scope,range,and scaleof activities for multiple existing
sites.They must integrateand combinecompatibleproducts,markets,
and activities.These less-than-idealsituationsare common.
Sitelocationandplanningissuesareoftenintangible,probablistic,

184

FacilitiesPlanning

or conditional.The tasksareseldomconsistentfrom projectto project.


The methodologiesare inexact and often not amenableto engineering
analysis.Most industrial engineersfacethesetasksonly occasionallyin
their careers.For thesereasons,sitelocationand planningrequiremore
experiencethan other levelsofspaceplanning. Otganizations maywish
to engagethe servicesof specialistsin this field.
In this book, single-buildingsites are emphasized.This is the
most common situation, particularly for thosewho arerelatively new to
facility planning. Large, multi-building sites arefar more complex and
involve a more complex project structure.They also involve the larger
issuesof focus,detailedconstruction,and structuralengineering.
Site planning and location canfollow the sameprinciples detailed
in the previous chapters.A framework of detail levels translatesinto
planning phases.For each phase, model project plans are used to
developa project plan.

Site locationand acquisition


An existing firm that simply needsa more suitable site in the current
region doesnot need to be analyzedon a global level. However, a firm
planning an additional site or a move to a new geographicregion faces
strategicand long-term issues.A sound site-locationproject is not
criticalskills
merelyasearchfor cheaplabor andlowtaxes.Increasingly,
in labor and support determine the successof a firm. Geopolitical
factorsmay influencethe decision.
The phasing between Levels 1 and 2 may not be clear and
sequential. For example, initial site plans may have to be prepared
before anyonecandecideamong final candidates.After the acquisition,
more detailed site plans assistthe architectsand civil engineersasthey
design the buildings and key features.
The model project plan for Level 1 activity is in figure 6. 1. It starts
with a preliminary investigation. This information acquisition (Task
01.01) usuallytakesthe form of discussionwith top managementin
marketing, operations,and finance.It may require grosscost estimates
to verify that expectationsare realistic. The deliverablesare project
plans for Level l and2 and a report.
Task 01.02 develops and defines corporate and operations
strategies.When a firm previously has gone through this process,this
task simply may be clarification. When the firm has not previously
consideredtheseissues,the task can be arduous.
Chapter 3 included some discussionof operations strategy.The
strategystatementrequired for site acquisition is similar to the example
manyofthe sameissuesbut in broaderterms.
in figure3.17.It addresses

SitePlanningand Location

0 1 .o l
Acquire Information

01.o2
DevelopStrategy
0 1 .o 3
Dimension Site

01.o4
Locate Site

ol.os
Prepare Site Specification

01.06
ldentify Site Gandidates

0 1 .o 7
EvaluateCandidates

0 1 .o 8
Acquire Site

Figure 5. | - Site Location

185

186

FacilitiesPlanning

The specificsfor developinga new site'sstrategyarebeyondthe


scopeofthis book. The booksby Skinner,Voss,Hill, and Hayesnoted
asreferencesareexcellentsourcesfor further information. The deliverable
for Task 01.02 is a strateg'ysummaryfor the site.
In Task 01.03, dimensionsof the proposedsite are determined,
includingunder-roofspacerequirementsfor severalplanninghorizons.
Typically, thesehorizons areone year, five years,ten years,and twenty
years.This variesbetweenindustriesand firms. Fast-growingfirms in
rapidly evolvingindustries-electronics, for example-work on shorter
horizons.Stablefirms in capital-intensiveindustries,suchaspaperor
steel,havelongerhorizons.
From under-roofrequirementsand other calculationssuchasthe
number of employees,outdoor space is computed. This includes
parking,storage,andgreenareas.Dimensioning alsoincludesa definition
of corollary requirementssuch as utilities, local skills, and other
infrastructure.
Task 01.04 locatesthe potential geographiclimits. Such limits
might be country or regionwide.For heavymanufacturing, this analysis
should include transportation costs and availability. For knowledgebasedindustries, it may include availability of critical skills or qualityof:life issues.
Figure 6.2 illustratesa transportationanalysis.In this example,a
brewingfirm wantsto locatea new sitethatwill be usedfor distribution
throughout Norway. Salesper capita are constant.Shadingsindicate
areaswhere nationwide distribution costsfall within the associated
ranges.The mountainous terrain and differencesin transportation
infrastructure clearly affect the shape of each area.The area around
ofits centrallocation,high
Oslo hasthe lowestdistributioncostbecause
population density, and favorableterrain. A location in Bergen or
Trondheim would increasedistribution costsby about 50 percent.
the requirementsinto a site specification
Task 01.05 assembles
document.Sitefactorscanbe classifiedasexternalor internal.External
and internalfactorsin turn maybe identified astangibleand intangible.
Tangible factorsarethosewith physicalforms suchassite boundariesor soil conditions.Intangiblesarelessdefinitive, and includefactors
like the local work ethic, governmentalclimate, or site history.
Externalfactorsexistlargelyoutsidethe siteboundaries.Frequently,
the owner has little control over them. Examples of tangible external
factorsare:
' transportationproximity;
' site accesslimitation;
' future street widening;

SitePlanningand Location

187

. airport flight paths;


. neighboractivities;
. runoff/flooding;
. prevailing wind;
. freight transportation;
. residentialproximity;
. public transportationland
. acquisitionprice and terms.
Intangible externalfactorsmight include:
. zoning;
. building codes/permits;
. political climate;
. police and fire protection;
. neighbor attitudes;
' site and areahistory;
. community power structure;
. manPower;
. natural resourcerestrictions;
. environmentalissues;
. grantsand aids;
. tax exemption;
. local taxes;
. political stabiliry;
. economicstabiliw:
' industrial tradition;
. labor laws;
. constructioncosts;and
'cost of living.
Internal factors exist largely within the site boundary. The owner may
havesubstantialability to modi4, or mitigate the effectsof them. Some
tangibleinternal factorsmight be:
'topography;
'soil conditions:
. existingbuildings;
' existing traffic areasl
. utility systems;and
. water table.
Someintangibleinternal factorsare:
'landscaping;
. security;
. safetyi
. appearance/image;

188

FacilitiesPlanning
' managerialstyle; and
'tract shape.

Focusingon eachsub-classreducesthe possibility of overlookingan


factor.
important
The site specificationgives real estate agents and site-search
expeftsthe information they needto screenpotential site candidates.
This activitytakesplacein Task 01.06;the resultshouldbe a list of t"vo
to eight candidates.
Task 01.07 evaluatesthe site candidates.Tools for evaluation
include weighted factor analysis,financial analysis,simulation, and
materialflow analysis.
Qralifiers are the absoluteminimum requirementsfor the site'
limits. Qralifiers
Decidersarefeaturesthat canvarywithin reasonable
might include items suchas:a minimum of 4.5 acresof land or 10,000
KVA electricalservice.Decidersmight include additionaloptions for
expansionland or lower electricalrates.All candidatesthat passthe
initial screeningshould meet the qualificationrequirementsbut will
vary with respectto deciders.
To assistwith the evaluation,preliminary site plans may have to
be prepared.For example,a site that is otherwisedesirablemay havean
odd config,rration.A siteplan can determinewhether the siteis suited
for the planned buildings and operations.The site'spossibilitiesand
limitations must be analyzed.While most evaluationfactors are in the
original sitespecification,somemayonlybecomeknown asthe sitesare
investigated.
Acquisition (Task 01.08) includes negotiation and purchase.
These negotiations often involve owners, lawyers, environmental
localgovernmentofficials,anddevelopmentofficials.Union
specialists,
representativesmay also participate. The negotiating processmay
changethe decisionfactorsand forcea reevaluation.When acquisition
is complete,spaceplanning can begin.
Site planning
A siteplan showsland use-today and in the yearsto come.Buildings,
open space,parking, and greenareasare delineated.The plan reflects
the physicalresultsof the businessstrategy,showingspaceutilization'
transport routes, utilities, maintenancesystems' and expansion
possibilities.
Spaceplanning for Level2-the site-positions buildings,parking
lots, drives,utilities, and many other sitefeatures.Industrial engineers
often perform this taskjointlywith an architect,civil engineeror facility
engineer.This taskis bestaccomplishedafter aspecificsiteis acquired.

SitePlanningand Location

189

However,havingapreliminarysiteplan mayhelpduringthe acquisition


process.The task also may involve replanning an older, existing site.
A good site plan assistswith orderly expansionand growth. It
helps place short-term layout and facility decisionsinto a long-term
strategicperspective.It is essentialto the long-te rm missionof a facility.

Transport
Gost Index
I

1 . 0 0- 1 . 2 5

1 . 2 6- 1 . 3 5

F i r . s o- r . s o
[---l r.sr- r.ze
f__-.]r.zs*

Figure5.2 - Tronsportotion Anolysis

190

FacilitiesPlanning

The fundamental macro-space-planelements, SPUs, space'


affinities, and constraints, apply at the site level' However, there are
differencesbetween site-level planning and spaceplanning at the
macro-level.Site-levelspaceusually meansexterior dimensionsand
exteriorspaceuse.Affinities aresimpler,and constraintsdominatethe
layout of most sites.
The site-level model Proiect Plan
Figure 6.3 is the model project plan for a single-building site' As
mentionedpreviously,large,complex,multi-building sitesusea different

02.o1
Refine/Gonfirm Information

02.o2
Refine/GonfirmStrategY

02.03
Dimension Site

02.o4
LayoutInitial Site

02.05
Layout Saturated Site

02.06
Layout Intermediate Sites

02.o7
Evaluate & Select

Figure5.3 - Model Proiect Plon

SitePlanningand Location

191

approachand considerablesitd planning experienceis needed.such


complex sitesare beyond the scopeof this discussion.For additional
information, see wrennall and Lee, Handbook of comrnercial and
Ildysnll
Managemenr or Muthe r, Systematicplanning Of
lacility
Industria I Facilities.
Information neededfor the site plan is obtained during Task
02.07.Much of it may alreadyexistif the plannersareprogressirigfrom
the site acquisitionphase.
Task 02.02 of the model project plan developsoperationsstrategy.
Tli.s mal simply be a confirmation of earliei work, possibly wiih
additional detailmore suitedto localconditions.The deliverablefor Task
02.02 is a strategysummarysimilar to the one illustraredin figure 3.1g.
once the backgroundinformation has been collecteJ and the
operationsstrategyis in place,the site is dimensioned(Task 02.03).
This processdefines, analyzes,and quantifies those factors that affect
key featuresat eachplanning horizon, including:
. spacerequirementsby class;
. number of employees;
. shippingvolume;
. production volume and mix;
. utiliry requirements;
. organization structure;
. traffic access:and
. designconstraints.
The /nitra/ Srte and Site Saturat/on p/ans
The initial site is plannedin Task 02.04.For a new site,this would be
the firstbuildingphase.Foran existingsite,itis the currentconfiguration.
Figure 6.4 illustrates for Vinyl-X, an extruder of vinyl prodults.
Task 02.05is the sitesaturationplan,which placeithe maximum
production spaceon the site. Also included are appropriatesupport
spacessuch as docks, parking, offices, and warehousis. Figuri 6.5
showsthe site saturationplan.
After an initial plan and a site saturation plan are in place,
intermediatedevelopmentplans can be filled in during Task dz.oo.
6.6, when joined with figures 6.4 and 6.5, i=ompletesthe
fig"_t.
developmentplanforthe vinyl-Xsite. Awritten plan shouldaccompany
the graphic layouts developedduring Tasks 02.04 throu gh 02.06.
The model project plan showsTasks 02.04,02.05,-and.02.06
as
individual tasks.However, designersprobablywill work on layouts for
all three at the sametime, creatingseveraldistinct setsof siteplans.In
Task 02.07' spaceplanners evaluatethese options and serectfrom

FacilitiesPlanning

192

Slte

/ / |

1,6
Figure6.4, 5.5 - Site Pfon Development

Site Planningand Location

193

among them. Decision tree analysisis a viable addition to the usual


panoply of evaluation tools.
Other Site Planning lssues
rvVhile developing the initial site saturation and intermediate plans,
spacefor immediate useis laid out first. Future spaceplans alsomust be
anticipated and the transition costsminimized F or example,loading
docks are expensiveto build. Therefore, they should be placed where
they will not be affected during future expansions.Conversely,light
assemblyworkstationsareeasyto move.Their position is not ascritical.
Spaceflexibility, or the cost ofmoving a spaceand the complexity
ofthe facility, must alsobe considered.Figure 6.7 illustrares.The SPU's
flexibility is low if it has special facilities and representsvery heavy
production. The SPU'sflexibility increaseswith lighter production and
simpler facilities.
For the development plan, designers can choose from several
types or variations: zone,block,duplicate,and stripe. Figure 6.8 shows
thesespaceplan types.
A zone plan begins with a central core of space. Each SPU,
function, or activity has a related zone. As spaceneeds increase,the
SPUs expand outward but within their designatedzones.Zone plans

Figure6.7 - Site Plan Development

194

FacilitiesPlanning

alloworderlygrowth without alteringproductionorganization.However,


asSPUsbecomelarger and larger, coordination and control difficulties
may develop, especiallyif growth also brings more product variety.
A block plan begins with blocks of land designated for each
function or are^ with long travel distances between SPUs. Each
building may then expandwithin its block. Block planswork well when
each SPU is a largely self-contained entity.
A duplicate plan startswith an initial facility, which is then cloned
on adjacentland.This avoidsthe problemof increasingscalelhowever,
it meanscapacityincreasesin largeincrements.

-.9

E6
ots

F.t
o :
F d

o
o
?o
io)
d.E
- E

E 5

,t"7

oo
o

Y7--

o
9)
' c6o. =
c)E
o-=

?
o

e-o
- c F

.96
J O
a

iq

fl3
i

ad

-3
'( l6' = 9

,gE

Figure5.7 - Processond Facility Flexibility

SitePlanningand Location

Zone Plan
Areas are reservedfor
expansionfrom a center
core outwards.

Block Plan
Areas are blockedout by
functionor space type.
Each facilityexpandswithin
a d e s i g n a t e db l o c k .

l Z-l
l

i. D u p l i c a t eP l a n
,

Each facilityhas balanced


s p a c e .E x p a n s i o n sd u p l i c a t e
the original.

lFTlf _..ii
i

i;tlf

"""""'i

; i

i:-m:i
i * - E r; i

i;E-ll
iF--l--l ;

i
i

StripePlan
Areasare reservedin stripes
acrossthe site.This is a
sp e ci aty
l peof zoneplan.

Figure6.8 - Site DevelopmentStyles

195

196

FacilitiesPlanning

A stripe plan is a specialversion of a zone plan where each SPU


expands horrzontally. This is a good approach for simple, linear
that expandas new production units are added.It may not
processes
work well for more complex products and processes.

Machining

E@

Assembly

F'"*l
F""*l
I r'*l

By Function

@
@

Storage

Production

service
Personnel
L,IItCe

servrce

Storage Production

Personnel
oilrce

@
@

By Product
Light

Heavy

Multi-Floor

SPecial

B y B u i l d i n gT y p e

SameUtilities

Same Fire Hazard

Same People

B y S p e c i a lR e q u i r e m e n t s
Figure5.9 - SPU GrouPing

Site Planningand Location

't97

The Site Plan


The planning processfor the site plan is similar to the processfor
macro-layouts.The first stepis identifting the Spus. Relatid activities
or featuresar-egrouped into logical SPUs basedon function, product,
qp. of building, or specialrequirements(Figure6.9). Figures 6.10
through 6.14useBCD Industries,Ltd., "r "r e""-ple. Figure6.10lists
the namesand acronymsof eachmajor SPU aswell asthi initial space
requirements.If an existingsitewerebeingreconfigured,cuffent space
would be shown at this point.

ti!

o
I

6
c
o

tl =:

lt ;r

;o

E
o

E E

;' Hs

EE

E E
o o

E* a
E
i=_E
3l
O

(t,I

:o

.9
f
@

="1
'_i

:)l
o-l
ol

a
I
o

x
U

E
o

; s
3 oo oo

o
I

o
=

o
F uc o

C
o
a

c
o

E
o

z z
l

"l

il

-o

t
E
z
o

i
E .g
o d
z
o

-l

@
N

=lj

'=l
6l

>l
O J

' ) l

o
@

.l
ol

.El >d ll
2 l 9 1 . a- ll

EI
FI;

9l pl

DI
at.

d l

.91

pt;

Figure5.10 - SPUSummary

198

FacilitiesPlanning

Figure 6.11 is the affinity chart that identifies the affinities


betweenthe SPUsin the siteplan. Someofthe SPUs,suchasrail siding
and road, are site features.This is typical for site level planning.

UTTING
z

L I G H TM A C H ( L M )

i 4

R e a s on

,IATR.FLOW
SERVICE
,/tBR-/ NOTSE
4
SUNNEL
o

Figure5.1l - Affinity Chart

IKATT

T R U C KT R A F F I C

SitePlanningand Location

199

Next, a configuration diagram and the layout primitive should be


constructed(f\5.6.72). Figure 6.13 showsthe samediagramcodedfor
flexibility and building type. coded diagramshelp in the preparation of
the site saturationand developmentplans.

HEAVY
MACHINING

RAW MATERIALS
STORAGE

TECHNICAL
SERVICE

z
UTTING
PARTS
STORAGE

FTNT.HED

)
/
I

/MAIN

PERSONNEL

PARKING

)FFIC

Today's Space

FutureExpansion

Figure5.12 - Layout Primitive With Expansion

FacilitiesPlanning
BCD's spaceplan is shown in figure 6.74.Itconsists of an initial
space plan with a subsequentexpansion.The top portion_of the
illustraiion shows operating departments at stageI and stageII. The

lrTl-T]-lr,rovi
|.4

--

Move

lil l' ll rmmovabr6

Figure6.13A - Layout Primitive Coded For Mobility

SitePlanningand Location

199

Next, a configuration diagram and the layout primitive should be


constructed(fig.6.72). Figure 6.13 showsthe samediagramcodedfor
flexibility andbuilding type.coded diagramshelp in the preparationof
the site saturationand developmentplans.

HEAVY
MACHINING

TECHNICAL
SERVICE

RAW MATERIALS
STORAGE

f-

Today's Space

FutureExpansion

Figure5,12 - Layout Primitive With Exponsion

FacilitiesPlanning

2OO

BCD's spaceplan is shown in figure 6.14.ltconsists of an initial


spaceplan with a subsequentexpansion.The top portion_of the
illustration shows operating departments at stageI and stageII. The

ffi

Inexpensive

Figure6.13A - Layout Primitive Coded For Mobility

SitePlanningand Location

201

middle portion showsthe rypeofbuilding. The bottom portion shows


the mobility ofspaceat both stages.In the expansion,few SPUsreguire
movement.None of the lessmobile areasrequire movement.

TTING
PARTS

Z
Z

\\

ffi

PERSONNEL

.!eay-Buirdins F

FTNT'HED
STORAGE

PARKTNG

:0.".+'

Q/

nor^^t

Figure5.138 - Loyout PrimitiveCoded For BuildingType

202

FacilitiesPlanning

Phasell

Phase I

-Petsoinel

Fa'llltles

=;;T7-Personnel

Facilitres

LIIIL_|__:J
er\

neavY
Machlnlng

L19ht
Machlnlng

cuttln9
Assembly
Raw
Matl
stge

Paats storage

mImItTITlTluTm

ilTmtr[fl]Tll

Building
Type

euttutne
ffir""uv
sr*ta
erlatne
ffi
$

rormatsutlatno

ffi

Mobility

Flnlshed
storage

ffi

EFTI]]+ETITITIFITT||n

FEffi

yeyg
1631pg1s1y6

frrrirn
ailyrmmovaDre
Essenfl
lfllllllll
Mo""
E
Ero"nrlu"

Figure5.14-SpocePlan

Conclusion
This chapter has set out the fundamentalsof site selectionand site
planning,demonstratinghow thesedetaillevelsfit into the total facility
planning cycle.Model projectplansoutline the stepsrequiredto select
andplan a small,single-buildingsite.When all the tasksarecompleted,
the resultis a plan that shouldpleasethoseindividualswho participated
in the process.

Chapter 7
Writtenby
OfficeSpacePlanningHerbert
Tuftle

The shift from manuallabor to knowledge-based


work has increased
the need for productive offices. Office personnelare no longer simply
typists and clerks. Office work now also includes accounting,
administration,manufacturingsupport,information services,human
resources,
engineering,
customerservices,
andteammeetings.It includes
many t)?es of knowledge-basedand information-intensive work.
Simultaneously,manufacturingoperationsarebecomingde aner,smaller,
and more sophisticated.Many factoriesare cleanerand more userfriendly than typical offices.The peoplewho makeproducs often work
elbow to elbowwith engineers,schedulers,and designerswho now sit
on the manufacturing floor.
The distinctionbetweenproduct and servicehasblurred. Service
providers use the manufacturing principles of Henry Ford.
Manufacturersinclude a packageof servicesaspart of their products.
Thesemayincludespecialdesigns,customization,financing,repairs,or
applicationassistance.
Flexibility in manufacturing has spread to flexibility in office
layout and design.It is not uncommon to rearrangeentire floors of
offices in a weekend.Many advancesin furniture, telephones,and
computersystemdesignshavebeenmade.Thesenew systemsprovide
design flexibility, are easy to install, and can accommodate the
increasinglyrapid changesin the workplace.
Office structure has undergone considerablechange.The office
may now have teams rather than functional departments.These
temporaryof pefmanentteamsmay managea processor project. The
office structure and companyculture affect office planning and design.

204

FacilitiesPlanning

The office being designedwill sewepeoplewith variousneeds.


Their performance-be it clerical, administrative, or intellecfualdependsin part on how they feel in their surroundings.Designers
usually want the employeesto be involved in the design of the layout,
as well as the selection of furniture and fixtures. When users help
determinetheir environment,they feel more comfortablein it, which
in turn contributesto their motivation.
Every employeemay not agreewith every aspectof a particular
Peopleusually
layout.It is possible,however,to get a group consensus.
can agreeto adopt the chosenlayout.
This chaptergivesa designeror designteam the foundation for
creatingan officespaceplan.The fundamentalsofoffice spaceplanning
remain the samewhateverthe sizeor location of the offices.Included
are approaches,layout alternatives,andhazards.It demonstrateshow
a team may be used to developan office layout acceptableto all users.
Approaches to office planning
Chapter 1 discussedcommon approachesto spaceplanning: experiential,
masterbuilding, cloning,bottom-up, systematic,and strategic.Office
planning frequently uses the same approaches,along with others
such as interior design, organization-based,spacerationing, and
information flow.
The interiordaignapproachfocuseson artisticdesignandcreativity.
The outcome is a pleasingenvironment,but it may not be the most
efficient.Ithas meritfor executiveofficesandreception,lobby,andmeeting
areas.Typically, it is expensiveand rarelycontributesto productivity.
a??rnacbis the most common. It
The organization-based
superimposesthe organization chart over the floor plan, starting with
the presidentor top executivein a corneroffice with disproportionate
space.A secretarysitsnearby,and thosemanagersreportingdirectlyto
the executiveare along outer walls. Support staff is then shoehornedin
outsidethe executiveofficesasillustratedin figure 7.1.
The spacerationing approachis often part of organization-based
spaceplans. Rank in an organizationdetermineswode spacesize.Each
person has a specified area correspondingto their position in the
corporatehierarchy.They often havespecificequipment and furniture.
Corporateleaders,often in remote areas,usuallydeterminethe space
standards.
Layouts basedon hierarchy may allocatewindows effectivelybut
rarely contribute to productivity. They facilitate communication, but
only along official channels.Hierarchical layouts rarely fit in a team
environment.

OfficeSpacePlanning

205

MKT. /SALE

ORGANTZATIONAL

CHART

MFG.

MFG.

CEO
SEC.

PURCH.

c .s .

MKT. /

C .S .

STAFF

ACC.

SUPV.

STAFF

C
S A L ES

STAFF

STAFF

Figure7.I - The Orgonizotion-bosedapproachto Office planning

206

FacilitiesPlanning

Many office layouts evolve from the infornationflow apptoach'


Two paradoxical trends are influencing this approach. First,
communication technology is reducing the importance of physical
location for some types of information. Second, team-based
organizationsare increasingthe importance oforal and interpersonal
communication. This interpersonalcommunication is sensitiveto
physicallocation.
Spaceplanning for anofficeusesthe sameprinciplesandprocedures
asother spaceplanning.It incorporatesthe bestfeaturesofthe traditional
using the sameprinciplesand proceduresasmacro-sPaceapproaches,
levelsofdetail apply,beginningwith globalsitelocation.
The
planning.
plansfollow. The detailedlevelsofwork cell
Siteplansand macro-space
design and workstation design are as important for an office as for a
factory. At each level, spaceplanning units, affinities, space,and
constraintsassistin the designProcess.
The specialneedsof office environmentschangethe emphasis
and applicationofthe spaceplan approach.Among the most important
differencesare:
' spacestandardsareusedto allocateand calculatespace;
' affinitiesdependmore on communicationand
than on material movement
personnel:movement
' constraintsoften havea psychologicalor organizationalbasis
rather than a physicalone; and
' politics and personalitiescarry more influence.
Team-based offi ce layouts
Team-based organizattonshave many characteristicsuncommon to
that affectthe layoutinclude:
traditional organizations.Characteristics
' frequent meetings(twice daily) of small groupsfor an hour
or less;
. the generationof more charts,graphs,or project
communicationmaterialsthan traditional organizations;
' substantialannualemployeetraining (40 to 120 hours);
' frequentpresentationsto managementand other teamsl
' project-orientedtemporaryteams;
' varyrngteam membership; and
' direct team input on workplacelayout.
Offices usedby teamsshouldbe designedby teams.This is congruent
with the empowered work team philosophy. However' some
organizationshave not adopted empowered work teams. An office
spaceplanner should realizewhat is appropriate for the organizatron.

OfficeSpace Planning

207

The office layoutteam


Team-designed layouts help overcome difficulties that arise from
complexity, human factors, and organizational maneuvering. If
empoweredteamsare not used,peoplefrom eachdepartmentshould
participatein other ways.
When a team doesthe work, Task 03.01 may requiremore than
gro:;c1 llanning. Organ izing an offi ce layout team involvesexpanding
Task 03.01 to include the following steps:
1. Appoint a facilitator.
2. select team memberswith good interpersonalskins.preferably,
they should have training or experiencein teamwork. The
membershipshould representall major departmentsand areas.
3. Develop an agreeableteam name.
4. Developa brief missionstatementthat satisfiesan team members.
It shouldstatewho, what, when, where,why, and how. Here is an
example:"The Building BlocksTeam for Foxmann Manufacturing
Co. will design one office layout byJune. It will have the ,pprorr"1
of all internal customersand achievebudget goals."
5. Assign responsibility.The team leaderassignstasksand
responsibilities.He or sheis often an engineerand shouldcoordinate
assignmentsfor team members.For example,eachpersonshould
be the liaison for his or her departmentor home team. someone
shouldwork with thosedepartmentsor teamsnot representedon
the layout team. Other assignmentsinclude meetingagendas,
minutes, contactwith suppliers,drawing coordination,sketches,
and layout. someoneshould be the communicatorand reDortro
managementand other teams.
6. Agree on team meeting dates,times, and duration.
7. Develop ground rules for the team's operation.

The layout project


For the office macro-layout,a model project plan (seefig. 3.1) can be
used. chapter 4 explainshow to design work cells and lepartmental
spaceplans.office plannersshouldusethe taskprocedurestutlined in
both chapters, applying them directly to office layouts. several tasks

208

FacilitiesPlanning

probablyshouldbe modified,however,sothat theymeetthe requirements


ofan office project.
Office user sulvey
Part of acquiring information is a surveyof the office spaceusers-the
"Office lJser
internal .rrtto-.tt. This should be calledTask 03.09A,
Survey,"and shouldbe addedto the model project plan.
Figure 7.2 rs an exampleof an office user surveythat can be
tailored to meet specificneeds.Managementshouldreviewany survey
beforeit is distributedto everyonewho will usethe office,perhapseven
outside customers,vendors,and visitors.To supplementthe survey,
team members may wish to interyiew senior executivesand other key
people.
tasks.It canhelpwith space
in manysubsequent
The surveyassists
calculations,and it allowsplannersto identifi opportunitiesfor process
improvement. It also helps identifr constraints.The data collected
shouldbe documentedin spreadsheetformat. The datafrom the office
user survey also should be used to develop affinities and space
requirements.These affinities then shouldbe reviewedwith many or all
ofihe users sothat they mayseethe rationalprocessbehindtheir layout.
builder.
This review is an important consensus
Material and information flow
therefore,Tasl's03.12
In most offi ces,materialflow is inconsequential;
AIso,
planningprocess'
the
office
unnecessaryin
through 03.14maybe
the
product.
visualize
to
is
difficult
in ceriain serviceenvironments it
This may mean more diligence,focus,and effort than it would where
the product is tangible.
Information flow, on the other hand, m y waffant significant
analysis.Acquisition of the latest communicationstechnology may
eliminatea company'straditionalneedsforproximiry. The purchaseof
a new computer system,for example,could significantlyalter layout
reouirements.
It may be worthwhile to develop a task that deals with -key
information processingissues.The task could be substitutedfor Task
"Handling Issues."
03.20,
Constraints
There are specificoffice planning considerationsand characteristics
that affect the office planning process.These are: multi-use afeas'
safetyandsecurity,furniture,
communicationssystems,sharedservices,
greenery'new construction'
lighting'
interaction,working hours,decor,

OfficeSpacePlanning

To:
From:
RE:

Ms. Deb Jones


BuildingBlocksTeam,FoxmannDiv.of Arron Elf, lnc.
Office Design(layoutor redesign)Survey

We need your help in designingan efficient new off ice layout.pleasecomplete this surveyand
submatto Jane Plow of your home department.Jane plow is the representative of your area on
the Office DesignTeam.We need your survey by February.pleaseadd any additionalcomments
What are the three departments(teams,areas)withwhich you have the most interaction?

1.

2. ln the Deparmtnets listed in Number 1above, what are the names of the peoole or tjtles of
the people with whom you have the most frequent contact?
A1--A2--=-A3_

Bi
C1

82
C2

DJ

c3

3.
_
_
_

Pleasecheck the items you use daily.


Desk
_Telephone
Work Surface
_Computer
Bookcase
-Fax
Desk Light
_Others {List)

_File
_Speakerphone
-Copy Machine

_Adding Machine
_ln Basket
_Conference Room

4.
_
_
_
_

Pleasecheckthe items you use,but not every day.


Desk
_Telephone
_File
Work Surfaces
_Fax
_Copy Machine
Computer
_Speakerphone
_ln Basket
Credenza
_Desk Light
_Others (List)

_Adding Machine
_Conference Room
_Bookcase

5.
_
_
_

Checkwhatyouhavenow.
Off ice with lockingdoor
Of f ice with no door
Cubicle,mediumwalls (<5 feet)

_Off ice with non-lockingdoor


_Cubicle, tallwalls {>5 feet)
_Open or low-walled cubicle

6. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings in your work space
(office)?_
7. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings outside your work space
{office/cubicle)?
_
8. What percentageof the work week do you spend in meetingsaway f rom your work space
(office/cubicle)?
_
9. lf your work spacewere to be changed,what would you Iiketo see arrangeddifferently?

10. What do you dislikeaboutthe presentoffice layoutor arrangement?

'11.
What do you like aboutthe presentoffice layoutor arrangement?

12. What is the most important aspect of off ice layout the Off ice Design Team should consider?

Figure7.2 - Exampleof on Office User Survey

209

FacilitiesPlanning

210

rest room and utility areas,and receptionareas.


Multi-pulpose areasareimportant for anyoffice.The utility ofthese
areasis often over-looked.They arethe frst areasto be eliminateddue to
budgetaryconstraints.Multi-use areasserveas private meeting rooms,
conferencerooms,teammeetingrooms,training faciiities,and temporary
work areas.They needwriting sufacessuchasdry-eraseboardsor chalk
boards.Separatelight control switches,separatetelephonejacks,and data
jacksshouldbe installed.Sliding doorsshouldbe built in aspanels.Small
tablesaredesirableadditionsaswell. They maybe usedastraining desksor
work tables;severalmaybepulledtogetherto createa conferencetable.The
equipment for multimedia presentationsalsoshould be accommodated.
Seethe exampleof a multi-use areain figure 7.3.
Plansfor information systemsandtelecommunicationarenecessary
computers'
in the officelayoutdesign.Mostpeoplewill needtelephones,
be
considered.
also
should
Wires andconnectordevices
or otherdevices.
installershouldbe invited
A personalcomputeror telecommunications
to a team meeting for input. Shareddeviceslike faxesand small copy
machinesshould be locatedin a centrallocation.
Plannersshould developan office securityand safetyplan. Video
monitors,metaldetectors,andotherdevicescanenhancesecurityat low
"Secured"
areassuch as laboratories,archives,and computer
cost.
equipment should be part of the plan. Power failure, fire, earthquake,
rising water, tornadoes,civil disturbance,bomb threat, strikes, and
other emergenciesshouldbe considered.

o o o o o o
-T-T--r-

ol-l-lo

.....ffi

f--l--

o ll l o

t
t
l
o o Q o o o

A.

Two

confernce

"9$

Tto Tto t-to


l l o l l o l l o
L_lo Llo L_10
D.

Meeting

a"
conf igurations

Figure7.? - An Exompleof o Multi-use Area

OfficeSpacePlanning

211

Office space planners ni:ed to develop a relationship with a


supplier of furniture and office fixtures that has provided competitive
bids andquality servicein the past.Ideally,office situationrepresentatives
should be made part of the office planning team. Figure 7.4 is a check
list for office layout.
In a multi-floor office situation,peoplewho interactwith groups
on other floorsshouldbe locatedneara stairor elevator.Cubicles.work
areas, and traffic areas should be integrated. Making the office
comfortable aswell asproductive is the goal. Designersmust allow for
flow in horizontal and vertical dimensions.
Flexiblehoursandjob sharingarebecomingmore common in the
work place.Typically, flexible hours mean employeesmust be at work
for a setof corehours(for example,10:00a.m.to 2:00p.m.) or they may
work any pattern aslong asthey work at leasteight hours a dayor forty
hours aweek. With job sharing,two or more peopleshareonejob. This
work force flexibility, while seeminglyunrelated to office planning, is
a worthwhile consideration.
As morecompaniesadoptflex-time,job sharing,casualovertime,
and contractedprojects,the specialcircumstances
they needand cause
should be considered when planning an office. They affect peak
facilities usageand on-the-job safety and security.They should be
consideredwhen schedulingjanitorial or maintenanceservices.It is
difficult to work with the roar of vacuum cleanersoutside a cubicle.
Most employeeswant natural lighting and windows that open for
fresh air. These are not always possible. Economical heating and
cooling may outweigh the need for individual control of windows.
Window blinds or shadesshould be provided. Again comfort and
productiviry are complementaryhere.
Lighting position and intensity should correspondwith the
configuration and position of desksand computer terminals. Various
coversor diffraction devicescan control lighting in computerareas.In
somecases,task lighting works well.
Plantsaddmuch to an office andshouldbepartofthe layoutdesign.
Large plantscanprovidegeographicbarriersand addfragranceand color.
It is an eyefor suchdetailsthat makesthe office attractiveyet functional.
The designof a new office is an opportunity to correct problems
in an existing office and to accommodatefuture growth. However, an
office layout that allows for new construction requires long-range
planning. Staffing levels over the next ten years are top priority.
Without a growh plan, officesbecomecrowded and inefficient. Plans
for expansionwithout disruption to the office also should be made.
Rest rooms, closets, and utility areas are a necessityfor every

212

FacilitiesPlanning

office.The building architectsdeterminesuchlocations,usuallybefore


a layout is complete.If at all possible,the office planning team should
work with the architectsto ensurethat theseareasare conveniently
locatedfor the users.
The lobby or receptionareaof an office is where the public gets
its first impressionof a company.An architect or interior designer
should work with the spaceplanner(s) on the design, and senior
managementshouldbe consultedaboutthe imagetheywant to portray.
of a company's
It is a good placeto displayproductsor representations
and
excellence.
to
quality
and
its
commitment
historv
Moving Day
The team has successfullycompleted a survey, prepared alternative
layouts, and receivedapprovalfor an office layout and budget. But the
day of the move or relocation requires planning, too. What files will
move,when, and where?What utilities, data,telephonewires will be
moved and when? The move should probably take place during a
weekend,or holiday,if possible.A"dry run" beforethe moveis a good
idea. Upon completion of the trial move, the planning team should
discussit with all involvedpartiesand identif' any forgotten details.

OFFICEFURNITURE
- ls there a desk or work spacefor eachpersonon the organizationchart?
- Do the type, style, andcolor match?
- Do utility runsmatch in cubiclewalls?
ADA REOUIREMENTS
- Canwheelchair-empoweredemployees,customers,andvendorstravel about
vour office lavout?
- How muchstrengthdoes it take to open the doors into the office?
- Are alarmsconfiguredwith flashingstrobes for hearing-impaired
employees?
- How will you communicatethe new layoutwith visuallyimpairedemployees?
- Do the restroomscomplywith the code andADA requirements?
MAINFRAMECOMPUTERFACILITIES
- Are the floor andceilingdesignedto accommodatethe additionalwires?
- ls temperaturecontroladequate?
- What type of fire sprinkleris available?
RECEPTIONOR LOBBYAREA
- ls there security?
- Does the areapresentthe properimage?
SOUNDCONTAINMENT
- Who is next to the lunchroom?
- Where are the printerandfax machineslocated?
- Who is next to the conferenceandtrainingrooms?
ERGONOMICDESIGN
- ls the workstationdesignedfor a personto spendat least eight hoursthere?

Figure7.2 - Example of on Office User Survey

OfficeSpacePlanning

- What are the chair,desk,andkeyboardheight


relationships?
- ls the heightof the computermonitor in eachwork
areaadiustable?
LIGHTING
- Hasthe ceilinglightingbeen relocatedto
correspondto desks,tasks,andaisles?
- Are the levelsadequatefor meetingandtraining
rooms?
HEATING,COOLING,ANDCLEAN AIR
- Will a changein loadreduceefficiency?
- Will the air f low patternneedto be changed?
- Did you cleanthe ductsT
- Where are the thermostats?
STATIC ELECTRICITY
- Where is the floor covering?
- Are the work surfaceand cubiclesqrounded?
MAILROOM
- ls it secured?
- Who has access?
LUNCHROOM
- Are there tablesandchairsfor all?
- How andwhen will the vendingmachinesbe
serviced?
RESTROOMS
- Do the numberand type of fixturesmeet zoning
codes?
- Canthey be easilymaintained?
- Where are the suppliesstored?
FLOORLOADING
- ls the cumulativeweight within limitsT
- ls the sub-floorfor the mainframecomputer
adeouate?
EXERCISEAREAS
- ls the ventilationadeouate2
- ls there adequatelockerand rest space?
TELEPHONE
EOUIPMENT
- ls the ventilationadequateT
- ls the electricalserviceadequate?
- ls it reallylargeenough?
EMPLOYEEENTRANCE
- ls there a time clock or sign-inarea?
- What is the security?
- Are there cameras?
- ls there a waiting area?
HUMAN RESOURCE
OFFICE
- Inan adjacentplant,is the HumanResource
Office nearestto the olant?
- ls there privacyandconfidentiality?
MEDICALFACILITIES
- Are they locatedin the areamost likelyto use
them?
- Are they accessibleby a wheelchairandstretcher?
JANITORIALFACILITIESAND SERVICES
- ls there adequatestoragespace?
- l s l l a d e q u a t e lvve n t i l a t e d ?
- W h e nw i l l i t b e u s e d ?
- When will cleaningbe performed?
LIBRARY
- What is the lightinglevel?
- What is the noiselevel?
- ls there spaceavailablefor ten yearsof periodicals?
CLOSETSAND STORAGE
- What will they be usedfor?
- Will they be adequatein ten years?

213

214

FacilitiesPlanning

Summary
This chapter has provided the basic elementsfor organizing a office
layoutteam,conductinga surveyofinternal customers'The relationship
betweenfacilitiesplanning and office spaceplanning is illuminating.
Using a macro-levelapproachto officespaceplanningmakesdesigning
officelayoutseasier.Checklistsand examplesassistwithan activitythat
mayonly occuroncein aprofessionalcareer.Thesetechniquesandtools
aredesignedto help createlayoutsthat arelogical,flexible,and meetthe
needsof internal customers.

Chapter8
A FinalNote
In this book we havetried to covera complexand ambiguoussubject.
andmethodsthat allowrelativelyinexperienced
We suggestapproaches
industrial engineersto designgood facility plans with efficiencyand
effectiveness.The methods of this book will also help experienced
faciliry planners.
Chapter 1 placedfacilitiesand the planning processin historical
It explainedwhy facilitiesare so important.
and businessperspectives.
It tracedsomegeneraltrendsin facility design.It looked to the future
ofworking facilities.
Chapter 2 establisheda framework for the planning process.It
definedlevelsofdetail that correspondto planningphases.It explained
the four fundamentalsof spaceplanning: units, affinities, spaceand
constraints.It defined conventionsusefulin all phasesofplanning.
Chapter 3 demonstratedhow to designa macro-layout.Macro
layoutssizeand locatedepartments,areasor other large-scalefeatures
within abuilding.This is the layoutphasethat is usuallymostimportant
for industrial engineers.We introduced the Model Project Plan to
guide designersthrough their tasks. We examined the important
essentialsof an operationsstrategy.We explainedhow to synthesize
information and strategyinto workable facility layouts.
Chapter 4 addressedthe details of equipment and furniture
location. It presenteda methodology and principles for designing
effective work cells.
In Chapter5, we examinedthe lowestdetail of spaceplanningthe workstation. Here we explained how to design the workspacefor
safetvand health.
efficiencv.effectiveness.

216

FacilitiesPlanning

Site planning was addressedin Chapter 6. The specialissuesof


office spaceplanning were exploredin Chapter 7.
We would like to leaveyou with somekey points to remember as
you work through your next facllity project:
' isolate the levelsand focus on only one level at a time;
' try to work from the highest to the lowest level unlessspecial
conditionsdictate otherwise;
. rememberthe four fundamentals:SPUs,affinities,apaceand
constraintsl
' follow the Model Project Plans.Accomplish each task in
sequenceand do not look too far ahead.Uncertaintieswill
eventuallybe clarified;
. know thy process;
' remember that people ate an integral part of every work
process;
' the most successfulspaceplansareinteractiveandparticipative
projects. Users supply information, insight and needs;
managementdevelopsstrategy;the designerssynthesizea
range of workable plans; and all participate in the evaluation
and selection;and
' a clearand appropriateoperationsstrateg'yis your beaconin
the night.

Glossary
activity areas. (See spaceplanning units.)
affnities. Various factorsthat demand closenessbetweenany two cellsin a spaceplan. Forexample,
communication orpersonal interaction. Inworkstationdesign, aftinities evolvefrom the movement
ol-parts,movementofhands, and the necessityfor observition,and other indirect facrors.
aftinity diagram. An idealized spatial arrangement that evenrually becomes a spaceplan. Also
called a configuration diagram.
affinityzones. Locations in a workstation that arewithin an operatois optimum visual and reach zones.
allocation of functions. Divides work between people and machines and largely determines the
quality of the operaror'swork experience
anthropometry. The study of the dimensions, weights, and strengths of human body segments.
biomechanics. The stud.yof.mechanical forces in human movement, including the interaction
berween individuals and their physical environment.
block plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith blocks ofland desienatedfor
eachfunction or areawith long traveldistaniesbet*.en SPUr. Each building may thEn expand
within its block.
bottom-up. Facilities planning.that startswith the details. Deparrmenral units are designed first
and, evenrually, the overall faciliry plan is built.
broadcast. In this system for coordinating production, a schedule dictates the rate and product
mx lor the tlnal oDeratron,
business architecture. The design and development of facilities, organization, products, and
processesinto a functioning, interactive
business system. Also known as manufacturing strategy and corporate reengineering.
cells. (Seespaceplanning units.)
channel route structure. A fixed route with various stops along which equipment moves. At each
stop loadsoriginating at that point arepicked up and thbse desiined for that point aredropped off.
circulation. A material flow method that usesmobile operators to ceuryd product or transfer a
batch through separateoperatlons.

218

FacilitiesPlanning

cloning. Duplicating an existing facility or portion of!t.


composite cell. A work cell made up of severalsmaller cells'
configuration diagram. (Seeaffinity diagram.)
constraints. Those conditions that limit an ideal space plan. For example, building size and
shape, columns, floor loading, utility configurationi, and external features'
corporate reeingineering.(Seebusinessarchitecrure)
to the
direct link. A physical link between processesthat allows products to move from the first
,..ond p.oce., without queues,bufiers, or delays.The piocessesstart and stop together.
direct route structure. A route structure that allows materiai to move from its origin directly to
its destination.
is
duplicate plan. In site planning, a development plan that starts with an initial facility, which
t h e n c l o n i d o n a d i a c e n lt a n d '
dynamic lot size. The balance between operations from work piece to work piece.
dynamic work. Tasks that require an operator's body to be in motion'
elementalcalculation. One of six methods usedfor calculatingspacerequirements'Each piece
assigned to an SPU is measured and added together for the total
:lff::$"r$:.-ipment
experientialfacilityplanning. Planningfacilities basedon pastexperience'common sense,and instinct'
external factors. In site planning, those site factors that exist largely outside the site boundaries.
FacPlan. A facilities planning model that focuseson-both strategic issuesand minutiae, using
a model project plan io guidJand stmcture each project.
floating task assignments.The hierarchical assignmentof primary and secondarytasks. As the
worklo-adfluctuaies, the operator may move from the primary to the secondary'
functional cell. A single processwork cell that operateson a wide variety ofunrelated products'
global site location. The site location level of spaceplanning where the firm decides where to
I'ocatefacilities and determinestheir missions.
group technologycell. Awork celi inwhich a seriesofoperations for severalproducts takes place
in a single cell.
the
human-machine system.In a human-machinesystem,oneor more equipmentdisplaysshow
inteinal equipment starus.The op..rtor alters contio_lsenings io changethe
-Corrtiroine
operator rhe
ob'r"i.r^tior, allows the determination of the effect of altering controls'
"iJi;;.
internal factors. In site planning, the factors in the site boundary'
intuitive charting/grouping. Examiningproducts, oftenwith processcharts,toglean information
and assignproducts to logical groups.
word for card.This production coordinationssystemusesa small mixed stock
kanban. Taoanese
tiom whici items are pulled frequently. At the time of each withdrawal, the production center
is signaled,sometimeswith a card.
key manufacturing task. A task that manufacturing must do well to survive in the market.
layout. (Seespaceplan.)
macro-spaceplanning. The spaceplan levelat which the building, structure,or other sub-unit ofthe
i)..ig?.r, d.fine a'ndlocate operating departmentsand determine overall material
;i;;p[;;;J.

Glossary

219

flow' The most important level of planning"it sets the focus, or basic organization,
of the factory.
manufacruring focus, The organization of products and processes.
manufacturing stratery. (See businessarchitecture)
masterbuilding. Facilities planning that focuseson construction and
buildings.
'he
material flow. f
movcment of Parts,products, and,/or servicesfrom work cell to work
cell and
rnrougnout the taclhry(s).
ma^terialflowanalysis. Using collected data to calculatematerial flow
befween eachcombination
oI Jru Darrs.
Using computer databasesto schedule and track production,
:f:.::*T1.^T^.itsp-lanning.
plan capaclry,coltectcosts,and provide many other functions.
1i;ro-space planning. Thespace-planlevelatwhich the location ofspecific equipment and furnirure
rs oetermlned l ne emphaslsshfts from grossmaterial flow to personal
spaceand communication.
model project plan. A framework of detail revelsthat translates into
planning phases.
motion economy. Steps and procedures that simplifi and improve manual
work.
non-flow affinities. Intangible factors that give rise to affinities (q.v.).
Suppons operations for all or mosr of a product rine but does not
j"t*rrlcrure..
l!:1P
contrlDute
dlrectlv to the Drocess.
*1*g;.I|:study
metabollc
byDroducts.

of the human machine. including oxidizing nurrients and generatrng

Usingbrainstormingtechniquestodevelopthe positive,negatrve,
f:t::,.--l:.C,1ll:11-elest1nS.
anc lnrerestlngpolnts to choosebetweenseveralspaceplan options.
process charts. Show the type ofactivity that acts on a product.
process focus. A manufacturing focus that allows each department
to specialize in their
particular process or craft.
product focus. A manufacturing processwhere operations are grouped
into departments that
focus on prodr.rcts'Each departm*enrmust have itt op"r"tionr ?quiiil;;rd
:kil,1",
o'ty
process a single product.
product-volurne a.nalysis.Examines the current and future time frames
for the products and
rnerr volumes so that the relationships between various products may be
understiod.
production flow.analysis. using spreadsheets,computer analysis,or manuar
methods to group
parts that have similar routings.
project cell. A work cell that produces a wide variety ofunrelated products using
multiple processes.
of six methods used for carcuratingspacerequirements.The spacefor a
l,l:^l"flglirg.one
glven
bl,U comesfrom the calculationofanother space.
;::::"?,"rH:::*'

A method of calculating space requirements, it uses historical trends


to

maintain asignificant stock of each item. As userswithdraw rtems,


:::t9^1ryI:t-l19d1cti9n
rne remarnrng stock decrlnes.when the stock reachesa pre-determined
level-the reorder
point-a signal initiates a purchase order or shop order to ieplace
ttr" rto.r..plan. A plan that placesthe maximum production spaceon the site.
Also included
:1t-"-t1*o.i9i
are
appropnate support spacessuch as docks, parking, offices, and warehouses.

220

FacilitiesPlanning

socio-technicalsystem.The integration ofsocial and technicalsystemsinto oneunit- Socialsystems


irJ"a. "."of. uld th"ir habirui attirudes,values,behavioralityles, and relationships.Technical
(layout).
systemsincfude machinery,processes,procedures,and their physicalarrangement
spaceplan primitive. An affinities diagram (q.v.) with spacerequirements added to it.
site
sDaceplan. Determinesand laysout the use ofspace in and around a facility, ranging from
pi.nning to workstation design. Also known as a layout.
spaceplanningunits. The entities arrangedby spaceplan designers.Also called cells and activity
areas.
on
space.standards. One. of six methods used for calculatin-g.space^t:1:,t:"^Tt:-t: -Based
expeflence,spacerequrrementsthat relate to some parameterofthe businessare established
recordinq to iob clasiificationsor placesin the hierarchy'
static balance.when the equipmenttimes for operations,averagedover the entire product mix,
are similar or the same.
for an
static work. Tasks that require an operator's body to remain in a stationary position
e-xtendedperiod.
strategiclayout planning..Top-down.facilitiesplanning that setspolicy first and then arranges
the technology,organizatlon,and tacll; / to supPortlt.
stripe plan. A special version of :zone plan (q.v.) where each SPU expands horizontally'
atwhich aworkstationisdesigned;task, operatorsand
sub-micro-spaceplanning.Thespace_planlevel
too.lsare examinedltask are a]located;and tools and txrures areselectedor oeslgneo'
supra-spaceplanning. The spaceplan levelatwhich site planning takesplace.This includesnumber,
sire, a.d locition of-buildings, infrastructure,plant expansions,and eventualsrte sanuatron.
a
systematiclayout planning, Using step-by-stepprocedures,conventions,and phasesto plan
layout, adding systemand structureto the plan.
loads'
terminal route structure. A route structure thatworks wellwith long distancesand partial
then
Loads move first to severalterminals, often on different equipmenifor each terminal, and
on to their destination.
takes a
transformation. One of six methods used for calculating spacerequirements. A designer
fo, "n existing SPU and usesthat asihi basis for projecting future needs'
;;;;;q;ir";"r,i
-d
visual estimating. A method of calculating.space needs. Templates representing :qYpT:"t
pfi.edon alayoutaccordingto "-'doig".;..ludgt"entand knowledgeofsimilarinstallations.
fun.l*----rr.
weightedfactorana\sis, Decision-makingbasedon a combinationofthe raniousfactors,both qualita,iu.-*i qu-,itrtive'. Judgesfrst identi$ihe factors,decidea weight for each,and rate eachoption.
work cell operations plan. A form for recording infrastructure decisions'
work cells. Small, self-contained work units.
job and the minimum
worker selection. The process of identifing characteristics for each
criteria for those who might be selectedfor it.
workingfacilities.The land, buildings, and equipmentthatprovide the physical capabilityto addvdue'
workstation. The spaceor areaofa faciliry in which individuals-or operators perform tasks' This
ranges from an assimbly station in a faciory to a cube in an office'
Each
zone plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith a central core ofspace.
;, i.tiuity f,as , ,.lateb zone.'As sp".. neEdr incr.^se, the SPUs expand outward
Sijij.?;,i.^
but within their designaiedzones.

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Index
A
A affinities 81
accelerator 163
accounting 203
acquisition 188
activity area. 24
administration 203
aerospace engineers 54
aesthetics 9l
affinities 23
affinity diagrams 23
airlines 138
aisles 85
all-salary systems 146
allocation 163
allocation of functions 162
American National Standards Institute
24.
Americans with Disabilities Act 174
anthropometric data 168
anthropometrics 166
architects l3
archives 210
artwork 32
assembly lines 139
B
backtracking 52
balance 142
bar chart 81
bills of material 139
biomechanics 166
block 193
block plan 194
body segment class 165
Boehm-Davis 163

bottom-up 9
brainstorming 98
broadcast 138
building outline 91
bulletin boards 157
C
CAD systems 25
carpal tunnel syndrome 162
casualovertime 211
Catholic Church 8
cell definition 69
cells 22
cellular 46
central system 138
channel route structure 138
channel structures 138
character positions 127
Charles Sorensen 152
checklists 214
circulation 141
city buses 138
classicaldesign 169
clearance 169
cloning 9
codingand classification 118
commandand control 145
communication 24
communicationssystems 208
companyculture 203
compatibility 115
compensationsystem 136
computer simulation 158
computers 210
conceptual framework 29
connectordevices 210
consensus78

226

FacilitiesPlanning

constraints 23, 27
containers 63
contracted projects 211
conventions 112
conventions 29, 74
coordination 56, 109
copy machines 210
Cosmos Products 32
cost control 56
cross-functional teamwork 8
cross-training 145
crossovers 52
cubicles 211
cumulative trauma disorder 162
cumulative traumas 162
Currl' 163
customer services 203
customers 55
cy'bernetic work team 146
cycle time 142

elbow room 169


elemental calculation 84
emergencies210
empowerment 146
environment 5
environmental specialists 188
EPA 99
equipment 56
equipment balancemethod 136
equipment batching 142
equivalent flow unit 71
ergonomics 162
Eric Trist 6
ethnic populations 169
excesscapacity 149
expansionpossibilities 188
experience 9
experiential 9
explicit strategy 53
external lot size 131

data acquisition 30
deciders 97
decision criterion 97
decision tree analysis 97
decision-makers 33
decor 208
dedicated cell 112
delay symbol 39
deliverables 28
derived elements 24
design iteration 157
design team 109
design tools and aids 29
design volume 133
designing for the extremes 1?2
development officials 188
Diamond Equipment Company 119
diaphragm pumps 119
direct labor 132
direct link 56, 138
direct route structure 138
dis-economies of scale 55
distributors 138
doors 210
duplicate 193
duplicate plan 194
dynamic 142
dynamic balance 142
d1'namic dimensions 169
d1'namic imbalance 142
d1'namic posture 167

facilitator 207
facilities 57
facility mission statement 15
FacPlan 2000 11
faxes 210
fear ofpunishment 146
Federal Express 138
frnancial analysis 97
finished-goodsinventory 111
fixed assignment 143
frxed route 138
flex-time 211
flexibility 109
flexible hours 211
float 143
Florida 125
flow calculations 71
flow calibration 77
flow complexity index 101
flow/non-flow ratio 81

E
E affrnities 81
economic lot size 134
economies of scale 55
Edward DeBono 98

tocus

b /

focus opportunities 54
focused factory 55
forecasts 22
fork trucks 138
fortresses 4
freedomof movement 156
functional cell 112
fundamental 24
furniture 208
G
Gantt chart 33
Gator Steel 125
geographic areas 55
geopolitics 16
global economics 8

Bibliography
go/no-gocriteria 97
grasprng 178
greenery 208
group incentive system 147
Group Technology(GT) Cell 112
group technology cells 63
groupedproduct profrle 37

inventoryreduction 104
inverted-U 153
item or SKU numbers 40
iterative improvement 26
iterative process 25

job sharing 211


joints 167

hand tools 173


Handbookof Commercialand Industrial Facilities M 55
Handbook of Commercialand Industrial Facility Man 191
Handbook ofHuman Factors 174
handcarts 76
handle space 169
handling and product cells 24
handling symbol 39
Harrison 163
headroom 169
Heisenberg 98
Henry Ford 55
Hierarchical organizations 8
horizontal affinity zone 178
horizontal space 180
hourly wages 146
Human FactorsIn Engineeringand
Design 174
human movement 167
human resources 203
human-machinesystem 162
hybrid systemsof compensation 147
I
I affrnities 8l
identifier 24
implicit strategy 53
inbound material 149
Individual incentives 146
Industrial engineers 12
Industrial Revolution 3
Information 5
information services 203
infrastructure 16, 57
inherent 144
inherent method 143
inspecUreject 144
inspectionpoints 144
instinct 97
intangibles 186
integration 161
interaction 24
interior design approach 204
intermediate plans 193
internal customers 214
internal lot size 131
Inventory Analysis 42
inventory costs 131

227

K
Kanban 56
kanban 138
key dimensions 54
key manufacturing tasks 54
knowledge 4
L
laboratories 210
Large 113
Layout 8
layout planning 30
lead times 139
"leapfrog"
143
legroom 169
lighting 208
line 68
line production 46
logic flow 30
long internal idle time 143
long moves 52
long-distancetruckers 138
lot size 131
low-costequipment 142
M
macro-layout 29
macro-spaceplan 16
Maintenance 65
management 13
manufacturers 203
manufacturing orientation 36
manufacturing support 203
marketing 36
markets 55
Maslow's Hierarchy 154
mass-productiontechnology 4
master building 9
material flow 52
material flow analysis 97
material flow charts 39
Material flow values 71
material requirementsplanning 138
material supply 16
McDonald's 9
medieval guilds 8
Medium 112
merged ratings 81

228

FacilitiesPlanning

metabolic byproducts 167


metal detectors 210
methods 28
165
methods-time-measurement
micro-level evaluation 158
micro-space plan 17
Middle Ages 4
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 6
mission 57
mission statement 58
modei projects. 28
monocode system 125
motion economy 162, 165
motor responses 163
moving 178
Moving Day 272
MRP 56
multi-use areas 208
muscles 167
musculoskeletal system 167
N
NASA 163
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health 173
negotiation 188
new construction 208
Norway 186

o
O affinities 81
office layouts 86
office planning 204
office user survey 208
operation cycle 131
"strings"
operation
63
operation symbol 39
operational cells 69
operations strategies 11
operations strategy outline 58
operator assignments and skills 136
operator comfort 161
operator mobility 144
operator variety 161
organization analysis 48
organization chart 48
organization charts 22
organization-based approach 204
OSHA 97
outbound container 149
outputs 15
P
partitions 157
pay-for-knowledge system 147
payback 97
payout 104
people balance method 136
perations strategy summary 54

personnellocations 156
PERT chart 33
Peter F. Drucker 5
phases 21
physical infrastructure 50
physical infrastructure checklist 51
physics 98
physiology 166
Pickering Piano Factory 3
piececosts 131
pilot cells 22
plant expansions 16
plant-within-plant 63
politics 16
polycodesystem 125
positive-negative-interesting 97
posture 169
Practiceof Management 5
preliminary product segregation 122
primary task 143
problem-solvingteams 154
process 57
processcharts 39
processelements 57
processengineers 13
processtime 131
processes55
product mix 143
product profile 121
product selection 115
product-focused55
product-volume (P-V) analysis 35
production class profrle 44
productivity 161
products 55
project cell 112
proportioning 84
prototyping 165
psychologicalintegration 161
purchase 188

a
qualifiers 99
qualitative analysis 104
quality 65
quality assurance 736, 744
quality standards 144
queues 4l
R
random sampling 74
ranking 97
ratio forecasting. 84
reach 169
reaching 178
receptionareas 210
reengineering 3
Renaissance5
reorder point 138

Bibliography
repairs 41
resources 28
rest room 210
restructuring 3, 8
return on rnvestment 97
Revised Lifting Equation 1?3
Richard Muther 24
Robert McNamara 54
Rocroi 4
roll products 32
Roman Legions 8
S
safety 161
safety and security 208
salary 146
salary wages 146
sales volume 37
Salvendy 118
schematic flow diagram 72
scope 28
seating 173
secondary task 143
selfactualization 146
self-managed teams 145
serpentine 153
set downs 41
set-up costs 131
set-up times 129
set-ups 129
shared services 208
sheet products 32
short internal idle time 143
"Silicon
Valley" 6
simulation 158
simulation software 158
single piece 112
site boundaries 186
site drawing 16
site factors 186
site features 198
site plan 188
site saturation 16, 193
site specification document 186
srtes 183
small 112
social integration 161
social system 6
socio-technical systems 6
space 23
space flexibility 193
space plan primitive
23, 27
space planning units 23
space rationing approach 204
space standards 84
SPC/TQM 144
speedometer 163
spreadsheet 80
static 142
static dimensions 169

static posture 167


statistical processcontrol 144
steering committee 30
storage 85
straight line 151
strategic 9
strategy development 30
strength 169
stripe 193
stripe plan 196
structural engineers 13
sub-tasks 30
supervision 109, 136
support requirements 55
support spaces 191
supra-spaceplan 16
symbol 24
symbols 24
synchronizedoperations 141
system goals 163
systematic I
SystematicPlanning Of Industrial
Facilities 191
T
tables 210
tally 41
tangible factors 186
task procedures 29
tasks 28
Tavistock 6
team spirit 146
teams 6
teamwork 6
technical integration 161
technical system 6
telephones 210
the Prussian army 145
throughput 142
tissues 167
tool production 16
tools 13
total cost curve 132
Toyota 68
TQM 6
traffic areas 211
transfer time I42
transformation 84
transport routes 188
transport symbol 39
transport work 101
transportation 186
trends 206
two-dimensionallayout 109
two-tier class system 146
typewriters 142
U
U-shaped 153

229

230

FacilitiesPlanning

U.S. Air Force 169


uncertainty principle 98
unfocused factory 54
union representatives 188
United States Postal Service 4
utilities 188
utility areas 210

v
value added index 41
value-adding elements 41
variable flow paths 56
vertical affinity zone 179
vertical integration 55
vertical space 180
video monitors 210
visual communications 156
visual control 156
visual estimating 84

w
warehouses 138
weighted factor analysis 97
weighted numeric scale 179
Wichita, Kansas 6
Wickham Skinner 54
Wiener 163
wires 210
work 4
work cells 111
work positions 173
rvork product 38
work product activity 38
work teams 156
work-in-process 44
workbenches 142
worker selection 162
workers 18
workforce 4
working hours 208
workload 142
workstations 13
writing surfaces 210

z
zone 193
zone plan 193

Aboutthe Authors
Qrarterman Lee is the presidentof Strategos,Inc., a consultingfirm.
He was an editor ofthe HandbookofCornrnercial
andIndustrial Facilities
Managernenland is the author oi numerous articles in the fields of
industrial managementand engineering.He hascreatedtraining courses
for the Institute of Industrial Engineers,the Societyof Manufacturing
Engineers and the U.S. Postal Service and assistedorganizations
worldwide with the application of innovative managementmethods.
Arild Amundsen is president of Plancraft, AS, and has an extensive
backgroundin mechanicalengineering,consulting,and management.
He residesin Oslo.William Nelson is presidentofHumatech, Inc., and
specializesin bio-socio-technicalsystems.He also designsproducts,
industrial equipment and workstations. Herbert Tuttle is an assistant
p;ofessorin the GraduateEngineeringManagementProgram at the
University of Kansas.He has over 15 yearsof experiencein industrial
engineeringand plant management.

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