4120 Notes (Final Draft)

SHIP STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
By: Matthew Dawson

UNIVERSITY OF NEW ORLEANS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
NAME 4120/5120
Ship Structural Analysis and Design
Course Notes
Table of Contents
1.0 Ship Structural Loads
1.1 Classification of Loads.................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Ship Structure Responses ............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Elementary Beam Bending .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Flexure Formula ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Examples .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
2.0 Finite Element Methods
2.1 Types of engineering systems .................................................................................................................................. 29
2.2 Spring elements .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
2.3 Rod elements ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.4 Beam elements ................................................................................................................................................................ 32
2.5 Examples ............................................................................................................................................................................ 38
3.0 Generalized Beam Bending
3.1 Non-symmetric bending ............................................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Products of Inertia ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
3.3 Product of Inertia Examples ...................................................................................................................................... 26
4.0 Shear and Torsion in Ship Structures
4.1 Shear Distribution of Beams in Pure Bending (Open sections) ................................................................. 45
4.2 Pure Torsion of Circular Shafts ................................................................................................................................ 52
4.3 Pure Torsion for Non-circular Open Sections ................................................................................................... 58
4.4 Pure Torsion for Closed Single Cell Sections ..................................................................................................... 67
4.5 Pure Bending of Closed Single-Cell Sections ...................................................................................................... 72
4.6 Pure Bending in Multi-cell Sections ....................................................................................................................... 77
4.7 Pure Torsion of Multi-cell Sections ........................................................................................................................ 83
4.8 Combined Bending and Torsion of Multi-cell Sections ................................................................................ 85
4.9 Shear Center ..................................................................................................................................................................... 88
5.0 Axial Loads with Bending
5.1 Introduction to Buckling in ships ......................................................................................................................... 93
5.2 Members in tension & Compression ..................................................................................................................... 95
5.3 Critical Buckling Load and Mode Shape Determination ............................................................................ 104
5.4 Coupled Formulation................................................................................................................................................. 109
5.4 Variational Solution ................................................................................................................................................... 111
5.6 More General Shape Function ............................................................................................................................... 117
5.7 Axial End Strain Cases ............................................................................................................................................... 121
5.8 Equivalent Beams of Sectionally Non-Uniform ......................................................................................... 127
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1.0 Ship Structural Loads

1.1 Classification of Loads
Static (constant over time)

o Weight of ship and contents
o Static buoyancy
o Concentrated loads caused by dry-docking and grounding
Figure 1-1: Static load components on hull (PNA, 2008)
Low frequency dynamic (vary with time, periods up to several minutes)

o Wave-induced hull pressure variations
High frequency dynamic (vary with time, short periods)
o Propeller induced vibrations
Impact loads
o Dynamic loads from slamming and wave impact
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1.2 Ship Structure Responses
Figure 1-2: Primary, secondary, and tertiary structure (PNA, 2008)
Primary response - the response of the entire hull when bending as a beam
under external loading
Figure 1-3: Primary hull structure
Where () is the weight distribution, and () is the buoyancy distribution.

Where as,
() = ()
but,
so that
(1)
() ()
() = () () 0
(2)
(3)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Secondary response the response of a panel of stiffened plating on the sides,

bottom, or deck of a ship between major longitudinal subdivisions like
bulkheads
Tertiary response - the response of an individual panel of plating between
stiffener
1.3 Elementary Beam Bending
Figure 1-4: Symmetric beam
Internal force equilibrium:
Figure 1-5: Beam element
By summing the forces in the vertical direction we have

= + + + = 0
Cancelling terms yields,

=
(4)
(5)
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
By summing the moments about the beam element we have

1
+ + + ( + ) + ( ) = 0
2
(6)
Cancelling high-order and like terms yields,
(7)
1.4 Flexure Formula

Consider a bent beam with z=0 at the neutral axis.
Figure 1-6: Bernoulli Hypothesis: Plane sections remain plane in bending.
By studying Figure 6
Where,
(8)
= () =
(9)
= "() =
2
2
(10)
By the definition of strain,

=
(11)
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Substituting into equations (8) and (10)
=
= = "
(12)
Now substitute eq. (12) into Hookes Law
=
=
= "
(13)
Cancelling out we arrive at the Flexure Formula.

()
"() =
(14)
Flexural rigidity
Now differentiate (14) twice assuming is constant in x.
()
()
() =
=
()
Now integrate (16) four times.
() ()
=
=
(16)
()
+ 1
(17)
()
+ 1 + 2
(18)
()
1
+ 1 2 + 2 + 3
(19)
()
1
1
+ 1 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4
6
2
(20)
() =
() =
() =
() =
(15)
The beam deflection is now determined in terms of constants of integration in

satisfying the four beam end conditions.
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Deflection:
(0; )
Slope:
(0; )
Moment:
(0; ) =
Shear:
(0; ) =
(0;)
(0;)
The constraints are the following:

1. There will be 2 known conditions at each end of the beam (2 and only 2).
2. Conditions at the same end will never be:
a. (slope) and (moment) independently
b. (deflection) and (shear) independently
3. Four conditions will always be known for determining the 4 unknown
constants.
1.5 Examples
Example 1.1: Primary ship structure
Figure 1-7: Primary hull weight/buoyancy and equivalent force distribution
The ship is considered a free-free beam (i.e. zero shear and zero moment on each
end).
The end conditions are as follows:
Deflection:
Slope:
Moment:
Shear:
(0) =?
(0) =?
(0) = 0
(0) = 0
() =?
() =?
() = 0
() = 0
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
By applying the end conditions at x=0 to equations (17) and (18) we get
0
()
(0)
=0
+ 1 = 0
0
1 = 0
(0) = 0
()
+ 1 + 2
2 = 0
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
Plugging in 1 and 2 into equation (17)

() =
()
(25)
Now recall equation (15) and set it equal to equation (25)

() =
()
()
=
(26)
By simplifying (26) we arrive back at eq. (5)

() =
(27)
Similarly we can recall equation (13) and set it equal to moment distribution
() =
()
()
=
(28)
And by simplifying we arrive back to eq. (7)

2
= ()
2
(29)
Example 1.2: Tertiary hull plating
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 1-8: Hydrostatic pressure exerted on hull
Example 1.2(a): Tertiary hull plating assuming pinned-pinned beam
Figure 1-9: Pinned-pinned beam
End conditions:
Deflection:
Slope:
Moment:
Shear:
(0) = 0
(0) =?
(0) = 0
(0) =?
() = 0
() =?
() = 0
() =?
By plugging the distributed load into equations (17) to (20) and integrating we get
(30)
() =
+ 1
() =
2
+ 1 + 2
2
(31)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
3 1 2
+
+ 2 + 3
6
2
(32)
4 1
1
+ 1 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4
24 6
2
(33)
() =
() =
Applying the end conditions at x=0 we get

(0) = 0 4 = 0
(34)
(0) = 0 2 = 0
(35)
Applying the end conditions at x=a we get

2
+ 1 = 0
2
(36)
4
3
+ 1 + 3 = 0
24
6
(37)
(38)
() =
() =
Solving eq. (36) for 1
1 =
Substituting 1 into (37) and solving for 3 we get

3
3 =
24
(39)
The equations for shear, moment, slope, and deflection distribution become
() =
[ ]
(40)
2
[ ]
2
2
(41)
3 2 3
[
+ ]
6
4
24
(42)
4 3 3
() =
[
+
]
24 12
24
(43)
() =
() =
11
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Example 1.2(b): Tertiary hull plating assuming beam is fixed-fixed
Figure 1-10: Fixed-fixed beam
End conditions:
Deflection:
Slope:
Moment:
Shear:
(0) = 0
(0) = 0
(0) =?
(0) =?
() = 0
() = 0
() =?
() =?
The governing equations (30)-(33) from example 2(a) are also applicable to
example 2(b) when we assume the beam is fixed-fixed. By plugging in the end
conditions on the left side of the beam into equations (32) and (33) we get
(0) = 0 4 = 0
(44)
(0) = 0 3 = 0
(45)
Similarly, by applying the end conditions on the right side

() = 0
( ) = 0
3
2
+ 1 + 2 = 0
6
2
(46)
4
3
2
+ 1 + 2 = 0
24
6
2
(47)
Solving equations (46) and (47) for 1 and 2 .

1 =
(48)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2 =
2
12
(49)
Plugging the two constants into the governing equations gives the following shear,
moment, slope, and deflection distributions.
[ ]
(50)
2 2
[
+ ]
2
2 12
(51)
() =
() =
()
3 2 2
=
[
+
]
6
4
12
(52)
4 3 2 3
[
+
]
24 12
24
(53)
() =
Now lets compare the results from examples 2 (a) and (b). For both beams it can be
seen that the maximum moment occurs at = 2 (where () = 0).

Plugging in = /2 into (41) we get the maximum moment for the pinned-pinned
beam to be
2
(54)
( = ) =
=
2
8
And similarly for eq. (51) the max moment for the fixed-fixed beam becomes
( = ) =
=
2
24
(55)
The ratio between the moments a midspan becomes
8
1
=
=
24 3
So a higher moment is obtained by assuming the beam is pinned-pinned.
(56)
Example 2(c): Given a maximum stress ( ) of 25380psi determine the minimum

allowable thickness of the tertiary hull plating. (T=20, length between stiffeners:
L=2.5)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
=
Where
=
1
() 2 ,
12
(57)
(58)
Substituting (54) into (57)

=
Where
32 ()
4() 2
= = 1284 / 2
(59)
(60)
Solving for
32
=
4
= 0.48
Similarly for a fixed-fixed beam
2
=
= 0.28
4
(61)
(62)
(63)
Now lets verify this thickness with ABS rules. Assuming the vessel is 500 feet long
( = 500) ABS says that the thickness,, of the bottom shell plating amidships is
not to be less than that obtained from the following equation (for 400 1000
ft).
) ( 205) ( ) + 0.1 []
920
=(
Assume the depth to draft ratio is
(64)
= 0.9 and the thickness comes out to be.

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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
= 0.143
(65)
Example 1.3: Cantilever beam with end load
Figure 1-11: Cantilever beam with end load.
End conditions:
Deflection:
Slope:
Moment:
Shear:
(0) = 0
(0) = 0
(0) =?
(0) =?
() =?
() =?
() = 0
() =?
From Equation (15) we know that

() = ()
(64)
Summing the forces in the z-direction from Figure 12

() = 0
+ () = 0
(65)
So the fourth end condition on the right side of the beam becomes
() =
(66)
Since there is no distributed load () = 0 and the governing equations for shear,
moment, slope, and deflection become
() = 1
(67)
() = 1 + 2
(68)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
()
() =
2
= 1 + 2 + 3
2
1
1
1 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4
6
2
(69)
(70)
Applying the end conditions on the left we get

(0) = 0 4 = 0
(71)
(0) = 0 3 = 0
(72)
() = 0 1 + 2 = 0
(73)
And on the left side we get
Also we know
() =
= 1
(74)
So 2 becomes
2 =
(75)
Pugging in these constants into Equations (67)-(70) we get the following formulas
for shear, moment, slope, and deflection distribution
() =
(76)
[ ]
(77)
2
[ ]
(78)
2 3
() =
[
]
2
6
(79)
() =
() =
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Example 1.4: Beam with spring
Figure 1-12: Cantilever beam with an end spring
End conditions:
Deflection:
Slope:
Moment:
Shear:
(0) = 0
(0) = 0
(0) =?
(0) =?
() =?
() =?
() = 0
() =?
Figure 1-13: Free-body diagram of cantilever end
Summing the forces in the z-direction we get

() = 0
(80)
Where
() = ()
= ()
(81)
Plugging (81) into (80) and solving for the displacement at the end of the beam the
fourth end condition becomes
() =
+ ()
(82)
Like in Example 3 the governing equations for the cantilever beam are equations
(67) through (70). By applying the end conditions at x=0
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(0) = 0 4 = 0
(83)
(0) = 0 3 = 0
(84)
Applying the end conditions at x=L

() = 0 1 + 2 = 0
() =
+ 1 1
1
= 1 3 + 2 2
6
2
(85)
(86)
Solving for the constants yields

1 =
1 3
3 +
2 =
Set =
1
3
)
3
1+(
1 3
3 +
1
3
1 + 3
3
1 + 3
(87)
(88)
and the governing equations for shear, moment, slope, and
deflection become
() =
(89)
[ ]
(90)
2
[ ]
(91)
2 3
() =
[
]
2
6
(92)
() =
() =
As 0 we see that = 1 and the following cantilever deflection is achieved

() =
3
3
= 0
(93)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2.0 Generalized Beam Bending

2.1 Non-symmetric bending
Figure 2-1: Beam element with non-symmetrical bending
Figure 2-2: Beam element free-body diagrams (x-z and x-y planes)
1. Requiring internal force equilibrium
(94)
(95)
=0
=0
(96)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2. Internal bending stress equilibrium
Figure 2-3: Internal bending stress
= 0
= 0
= 0
+ = 0
= 0
(97)
(98)
+ = 0
3. Bernoulli Hypothesis plane sections remain plane during bending
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 2-4: Non-symmetrical strain: Bernoulli Hypothesis
= ( )
= ( )
(99)
= +
(100)
(, ; ) = ( ) + ( )
(101)
Substitute (99) into (100)
4. Recall Hookes Law =

=
(102)
= [ ( ) + ( )]
(103)
[ ( ) + ( )] = 0
(104)
( ) + ( ) = 0
(105)
5. Neutral axis and bending stress

Now into (98)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
For arbitrary functions () and (), this relation (105) can be zero only if the 2
integers are individually zero
( )
( )
(106)
(106) gives:
=
1
=

1
=

(107)
Now substitute (101) into (102) into (98)

= ( ) ( )
(108)
(109)
(101) into (102) into (98)

= ( ) ( )
(110)
==
(111)
Can write in matrix notation
1
| |=[
| | = [

]| |

| |
| | =
[
( )
=
=
( )

]| |

(112)
(113)
(114)
(115)
(116)
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Course Notes
(117)
= is the product of inertia as defined by (109) and (111). The product of

inertia of the section is zero if at least one of the coordinate axes is an axis of
symmetry.
Substitute back into (106) and (107) with the systems reference shifted to the
sections centroidal axis to achieve complete formula:
= +
(118)
Where and are generally functions of x due to x-variation of the bending

moments in (116) and (117).
6. Flexure formula
The axial deflection is now contributed by rotations in two planes:
z
=
(119)
Where
=
Setting (102) equal to (119)

= + =
(120)
(121)
= () =
( )
(122)
= () =
( )
(123)
Substituting for + in (118)

(, , ) = () ()
(124)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
7. Deflection equation
Differentiate (122) and (123) twice,
=
(125)
(126)
(127)
(128)
2.2 Products of Inertia

After shifting z=y=0 to the centroidal axis, the products of inertia become:
=
(129)
(130)
(131)
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Course Notes
Figure 2-5: Section symmetry and products of inertia
Special case
(1) Symmetric section with = 0 (no lateral load)
( )
=
=
= 0
(2) = 0 but 0 (No lateral load/ asymmetrical section)

=
2 )
(

2 )
(
(132)
(133)
(134)
(135)
(136)
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Course Notes
Non zero implies curvature (and deflection) in the y-direction with loading
applied only in z.
1
= [ ] =
[ ]
(137)
There is a bending stress component varying linearly in y and yet there is no

bending moment about the z-axis.
2.3 Product of Inertia Examples

Determine the products of inertia for each of the following cross sections.
Figure 2-6: 3 Comparing 3 beam cross sections
Section (a): Symmetrical about and ( = 0 )

Section (b): Symmetrical about ( = 0)
Section (c): Not symmetrical about either neutral axis ( 0)
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Course Notes
Table 2-1: Calculation of the products on inertia for each cross section
Section (a):
Item
Bottom Flange
Web
Top Flange
a
(height)
(in)
0.5
6
0.5
b
(width)
(in)
Area
2
(in )
3
0.5
3
z-bar
(in)
1.5
3
1.5
6
0.25
3.5
6.75
(in )
(in )
0.375 0.09375
10.5
36.75
10.125 68.34375
21 105.1875
Iyy
4
(in )
1.5
1.5
1.5
y*A
3
(in )
A*y2
Izz
Ioyz
(in2)
(in4)
(in4)
2.25
4.5
2.25
9
yna=
3.5 in abv ref

4
40.75 in
Izzna=
y-bar
(in)
0.03125
9
0.03125
9.0625
6 in
Area =
zna=
A*z2
A*z
3.375
6.75
3.375
13.5
1.125
0.0625
1.125
2.3125
0.5625
15.75
15.1875
31.5
Izz
Ioyz
(in )
(in4)
(in4)
3.375
0.1875
3.375
6.9375
1.125
0.0625
1.125
2.3125
0.5625
2.625
15.1875
18.375
Izz
Ioyz
(in )
(in4)
(in4)
3.375
0.1875
1.5
5.0625
1.125
0.0625
1.125
2.3125
1.5 in right of ref

4
2.3125 in
Iyyna=
Iyz =
0 in^4
Section (b):
Item
Bottom Flange
Web
Top Flange
a
(height)
(in)
0.5
6
0.5
b
(width)
(in)
Area
2
(in )
3
0.5
3
z-bar
(in)
1.5
3
1.5
6
0.25
3.5
6.75
(in )
(in )
0.375 0.09375
10.5
36.75
10.125 68.34375
21 105.1875
Iyy
4
(in )
1.5
0.25
1.5
yna=
3.5 in abv ref

4
40.75 in
Izzna=
y-bar
(in)
0.03125
9
0.03125
9.0625
6 in
Area =
zna=
A*z2
A*z
A*y2
y*A
3
(in )
2.25
0.75
2.25
5.25
0.875 in right of ref

4
4.65625 in
Iyyna=
Iyz =
0 in^4
Section (c):
Item
Bottom Flange
Web
Top Flange
a
(height)
(in)
0.5
6
0.5
b
(width)
(in)
3
0.5
3
Area
2
(in )
z-bar
(in)
1.5
3
1.5
6
0.25
3.5
6.75
Area =
zna=
Izzna=
A*z2
A*z
3
(in )
(in )
0.375 0.09375
10.5
36.75
10.125 68.34375
21 105.1875
2
6 in
3.5 in abv ref

4
40.75 in
Iyy
4
(in )
y-bar
(in)
0.03125
9
0.03125
9.0625
1.5
0.25
-1
yna=
Iyyna=
Iyz =
A*y2
y*A
3
(in )
2.25
0.75
-1.5
1.5
0.25 in right of ref

4
7 in
-12.1875 in^4
27
0.5625
2.625
-10.125
-6.9375
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Course Notes
Summary of equations used:

1
= ( ) 3
12
1
= ( ) 3
12
(138)
(139)
The inertias about the neutral axis are obtained using the parallel axis theorem
2
2
= +
2
= + 2
= 0
(140)
(141)
Note: and should always be positive, but can have a negative value.
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Course Notes
3.0 Finite Element method

Finite element analysis is a numerical method for analyzing engineering
problems by modeling a system as a collection of elements.
3.1 Types of engineering systems
Continuous systems focus on system as a whole using differentials

o Derive governing differential equations with the following relations
Equilibrium (F=ma=0)
Constitutive (stress/strain relation)
Connectivity (strain/displacement relation)
o Difficult to solve
Discrete systems system idealized as an assemblage of elements
o An approximation but easier to solve than continuous systems
o Steps for solving discrete/FEA problems:
1. Determine element equilibrium in terms of a state variable (i.e.
displacement)
2. Assemble elements and obtain a set of algebraic equations
3. Solve for system of equations for state variables
3.2 Spring elements
Most basic type of element

1 DOF at each node
Figure 2-14: Single Spring element (2 DOF)
Move 1 to the right:
Moving 2 to the right:
1 1 = 0 1 = 1
(142)
2 + 1 = 0 2 = 1
(143)
1 + 2 = 0 1 = 2
(144)
2 2 = 0 2 = 2
(145)
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Course Notes
We can write:
[ ] = [][]
(146)
The system of equations written in matrix form becomes
1 1
[ 1 ] = [ 1
][ ]
2
1 1 2
(147)
Now consider two springs connected in series
Figure 3-2: Two spring elements connected in series (3 DOF)
Let the connectivity matrix [] connect the element forces and displacements to the
global forces and displacements. For element 1:
1
1 0 (0)
|2 | = [0 1] | 1 |
()
3
0 01 1
(0)
1 0
| 1 |=[
1 ()
0 1
Substitute into:
(148)
1
0
] | |
0 1 2
3
1
1
|2 | = []1 []1 []1 |2 |

3
3
Where the stiffness matrix for the first spring element is written as
1
[]1 = [ 1
]
1 1
Equation (150) becomes
(149)
1
1 1 0 1
|2 | = [1 1 0] |2 |
3
0
0 0 1 3
(150)
(151)
(152)
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Course Notes
Similarly for element 2:
1
0 0 (0)
|2 | = [1 0] | 2 |
()
3
0 1 2 2
(0)
0 1
| 2 |=[
2 ()
0 0
(153)
1
0
] | |
1 2 2
(154)
1
1
|2 | = []2 []2 []2 |2 |

3
3
(155)
1
0
1
0 0
| 2 | = [0
2
2] | 2|
3
0 2 2 2 3
(156)
By superimposing the stiffness matrices from (152) and (156) we get the global
force-displacement system of equations for two springs connected in series to be
1
1
0
1
1
|2 | = [1 1 + 2 2 ] |2 |
3
2 3
2
0
(157)
3.3 Rod elements
General rod elements: 3 DOF at each node (3 translations)

Planar rod elements: 1 DOF at each node (acts like a spring)
Figure 2-3: Rod Element
Similar to a spring element the stiffness matrix for a single rod element is written as:
31
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
[] = [ ]

And recall the stiffness for a rod
=
(158)
(159)
System of equations for a single rod element

1 1 1
[ 1] =
[
][ ]
2
1 1 2
(160)
3.4 Beam elements
General beam elements: 6 DOF at each node (3 translations, 3 rotations)

Planar beam elements: 3 DOF at each node (2 translations, 1 rotation)
Consider two beam elements connected in series
Figure 3-4: Two beams connected in series
Assume all forces, f(x), are concentrated as point forces at the nodal points (i.e. f(x)
= 0). We can rewrite equations (17)-(20) as:
() = 1 =
()
(161)
()
(162)
1
() = 1 2 + 2 + 3
2
(163)
1
1
() = 1 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4
6
2
(164)
() = 1 + 2 =
Equilibrium operations require that forces be in the external coordinate system,

which requires a sign reversal of (161) and (162).
32
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Now consider the end forces of element i.

(0) = 1
(165)
() = 1
(166)
(0) = 1 (0) 2 = 2
(167)
() = 1 () + 2
(168)
The above equations can be written in matrix form as

(0)
1
0 0 0
0 0 0
(0)
2
|
| =[
] | |
0 0 0
3
()
0 0 4
()
Or more simply:
|| = [] ||
(169)
(170)
Likewise we can write the end displacements in terms of cs from (163 ) and (164 )
as:
(0) = 4
() =
(171)
1
1
1 3 + 2 2 + 3 + 4
6
2
(172)
(0) = 3
(173)
1
() = 1 2 + 2 + 3
2
(174)
This can be written in matrix form as:

(0)
0
0
0
(0)
0
|
| = [ 3 6 2
2
()
2
()
2
0
1
1
0
]
1
0
1
2
| |
3
4
(175)
Or more simply:
33
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Invert (176)
And substitute into (170)
|| = [] ||
(176)
|| = []1
||
(177)
|| = [] []1
||
(178)
Where the stiffness matrix [] of element i is represented as

[] = [] []1
So
|| = [] ||
(179)
(180)
The stiffness matrix, [] , of element i relates the internal nodal forces, || , to the
internal nodal displacements, || .
1
0
123 62 123 62
0 0 1
0
2
2
0 1 0
[]1
= [ 6 4 6 2 ]
(181)
= [ 3 6 2 2 1 ]
1
0
0
0
2 2 1 0
0
0
1
0
[] = [] []1
123 62 123 62
0 0 0
2
2
0 0 0
=[
] [ 6 4 6 2 ]
0 0 0
1
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
1
0
[] = [] []1
12 3 6 2
6 2
4
=
3
12 6 2
2
[ 6 2
12 3 6 2
6 2 2
12 3 6 2
6 2 4 ]
(182)
(183)
The general stiffness matrix for a beam element becomes:

12
6
[] = 3 [
12
6
6
42
6
22
12
6
12
6
6
22
]
6
42
(184)
34
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 3-5: FBD of i-th beam
We can now make a relationship between end forces and end deflection.
Recall equation (180) to get
1
| 1|
2
2
12
6
= 3[
12
6
6
42
6
22
12
6
12
6
6
22
]
6
42
1
1
| |
2
2
(185)
Now consider both beam elements (from Figure 4)
Figure 3-6: Two beams joined
When multiple beam elements are connected together two different coordinate are
needed: a local system for element i, where i=1,N, with N being the number of
elements in the model (hear N=2); and a global coordinate system for all N elements
together.
1 = 11
= 11
[ 1
1 = 11
1 = 11
3 = 22
3 = 22
]
3 = 22
3 = 22
(186)
What about nodal point 2?
35
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2 = 12 = 21
} deflections are the same

2 = 12
= 21
(187)
2 = 12 + 21
} forces add
2 = 12 + 21
(188)
This results in a 6x6 global stiffness matrix.
Figure 3-7: General form of the global k-matrix for 2 connected beams
Form connectivity matrices relating local system to global system.

For element 1:
For element 2:
1
1 0 0
1
0 1 0
| |
2
= 0 0 1
2
0 0 0
| |
3
0 0 0
3 1 [0 0 0
0
1
1
0
0 | 1 | = [] | 1 |
1
1
2
2
0 2 1
2 1
0]1
(189)
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
| |
2
= 1 0 0
2
0 1 0
| |
3
0 0 1
[
0 0 0
3 2
0
1
1
0
0 |1 | = [] |1 |
2
0
2
2
0 2 2
2 2
1]2
(190)
Now connect to .
For element 1:
36
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1
1 0
1
| | = [0 1
2
0 0
2 1
0 0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0 | 1|
| 1|
0] 2 = [] 2
1
0 2
| |
| 2|
0 1 3
3
3 1
3 1
(191)
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0 |1 |
| |
0] 2 = [] 2
2
0 2
| |
| 2|
1 2 3
3
3 2
3 2
(192)
For element 2:
1
0 0
1
| | = [0 0
2
0 0
2 2
0 0
For element 1:
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
[]
| | =
1 |2 |
2
2 1
2 1
Substitute (193) into (189) then into (191)

1
1
1
1
|
|
| |
2
2
= []1 []1 []1
2
| 2|
| |
3
3
3 1
3 1
Repeat steps for element 2:
(193)
(194)
||1 = []1 ||
(195)
||2 = []2 ||
(196)
The forces in common are added with common ||

2
|| = [] || = ([]1 + []2 )|| = []||
(197)
=1
37
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
For element 1:
12
61
1 1 12
[]1 =
1 61
0
[ 0
61 12 61 0 0
421 61 221 0 0
61 12 61 0 0
221 61 421 0 0
0
0
0 0 0
0
0
0 0 0]
(198)
0
0
0
0
0
0
62 12 62
422 62 222
62 12 62
222 62 422 ]
(199)
For element 2:
0
0
2 2 0
[]2 =
2 0
0
[0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
62
12
62
The global stiffness matrix is found by superimposing the two elemental stiffness
matrices ([] = []1 + []2 ).
(200)
3.5 Examples
Example 3.1: Two springs in series fixed on one end
Figure 3-8: Two springs connected in series and fixed on one end
38
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Three point conditions:
1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 =
(201)
1
0
0
1
1
|| = [] || | 0 | = [1 1 + 2 2 ] |2 |
2 3
2
0
=1
(202)
Extracting the bottom two rows
0
+ 2 2
0
| |=[ 1 1
] | 2|
2
2
0
3
(203)
2 1 2
] | |
3
2
(204)
1
1
0
| |
(1 + 2 )
1 2 ]
(205)
+ 2
0
| |=[ 1
2
| 2| = 1
3
1
[1
2 =
Recalling the 1st row:

|1 | = [1
(1 + 2 )
1 2
(206)
|
|
1
0]
|( + )|
1
2
1 2
(207)
3 =
1 =
(208)
Example 3.2: Cantilever beam with end load (single element)
Figure 3-9: Cantilever beam with end load
39
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
End conditions:
1 = 0
1 = 0
2 =
2 = 0
(209)
Using known end conditions we get:

0
1
0
| 1 | = [] | |
2
0
2
(210)
Unknowns: 1 , 1 , 2 , 2
Set aside the first two rows with unknown forces
0
3
12 6 12 6 0
| |=[
]| |
6 22 6 42 2
0
2
Multiply the first two columns

3
12(0) 6(0)
12 6 2
| |=
+[
]| |
2
6 42 2
6(0) + 2 (0)
0
3
12 6 2
| |=[
]| |
6 42 2
0
(211)
(212)
(213)
If 1 and 2 were not zero, these terms would be shifted to the left
Now invert the matrix equations
3
2
12 6 1
|
| | = [
|
2]
2
6 4
0
(214)
1 1 1
3
2
|
3
2
| | = [
] |
1 1
2
0
2 2
(215)
2 =
3
3
(216)
2 =
2
2
(217)
40
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Evaluate all unknown forces by retrieving the first 2 rows that were set aside in
step 1.
0
12 6 12 6
1
0
| |= 3[
] | |
2
2
1
2
6 4 6 2
2
(218)
122 + 62
| 1| = 3 [
]
1
62 + 22 2
(219)
Recalling (216) and ( 217)

1 =
1 =
3
2
[12
(
)
+
6
(
)]
3
3
2
(220)
1 = 4 + 3 =
(221)
3
2
2
[6
(
)
+
2
(
)]
3
3
2
(222)
1 = 2 + =
(223)
41
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Example 3.3: Ship propeller modeled as a cantilever beam with end spring
Figure 3-10: Ship propeller cantilever beam with added spring
End conditions:
1 = + 1
1 = 0
3 1
12
|
|=[
6
0
Shift the unknown 2 term to the right

3
3
| | = [12 /
0
6
Inverting the matrix solving for 2
1 =
2 = 0
2 = 0
(224)
6 1
]| |
42 1
(225)
6 1
]| |
42 1
3
1
3 1 3
3
(226)
(227)
42
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Example 3.4: Fixed-fixed beam with point load and moment
Figure 3-11: Half ship cross section
Figure 3-12: 3-noded fixed beam
End conditions:
1 = 0
1 = 0
3 = 0
3 = 0
(228)
43
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
At node 2:
1
12
1
6
| |
12
0 = 3
| | 6
3
0
[ 0
3
2 =
2 = 0
(229)
|| = []||
(230)
6
42
6
22
0
0
12
6
24
0
12
6
6
22
0
82
6
22
0
0
12
6
12
6
0
0
0
0
|
6 2 |
22 |2 |
6 0
42 ] 0
(231)
Simplifying the two middle rows:

24
| |= 3[
0
0
0 2
]| |
82 2
(232)
Solving for the displacement and slope at the 2nd node

2 =
3
24
(233)
44
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
4.0 Shear and Torsion in Ship

Structures
4.1 Shear Distribution of Beams in Pure Bending (Open sections)
Consider a rectangular single-cell hull girder section. It acts as a thin-walled box
beam that is symmetric about the z-axis.
Figure 4-1: Hull girder section
Now consider an element inside the deck plating loaded in the x-direction as shown:
Figure 4-2: Element in deck of hull girder
Force equilibrium in x-direction = 0:

45
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1 + ( + )1 1 + ( + )1 = 0
(234)
(235)
(143)
(236)
With yx = yx(x,y) then:
Now lets introduce a new quantity called shear flow, .

=
(237)
Substitute shear flow and equation (226) ( from general beam theory) into (236)
to obtain:

+
=0

(238)
(144)
Calculate the shear flow around the section by integrating (238) around the
perimeter, .
(239)
(240)
(145)
Equation (240) represents the shear flow distribution around the hull section. The
constant of integration, , is equal to the value of the shear flow when = 0. The
integral part of the equation is known as the first moment of area, ().
=
Equation (240) can be written as
(241)
()
(242)
(146)
46
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Now lets find the shear flow for the simplest case, a thin rectangular beam.
Figure 4-3: Cross section of a thin rectangular beam
(243)
Since is constant across the section we can pull it out of the integral, and since we
know = 0 when = 0 Equation (243) becomes

0
Now we need a to write as a function of .
=
at = 0: =
at =
(244)
: =0
2
at = : =
Therefore,
=
(245)
47
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Plugging back into the integral equation:

=
( )
0
2
(246)
The equation for shear flow distribution becomes

=
2
[
]
2
2
(247)
Plotting the shear flow distribution:
Figure 4-4: Shear flow distribution for a thin Rectangular Beam
Now lets try to find the shear distribution across the hull girder section in Figure 41. This hull is a closed section which makes finding the shear flow difficult because
there is no obvious place where = 0. Fortunately, it is known that for closed
sections having tranverse symmetry the shear stress at the centerline is zero.
Therefore,
48
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
= 0 at = 0
Figure 4-5: Half-section of hull girder with transverse symmetry
Starting at point 1 ( = 1) and integrating along 1 . With constant thickness

equation (240) becomes:
12 1 =

1
1
(248)
At point 1 we know:
1 = 0 (zero shear at centerline)
= constant =
(248) becomes
12 =
(along 1 )

2 1 1
12 =
2 1
(249)
49
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
At point 2: 1 = 2
2 =
(250)
Now lets start down the side shell. In the corner where the deck plating meets the
side plating the shear flow from the deck plating is equal to the shear flow of the
side shell plating. In other words 2 (1 ) = 2 (2 ).
Figure 4-6: Flow through corner at point 2
Integrating along 2 ( = 2 ).
23 2 =

2
2
(251)
We need to write z as a function of 2 .

= 0, =
=
,
2
=0
= , =
Figure 4-7: Side plating
Therefore,
=
2
2
(252)
50
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Substitute (252) into (251) and solve the integral

23 =
( 2 )2 + 2
2 2
23 =

22
[ 2 ] + 2
2
2
(253)
23 =

22
[ 2 + ]
2
2
4
(254)
Plug in 2 .
To understand the sign convention:

Positive sign shear flow is acting in the direction
that we are integrating
Negative sign shear flow is acting opposite of the
direction we are integrating
Now lets determine the shear flow on the neutral axis when 2 = 2 .
..
2
=
[ + ]
8
4
(255)
Equation (255) represents the max shear flow in the section. We can get the shear
stress by dividing the shear flow at any point by the thickness at that point. So
dividing (255) by gives the max shear stress at the neutral axis.
2
=
[ + ]
8
4
(256)
51
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Due to symmetry: 2 = 3 , 12 = 34 , and 1 = 4 = 0.

Plotting the shear distribution around the hull gives Figure 4-6.
Figure 4-8: Shear flow distribution around the hull section
4.2 Pure Torsion of Circular Shafts

Consider a straight prismatic bar that is subject solely to moments about its
longitudinal axis. As it twists about that axis shearing stresses are developed.
Figure 4-9: Circular shaft subject to torsion
52
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Circular bars are the most common structural element subjected primarily to
torsion (e.g. shafts in most engines).
Von Mises strain hypothesis of torsion: strain, , varies linearly with .
Figure 4-10: Circular shaft subject to torsion
(257)
(258)
(259)
=
Also,
Where
Rearranging (256)
= =

=

(260)
Similar to rectangular coordinates there are six components of shear stress in

cylindrical coordinates.
Figure 4-11: Components of shear stress for cylindrical coordinates
In the case of pure torsion of a circular section only and are non-zero.
( = 0)
From Hookes Law:
53
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(, )
(261)
Where is the shear modulus. Now substitute (260) into (259)

(, )
=
With
=
const. at any
1
=

(, )
=
Therefore,
(262)
(, )
const. at any
const. at any
at any
Or the shear stress is linear with the radius.
Figure 4-12: Shear stress in a circular section
Notice the max shear is at the outer edges of the circular section: = (, = )
54
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Require the section at x to remain in equilibrium: = 0
Figure 4-13: Free-Body of an element in the circular section
(263)
(, ) = 0
Multiply and divide the integrand by , then extract

=
(,)
which is constant in .
(, )
(, )
2 =
(264)
Where is the polar moment of inertia of the section at .

= +
(265)
Rearranging (263).
(, ) =
()
()
(266)
With the relation for rate of change of twist:

(, ) ()
=
=
()
(267)
Angular displacement becomes:
55
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
()
+
()
() =
(268)
Where is the constant of integration to be determined from the end condition.

For solid cylindrical shafts with constant cross-section:
Figure 4-14: Solid shaft
= + =
4 4 4
+
=
64
64
32
Plug in (268) into (265)

() =
(270)
32
+
4
(271)
32
+
4
(272)
() =
() =
32
4
(269)
Apply the following boundary condition:

at = 0, = 0 = 0
() =
For the max shear stress:
32
16
= ( ) =
2
3
(273)
(274)
56
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
And the max angle of twist:

= () =
The weight of the solid bar is
=
32
4
2
4
(275)
(276)
Now consider a hollow shaft subject to the same torque
Figure 4-15: Hollow shaft cross section
4
24
1 4
4)
(
=
1 =
[1 ( ) ]
32 2
32
2
(277)
16
23 [1 (
1 4
) ]
2
(278)
32
24 [1
1 4
( ) ]
2
(279)
And the weight of the hollow shaft:

For the same max shear stress:
= [22 11 ]
4
(280)
1 4
( ) ]
2
(281)
=
Consider:
1
2
23 [1
= 0.5
57
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
3 = 0.937523
= 0.9772 2 = 1.022
Comparing rotational displacement:
() =
(282)
32
4 (1.022)4 (0.9375)
() =
32
1.0227 4
(283)
Therefore,
() = 1.0227()
(284)
= 22 (1 0.52 )
= 2 (1.022)2 (0.75)
= 0.774
(285)
Therefore, hollow shafts are usually most efficient from the standpoint of weight
savings because it takes less material than a solid shaft to transmit a given torque at
the same stress.
4.3 Pure Torsion for Non-circular Open Sections

(,)
For non-circular cross-sections and the Von-Mises hypothesis

used in section 4.4 does not apply. This makes finding analytical solutions to the
torsion problem in ships difficult, as most of the cross-sections are rectangular
rather than circular. Thankfully, the membrane analogy was introduced by Prandtl
in 1903 which has proven to be very useful in the analysis of torsion problems for
non-circular sections.
58
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Consider a membrane or a structure whose thickness is small compared to surface
dimensions and thus has negligible bending rigidity (like a piece of cellophane). The
membrane is stretched over a cutout of a general cross-sectional shape shown
below.
Side View
Top View
Figure 4-16: General Membrane
Let the membrane be loaded uniformly by a pressure p on one side and restrained
around the perimeter by a constant force s, per unit length of the perimeter. The
differential equation of the lateral deflection u(y,z) of this surface is the same as that
of the shear stress distribution, (y,z), in a bar of the same cross-sectional shape in
torsion provided,
= 2
Where, =
(286)
If this condition is fulfilled, the following relationships exist between the surface of
the membrane and the distribution of the shearing stresses in twist:
59
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1) The tangent to a contour line at any point of the deflected membrane gives the
direction of the shearing stress at the corresponding point in the cross-section of the
twisted bar.
2) The maximum slope of the membrane at any point is equal to the magnitude of the
shearing stress at the corresponding point in the twisted bar.
3) Twice the volume included between the surface of the deflected membrane
and the plane of its outline is equal to the torque of the twisted bar.
Reconsider the circular cross-section. We cut a circular hole in a plate, cover it with
a membrane, pressurize the opposite side of the plate with a pressure p, and hold
the membrane around the edge with a force/length s.
Figure 4-17: Membrane attachment over a circular hole in a plate
Consider lines at equal increments of as illustrated below.
Figure 4-18: Membrane contour lines for the circular hole
60
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
1) Direction of shear stress tangent to contour lines in shape of circles.
2) The slope of the membrane is highest near the edges where contour lines are
closest together. The shear stress is equal to the maximum slope of membrane at
any point. The shear stress is zero in the middle, maximum at outer edge
Figure 4-19: Membrane profile
3) Twice the volume under membrane is equal to the torque.

The membrane analogy is valid for any cross-section. Take for example a
rectangular cross section.
Figure 4-20: Membrane contour for a rectangular cross-section.
The maximum shear stress is along and parallel to the longer edge. Our interest lies
primarily in members made up of thin rectangular pieces. Consider a long thin
rectangular bar in torsion.
Figure 4-21: Rectangular bar in torsion
61
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 4-22: Membrane contour for a long, thin rectangle
The surface is cylindrical over most of the length (section A-A). Taking a closer look
at Section B-B:
Figure 4-23: Membrane deflection calculation
Take a
FBD of
a price of the membrane of length y. Require equilibrium in the vertical deflection.
62
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 4-24: Membrane free-body
= 0
= 0
(287)
Where = for small ()
(288)
() =
2
+
2
(289)
Plug in boundary condition: = 2 , () = 0

=
2
8
2
() = ( 2 )
2 4
The area under the
the membrane is:
(290)
(291)
deflection curve of
63
Figure 4-25: Membrane area calculation
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
= () = [
3]
2 4
6
12
(292)
Neglecting deviation at the short ends, the volume under the membrane is
approximately,
3
= =
12
(293)
Where is the long dimension of the section and b is the short dimension. This
equation is valid for all rectangular cross-sections.
Substituting in (285) and recalling Rule 3 ( = 2) the equation for torque
becomes:
1 3

3
(294)
Where the polar moment of inertia for the rectangular section is:
1
= 3
3
(295)
Now the equation for torsion can be written as:

=
(296)
The angle of twist is approximately:

=
=
3

(297)
3
+
3
(298)
By Rule 2):
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() =
if = 2
(299)
But from (287):
Also,
() = 2
(300)
So, for the rectangular bar the shear stress distribution is:
2
() = 2 ( ) =
(301)
And the max shear stress in the member becomes:
= ( = ) =
2
(302)
Figure 4-26: Rectangular bar in torsion
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Consider the open angle section in pure torsion.
Figure 4-27: Angle section
Assume both sections are composed of long, thin members and twist at the same
angle. Lets introduce a new variable, , the torsional stiffness coefficient.
=
(303)
Where is the overall length of the member. The total torsional stiffness coefficient
for the member is the sum of the coefficients in each leg of the member.
(304)
= 1 + 2 = (1 + 2 )
1
1
( 1 13 + 2 23 )
3
3
(305)
Since both legs twist at the same angle, the torque resisted by the torsional stiffness
of each element is proportional to their individual stiffnesss.
1 =
2 =
Then the max shear stresses are:
max 1 =
(306)
(307)
1 1
31
=
3
1
1 1 + 2 23
(308)
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max 2 =
2 2
32
=
3
2
1 1 + 2 23
(309)
The rate of twist for the section is written as:
3
=
3
(1 + 2 ) (1 1 + 2 23 )
(310)
4.4 Pure Torsion for Closed Single Cell Sections

Consider a closed, single-cell, thin-walled prismatic section subject to a torque.
Figure 4-28: Twisting of an arbitrary thin-walled closed section
= = constant along length
The resulting shear stress may be assumed uniform through the plate thickness and
tangent to the mid-thickness.
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Figure 4-29: Shear stress of tube element in pure torsion.
Sum the forces in the x-direction = 0:

2 + 1 = 0
1 = 2
(311)
(152)
(312)
The shear flow, = , is therefore seen to be constant around the section.

Now require moment equilibrium about the x-axis:
Figure 4-30: Tube cross-section
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radius from center to mid thickness line
= 0:
+ = 0
(313)
(314)
= 2
0
= 2 2 = 2
(315)
Where, = 2 , is the area enclosed by the mid thickness line.

The constant shear flow is then related to the applied torque by
=
(316)
(154)
Equation (314) is known as Bredts formula for torsional shear flow through a thinwalled closed section.
Now consider the deformation of element that results from this shear.
Figure 4-31: Deformation of tube element
axial displacement
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tangential displacement
As a result of the constant twisting moment and prismatic geometry, is a function
of only an will be given by a rigid body rotation of the cross-section,
(317)
From elementary elasticity the shear strain,, is related to the displacement by

=
(318)
(319)
Also,
=
Where, , is the shear modulus of elasticity.

=
2(1 + )
(320)
Substituting (243) and (241) into (242) and rearranging, gives

(321)
Because depends only on we can integrate.

() =
() =
(322)
() is the warp or displacement of a point on the cell wall that results from the
shear distortion of the material due to twist.
For closed sections the warp is zero if the integral equation is solved around the
entire section:
1

= 0

(323)
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The rate of twist, , can be defined in terms of shear flow:
=
=
Or in terms of torque:
=
42
(324)
(325)
Since we know that = , we can define the moment of inertia can be written as,
42
=
(326)
42
(327)
When is constant:
=
For comparison consider the following open and closed sections (with the same
area):
Figure 4-32: Closed and open section
42 4( 2 )
=
= 3
(328)
1
10 3
(329)
(2 3 + (2)3 ) =

3
3
If we compare the stiffness coefficients of closed and open sections with the same
lengths and shear modulus we get,
=
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For

3
3 2
=
=
=
( )
10 3
10
(330)
= 30
(331)
= 10:
So obviously closed sections are significantly stiffer than open sections.
4.5 Pure Bending of Closed Single-Cell Sections

Lets revisit the hull section from Figure 4-1. This is a closed thin-walled single cell
section. If we did not know that this section is transversely symmetrical how would
we determine the shear flow distribution? For closed, thin walled sections that
arent symmetrical, there is no point where the constant of integration, , from the
shear flow equation (240) is known. Therefore, the shear flow problem is statically
indeterminate. In order to solve this indeterminate problem we have to cut an
imaginary slit lengthwise along the ship (or beam) at some arbitrary point. With this
new imaginary slit the section becomes open and the equation for shear flow must
be broken down into two parts as follows.
= +
(332)
Where, , is the basic shear flow or the shear flow that would be developed if the
section were opened (referred to as 1 () in PNA). is the unknown constant
shear flow. Under pure vertical loading the twist, , of the section must be zero.
Equation ((332) 159 in PNA) becomes:
1
1
= ( + )
=0

Since is constant around s,

1

+
=0

(333)
(334)
Now lets simplify (334) by defining the following:

=
(335)
warp due to statically determinate open section

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shear flow, , defined by (240).
=
(336)
warp due to constant shear flow, ,

of unit magnitude.
Solving (332) for the constant shear flow, .
1
=
=
1
(337)
(163)
= + = 0
(338)
Equation (332) becomes,
Now lets calculate the shear flow through the closed hull section with an imaginary
cut on the neutral axis at point 1.
Figure 4-34: Hull section with cut at neutral axis
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First solve for the basic shear, , by treating the hull like an open section.
=
(339)
Starting at point 1: = 1 = 0
12 =
Where, = 1

1
1
(340)
12
2
(341)
2
8
(342)
12 =
At point 2: 1 =
2 =
Now integrating over the deck plate ( 2 ).

= 2
23 =

2 + 2
2
(343)
on 2
2

+ 2
2 2
(344)
23 =

2
[ 2 + ]
2
8
(345)
3 =
2
[ + ]
2
8
(346)
23 =
At point 3, 2 =
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Now integrating along 3 where,

=
34 =
34
3
2
( 3 ) 3 + 3
3 2

32
=
[ ] + 3
2 3 2
(347)
(348)
Plugging in 3
34 =

32 2
[ 3 +
+ ]
2
2
2
8
(349)
At point 4, 3 = /2
4
2
=
[ + ]
2
4
(350)
Now we need to find the constant shear flow, .

For constant thickness Equation (333) becomes:
=
(351)
= 2 + 2 section perimeter
= 2 [ 12 + 23 + 34 ]
1
(352)
Equation (350) is multiplied by 2 to include symmetry of the bottom half of the

section. Substituting (339), (343) and (347) and solving the integrals yield,
3 3 2 2
=
2[ +
+
]
8
8
4
(353)
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Now we can solve for .
= +
3 3 2 2
[8 + 8 + 4 ]
2 + 2
(354)
Now we can add this constant to at any point on the section to obtain the
magnitude for the shear flow, , at that point.
For example, lets find the shear flow on the centerline of the section, when 2 = .
2
For simplicity assume = = 1. Find the equation for shear flow between points 2
and 3.
23 = 23 +
23
3 3 2 2
+ 8 + 4

2
=
{[ 2 + ] [2 8
]}
2
8
2 + 2
Plug in 2 = 2, and = = 1
23
1 3 1
+ +
1 1
=
{[ + ] [2 8 8 4]}
4 8
4
23 (2 = ) = 0
2
This verifies the assumption we made in section 4.1, that closed sections with
transverse symmetry will have zero shear along the centerline.
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4.6 Pure Bending in Multi-cell Sections

For multi-cell sections, one unknown shear flow is introduced with the addition of
each closed cell in the section. Consider the hull section below with two longitudinal
bulkheads.
Figure 4-35: Hull section with two longitudinal bulkheads
The shear flow equation can be written as:

= +
(355)
=
To make the section statically determinate we will introduce a longitudinal slit in
each cell. This reduces the structure to a thin-walled open section. Similar to single
cell sections, we will make the warping displacements at the slits equal to zero if all
the cells are closed.
The warping equation for the system with 3 cells becomes,
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + = 0
(356)
In general for the cell:

=#
( ) + = 0
(357)
=1
Where,
=
(358)
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(359)
Note: if then is negative.

In case of a 3-cell section (3 unknowns):
11 1 + 12 2
+ 1 = 0
(360)
21 2 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 = 0
(361)
32 2 + 33 3 + 3 = 0
(362)
Example 4.6: Shear flow distribution for a box barge in pure bending
Consider a box barge with twin bulkheads.
Figure 4-36: Box barge with twin bulkheads
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Given:
= 1 4
1"
= 2 constant around entire section

Determine the shear stress in the section by first inserting 3 cuts in the deck plating
at the midpoint of each cell.
Recall Equation (242):
=
(242)*
()

Remember is the statical moment of area that extends only to one side of the
neutral axis (recall 241). We can avoid doing integrals everytime by defining , the
first area moment, as the following:
= =
(363)

Starting from the cut in cell 1 and going along the deck to point A:
=
120
1
144
= 1 4 [(
) (
)]
2
2
2
= 2160
= +
144
1
144
= 2160 + 1 4 [(
) (
)]
2
2
4
= 3456
Now from cut in first cell to point C:
= = 2160
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From cut in cell 2 to point C:
180
1
144
=
= 1 4 [(
) (
)]
2
2
2
= 3240
+
= 5400
144
1
144
= 5400 + 1 4 [(
) (
)]
2
2
4
= 6696
Due to symmetry:
=
=
=
=
Figure 4-37: Basic shear flow distribution
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Now lets evaluate , taking flows in the counterclockwise direction as positive.
1 =
1
2
144
2
144
[(2160 + (3456 2160)) (
) (5400 + (6696 5400)) (
)]
3
0.5
3
0.5
1 =
Due to symmetry:
933120
1 = 3 =
933120
G
And it can be seen by observation of Figure 4-* that 2 = 0.

Now lets solve for the constant warp around each cell.
11 = 33 =
22 =
1 120
144
1056
[2
+2
]=
0.5
0.5
1 180
144
1296
[2
+2
]=
0.5
0.5
For the constant warp in common walls:

12 = 21 =
1 144
288
[
]=
0.5
23 = 32 =
1 144
288
[
]=
0.5
After eliminating the common factor 1/, the system of equations for consistent
deformation of the multi-cell hull becomes,
10561 2882
933120 = 0
2882 + 12962 2883
=0
2882 + 10563 + 933120 = 0
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Solving the system of equations yields,

1 = 884 ()
2 = 0
()
3 = 884 ()
Plotting,
Figure 4-38: Constant shear flow distribution
Now the final shear flow distrubution can be found by superimposing Figures 4-*
and 4-*.
Figure 4-39: Final shear flow distribution
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4.7 Pure Torsion of Multi-cell Sections

Single cell thin-walled sections that are subject to pure torsion are statically
determinant, as the shear flow can easily be determined (see section 4.4). If
additional cells are introduced however, there exists an additional and independent
shear flow associated with each new cell. This results in a statically indeterminant
problem.
Lets consider a general n-celled section. Similar to the torque for single celled
sections ( Equation 314) we can write the torque for multi-cell sections as:
= 2
(364)
=1
= shear flow in cell

= enclosed area of cell
= number of cells
Consider the Figure 4-36 of the barge with 2 longitudinal bulkheads. Similar to
bending the general equation for constant deformation is writtin as,
=#
( ) + = 0
(365)
=1
And for sections with 3-cells

1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + = 0
(366)
Where is defined by (356), and is the constant deformation due to torsion

defined as,
= 2
(367)
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Where, =
is constant.
Example 4.7: Shear flow around box barge in pure torsion
Refer to Figure 4-36 from Example 4.6. Given a torque, = 16 , determine the
shear flows in the section.
First, determine the enclosed areas:
1 = 3 = 144 120 = 17280 2
2 = 144 180 = 25920 2
Now determine equations for consistent deformation. The values of will remain
the same as in example 4.6. The system of equations is written as,
11 1 + 12 2
+ 1 = 0
21 1 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 = 0
32 2 + 33 3 + 3 = 0
And for pure torsoin we also have:
= 2[1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 ]
So we are left with 4 equations and 4 unknowns.
10561 2882
34560 = 0
2881 + 12962 2883 51840 = 0

2882 + 10563 34560 = 0
345601 + 518402 + 345603 = 1000000
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Solving the system of equations yields:

1 = 7.5
2 = 9.3
3 = 7.5
= 0.15
Figure 4-40: Shear flow in pure torsion
4.8 Combined Bending and Torsion of Multi-cell Sections

Ship sections will rarely be in pure torsion or pure bending so it is practical
to perform analysis combining the two. To do so we simply sum the shear
components due to bending with those due to torsion.
= + ( + )
(368)
shear flow due to torsion

( + ) shear flow due to bending
Where and are constants so we will introduce the combined shear flow
constant, .
= +
(369)
= +
(370)
Equation (368) becomes,
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This means that the combined shear flow in any cell is the sum of bending shear in
the opened section and a constant shear, .
The equation for constant deformation becomes,
=#
( ) + + = 0
(371)
=1
Where is defined by (367) and by (358).

Example 4.8: Shear flow distribution for a box barge in combined bending and
torsion.
(continuing from examples 4.6 and 4.7)
Refer to Figure 4-36.
Given:
= 0.5" = constant
=1 4
= 16
Determine the shear flow distribution in combined bending and torsion.

Equations of constant deformation:
11 1 + 12 2
+ 1 + 1 = 0
21 1 + 22 2 + 23 3 + 2 + 2 = 0
32 2 + 33 3 + 3 + 3 = 0
21 1 + 22 2 + 23 3 = 16
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Plugging in values obtained from examples 4.6 and 4.7,

10561 2882
34560 933120 = 0
2881 + 12962 2883 51840
=0
2882 + 10563 34560 + 933120 = 0

345601 + 518402 + 345603 = 16
Solving the system yields:
Plotting the constant shear flow,
1 = 891
2 = 9.3
3 = 876
= 0.15
Figure 4-41: Constant shear flow distribution
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Now superimpose with the open shear flow, , from example 4.6.
Figure 4-42: Total combined shear distribution
4.9 Shear Center

The point on any cross-section at which applied shear forces produce zero
twist is defined as the shear center. Consider the following channel section.
Figure 4-43: Channel section
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force exerted in flange due to shear stress
=
(372)
force exerted in web due to shear stress

=
(373)
Sum the moments about the origin.
: 2 ( ) 0
2
(374)
Obviously, the sum of the moment due to shearing forces will not equal zero and
therefore there will be twist in the channel section. We must introduce a new force,
, acting some distance, , away from the origin in order to reach equilibrium. This
location where acts is known as the shear center.
Figure 4-44: Channel section with resultant force P
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Once again sum the moments about the origin.
: = 0
(375)
Set = .
=
(376)
We can determine by finding the shear force in the flange.
= =
=
(378)

(
)
2
(379)
(380)

( )
2
(381)
=
=
(377)
Plugging into Equation (***).

= (
) ( )
2
=
Now the distance becomes,
=
2
2
22
2
(382)
(383)
(384)
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Notice that the distance is a property of the section and is independent of the
magnitude of the applied force, .
Rules about shear centers:
1) Shear centers must lie on axis or center of symmetry (if one exists).
Figure 4-45: Channel section
2) If all arms of a cross-section are straight and incident on a single point, then
that point is the shear center
Figure 4-46: T section and Angle section
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3) The shear center of sections with two axes of symmetry is at the centroid of
the section.
Figure 4-47: I section
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5.0 Axial Loads with Bending

5.1 Introduction to Buckling in ships
Consider the ship hull section below, subjected to primary hull girder bending
stresses as well as secondary deck pressure, , and hydrostatic pressure, .
Figure 5-1: Ship hull section subjected to deck pressure
We can consider an individual stiffener attached to an effective breadth, , of

deck plating as a beam.
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Figure 5-2: Plate-stiffener cross section
The beam is subjected to an axial stress, , due to primary hull girder bending in
combination with a deck loading, . The axial stress can be reduced to an axial load
by,
=
(385)
Figure 5-3: Plate-stiffener beam
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5.2 Members in tension & Compression

Consider a rod subject to tension and fixed at one end as pictured below.
Figure 5-4: Rod in tension
Using the displacement method like we did in chapter 1 we know,

"() = 0
(386)
() = 2
(387)
() = 1 + 2
(388)
By definition,
= () =
With,
=
() =
(389)
(390)
= 2
(391)
Then 1 is obtained from an end condition on ().

() = 1 +
(392)
Since we know the rod is fixed on one end we get the following for 1:
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(0) = 0 1 = 0
So the equation for the maximum deflection at the end of the rod becomes,
() =
(393)
Now consider the rod with both axial and lateral loading.
Figure 5-5: Rod in combined axial and lateral loading
Taking an element from that rod,
Figure 5-6: Rod element
In this more interesting case of combined axial and lateral loading deflection, (),
will occur in the direction creating a non-linear coupling (all analysis to this point
has been linear). The three equilibrium equations become,
= 0:
+ + = 0
= 0
(394)
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= 0:
+ + = 0
(395)
+ + + = 0
+
=0
(396)
+
=0
(397)
2
2
+
=0
2
2
(398)
= ()
2
(399)
= 0:
Take the limit,
Then take the derivative,
By the flexure formula (chapter 1),

=
(400)
(401)
= ()
(402)
Substituting (401) into (399),
Note that if = 0 we recover the equation from chapter 1.

Integrate (402) twice in x.
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= () + 1 + 2
(403)
Equation (403) is a 2nd order, linear non-homogenous DEQ with constant

coefficients.
The solution must be broken down into homogenous and particular components.
() = +
(404)
Solving for the homogeneous solution first:
The solution is of the form:
= 0
(405)
=
= 2
(406)
2 = 0
2 = 0
(407)
(408)
This gives the homogeneous solution,

() = 3
+ 4
(409)
Now compute the particular solution. Consider the case where () = 0.

= 1 + 2
(410)
A particular solution satisfying (410) is:

1
= (1 + 2 )
(411)
This produces the combined solution of,

= +

() = (1 + 2 ) + 3 + 4
(412)
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Using the following relationships for hyperbolic sine and cosine,

1
sinh() 2 ( )
cosh() 2 ( + )
(412) can be written in terms of the hyperbolic functions as,

1
() = (1 + 2 ) + (3 + 4 ) cosh ( ) + (3 4 ) sinh ( )
(413)
Now redefine the constants as: 3 = (3 + 4 ) and 4 = (3 4 )

1
() = (1 + 2 ) + 3 sinh ( ) + 4 cosh ( )
(414)
We now need to solve for the four constants by specifying four end conditions.
Consider a simply supported beam.
Figure 5-7: Simply supported beam
(0) = 0
(0) = 0
(0) = 0 =
() = 0
() = 0
2
+ 4
(415)
(0) = 0 = 4 2 = 0
(416)
() = 0 = 1 + 3 sinh ( )
(417)
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() = 0 = 3 (
) sinh ( ) 3 = 0 = 1
(418)
All constants are zero, so () = 0 (which is expected for = 0).

What happens if < 0?

(419)
Via (415) and (416) 2 = 4 = 0

Using conditions at x=L.
() = 0 =
+ 3 sinh ( )
(420)
3 sinh ( )
(421)
() = 0 =
0 = 3 sinh ( )
(422)
If the above is true, then 1 = 0 but is 3 = 0 again?

Consider sinh() (). Substituting into (422),
0 = 3 sin (
(423)
Since certain values of make the sine function 0, this does not mean that 3 has to
be 0.
() 0 can exist for
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sin ( ) = 0
For which:
=
(424)
= 0,1,2
Substitute back into (414) with 1 = 2 = 4 = 0

() = 3 sin (
At
) = 3 sin (
)
= =
Consider the case where = 1
2 2
2
2
= 1 = 2
(425)
(426)
(427)
(427) is called the Euler critical buckling load for a simply supported column.
At = ,
() = 3 sin (
(428)
Figure 5-8: Illustration of
The constant 3 , cannot however be evaluated with the limited information

available. Only the shape of the deflection curve at is available; it is called the
first mode shape (). In general, for arbitrary :

() = sin (
)
(429)
To recap, equation (412) is the general solution for an axially loaded beam with
= 0. If is replaced by where is the compressive force magnitude. (412)
becomes,
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1

(430)
(1 + 2 ) + 3 + 4
It is more convenient to write the exponentials as trigonometric functions for

specific applications.
() =
(431)
Substituting into (430)

() =
1
( + 2 ) + (3 + 4 ) + (3 4 )
1
(432)
Where =
Set,
= 3 + 4
= (3 4 )
(432) becomes
() =
1
( + 2 ) + +
1
(433)
Redo the simply supported case.
Figure 5-9: Simply supported beam with compressive load
(0) =
2
+
(434)
(0) = 0 + 2 = 0
(435)
1
+
(436)
() = 0 =
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() = 0 = 2
(437)
Solving 1 = 0
= 0
when
= 0
Therefore,

=
=
= 0,1,2 ..
2 2
2
(438)
(439)
Substitute back into (429)
() = sin = sin (
(440)
Example 5.2: Buckling of a Thin Rod
Figure 5-10: Simply supported thin rod
Given:
= 10
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= 35,000
= 30 106
= 1"
Use a factor of safety of 2.0 on yielding.
=
35000
= 17500
2
=
= (17500 ) ( 2 ) = 13745
4
Critical buckling load:
2

=
2
4
2 (30106 ) ( 64 )
1202
= 1009
The column would therefore have bucked (and collapsed) if loaded to its stress
limit.
5.3 Critical Buckling Load and Mode Shape Determination

The general solution of,
+ = 0
(441)
Is (433):
1 2
() = (
+ ) + +
(433)*
(442)
Where =
The steps to find and () for any uniform beam case for any end conditions
are as follows:
Simply Supported Case:
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Figure 5-11: Simply supported beam-column
1. Eliminate up to 2 of the 4 constants in (442) with the 2 end conditions at = 0.

(0) = 0
2
=
(0) = 0 = 0 2 = 0
2. Write the two remaining end conditions (at ) as matrix equations on the
remaining constants:
1
+
(443)
() = 0 = 2
(444)
() = 0 =
[
0
0
]| | = | |
0
2
(445)
3. Require an indeterminate system by setting the determinant of the matrix to zero.

=
2
= 0 = 0
= =
= 1,2, . ,
2 2
2
This was the initial result at (438) and (439).
=
(446)
(447)
(448)
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4. Choose either of the two dependent equations to eliminate the third constant.
From the first equation in (445),
1
+ = 0
(449)
1 = 0
5. Substitute the 3 constants back into (442).
() = = ()
(450)
() =
(451)
Fixed-Fixed Case:
Figure 5-12: Fixed-fixed beam

(0) = 0
(0) = 0
2
=
1
=
106
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
+
+
1 +
0
]| | = | |
(452)

= 0 = 2(1 )
(453)
= 2 =
(454)
42 2
2
(455)
( + ) + (1 + ) = 0
(456)
= 0 = 0
(457)

() = (1 + )
(458)
() = 1 + ()
(459)
Supported-fixed Case:
Figure 5-13: Supported -fixed beam
107
NAME 4120/5120
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(0) = 0
2
=
(0) = 0 = 0 2 = 0
1
[
0
| |=| |
0

]
(460)

=
1
= 0
(461)
(462)
(462) is a transcendental function that requires numerical evaluation, according to

Figure 5-**, which is a plot of (462)
108
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 5-14: Plot of versus
1
1
=
(463)
() = +
(464)
() =
(465)
5.4 Coupled Formulation

Return to the DEQ (402) and consider specifying 0, and to be unknown.
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NAME 4120/5120
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= ()
(402)*
If is unknown, we have 1 equation and 2 unknowns, and (). A second

equation relating and is therefore needed.
Consider the end roll due to vertical deflection,
Figure 5-15: Change of length caused by ()
() = (0) =
+ ()
(466)
Where () is the length change caused by ().

= 2 + 2 = 1 + (
2
)
(467)
= 1 + 2
The length along the curve is the un-deflected beam length.
()
+
=
For 1,
1 + 2
(468)
=0
1
1 + 2 1 + 2
2
(469)
1
= + () + 2
2 =0
(470)
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1
() = 2
2 =0
(471)
Substituting (471) into (466),

1
() (0) =
2 ()
2 =0
(472)
= ()
(402)
(472) and (473) are two coupled equations in and (). Equation (472) is nonlinear and therefore presents difficulty in obtaining a solution. The analysis is
simplified by approximating solutions to (402) for () by using the variational
method.
5.4 Variational Solution

The bending equation is a linear equation and can be solved in closed form, in terms
of , by standard methods. However, very useful and physically revealing
approximate solutions are readily generated by writing the bending equation, (402),
in the weak form:
[ ()] () = 0
(473)
=0
Where denotes variation of the function ().

Consider the uniformly loaded, simply-supported beam.
Figure 5-16: Simply supported beam with axial and lateral loading
We need an approximate solution with () represented by a shape function and

constants. Use the first mode shape of the simply supported column buckling
problem.
111
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
() = (
(474)
A is an unknown constant that will be determined by substituting (474) into (473).

For use in (473),
() =
(475)
Substitute (475) and (474) into (473) to produce the indeterminate result,
=0
() =
sin ( )
2
(476)
() =
sin
(
)
4
(477)
sin
(
)
+
sin ( ) ()] ( ) = 0
4
2
2
2
sin
(
)
sin
(
)
sin ( ) = 0
4
2
=0
=0
=0
(478)
(479)
) =
sin2 (
0
sin (
0
2
) =
4
2
2
(
)
+
( )
=0
4
2
2
2
4 2
2
+
( )
=0
3
2
2 2
2
4 2
( 2 + ) = 3
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2
4 4
(1 + 2 ) = 5

(1 +
4 4
) = 5
1

(480)
(481)
With 1 = = 2 , the Euler critical buckling load for the simply supported
column. Substitution into (481) gives:
4 4
5
=
1+
1
Now substitute back into (474) to obtain the approximate solution for (),
4 4
5
() = sin ( )
1+
1
(482)
(483)
For checking purposes, set = 0.

Using (482) and (474) when = 0 gives,
() =
4 4
sin
(
)
5
(484)
Now compare (484) to the exact solution from the displacement method.
For a pinned-pinned beam:
(0) = (0) = () = () = 0
The exact solution from the displacement method is:
() =
3
3
( 2 + )
12 2
2
(485)
Comparing (484) and (435) at = 2,
4 4
4
( ) = 5 sin ( ) = 0.01307
2

2
(486)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
3 3 3
4
( ) =
( + ) = 0.01302
2
12 2 4 16
(487)
This represents a 0.38% error for the approximate analysis.

For the case of 0:
Figure 5-17: End Deflection due to f and P
From (474) and (482) with = /1 ,

() =
1
4 4
( 5 ) sin ( )
1 +
(488)
()
1+
(489)
Substitute (484),
() =
Therefore the effect of (if > 0) is to reduce the beam deflection. But if
= < 0 , (489) becomes,
() =
()
1 /1
(490)
Thus, amplification occurs!

End Strain:
() can be eliminated by substituting (489) into (472),
() =
(2)
1+
sin (
(491)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
()
(2)
cos ( )
1+
2 (2) 2
2
2 () =
(
)
cos
(
)
(1 + )2
(492)
Substitute (492) into (472).

2
1 (2) 2
() (0) =
( ) cos 2
2
2 (1 + )
=0
(493)
Set (0) = 0 for reference. The end roll is then,

2
1
1 (2)
() =
[
]
2 1+
(494)
Divide by and define the end strain components as:

()
total end strain

strain due to
1
2
[ ( ) ] strain due to
2
2
(495)
(496)
(497)
(494) becomes,
= +
(1 + )2
(498)
Example 5.5:
Reconsider the 1" steel rod of = 120" and = 1008 .
1008
=
= 42.8 106
6
( 4) (30 10 )
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
4 4
( ) = 5
2

Lets say that a distributed load is applied such that (2) = 2".
1
2
= [ (2)
] = 685 106
2
120
First set = 0 so that = 0 in (498),
= = 685 106 =
()
() = 120(685 106 ) = 0.0822
Figure 5-18: Illustration of end deflection at =
Now say =
==2
1
685 106
6
= (42.8 10 )
= 478 106
3
2
2
() = 120(478 106 ) = 0.0574
The end roll is reduced by the end tension.
Now say =
, = 2
1
685 106
= (42.8 106 )
= 1391 106
1
2
2
() = 120(1391 106 ) = 0.167
Furthermore from (491),
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
() = 2
(498)
With = 2.
5.6 More General Shape Function

Return to (473).
[ ()] () = 0
(473)
=0
Select the complete mode shape set,
(499)
2 2
sin (
)
2
(500)
() = sin (
=1
= 1 was the subject term in 5.5.

Substitute (499) into (473).
() =
=1
() =
=1
4 4
sin (
)
4
(500)
Perform similar integration to (479).
{
=1
4 2 2 2
[1 (1) ] } = 0
( ) + ( )
2
2
2
2
(501)
Rearranging,
2 2
2 2
[
+
]
(
) =
[1 (1) ]
2
(502)
The eigenvalue set is defined in section 5.3.

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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
=
Rearrange (502),
2 2
2
(503)
2 2
[ + ] ( ) =
[1 (1) ]
(504)
2 2 1 (1)
[
]
3 3 +
(505)
2 4 1 (1)
[
]
5 5 1 + /
(506)
0 =
2 4 [1 (1) ]
()5
(507)
1+
(508)
Define,
Substitute (508) into (499),
0 ()
() =
sin ( ) =
=1 1 +
=1 1 +
The term contribution is,

() =
0 ()
1+
(509)
(510)
() = ()
(511)
=1
The result in (509) is an exact solution for the simply supported beam with
arbitrary loading () and .
As an example, consider the first two terms of the Fourier series:
118
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
2
) + 02 sin (
)
0 () 01 sin (
Say
01
02
= 0 < 1 and
(512)
= 0.5
1+
2
1
=
= 0 (
) = 1.3330
1
1 + 4
1
Convergence of the series is degraded relative to the = 0 case in the presence of
axial tension.
2 02
>
1 01
However, if
= 0.5.
= 0
1 0.5
= 0.5710
0.5
1 4
In this case, compression improves convergence, i.e., successive terms in (509) for
< 0 get small faster than for 0. This demonstrates why for axial compression
levels approaching the critical buckling load, a beam column assumes a distinctly
first mode deflection almost regardless of its 0 () characteristic. To make this
point, assume that:
0 =
02
= 2.0
01
Which distinctly describes a strong 2nd mode. Assume = 0.9

1
1+
2
1
=
= 0 (
) = 0.258
1
1+
41
The resultant deflection is biased more toward = 1 as 1.

1
119
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 5-19: Bending deflection under compressive loading.
Axial End Deflection:

Referring back to Figure 5-**, substitute (507) into (472), with (0) = 0 to calculate
the end deflection at :
2
1
2 0
() =
( ) [
] cos2
=0
1
+
=1
(513)

2 0
=
( ) [
]
1
+
=1
Here 0 0 (2) = 0
Compressive strain at produced by the Euler critical load
=
()
The critical load ratio,

=
(514)
(515)
The strain at produced by bending deflection = 0.

=
()
1 2 2
= ( )
(516)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
The total strain at ,
()
=
= +
=1 (1
0
+
2
)
2
(517)
Note here that for the typical problem, and the 0 set will be known in advance.
Further, either or will be known and (517) is used to solve for the other.
5.7 Axial End Strain Cases

Reconsider the one term approximate shape function (474),
() =
()
1 ()
1 / 1 /
(518)
Here (518) is more accurate when is negative (compression). In cases where

1 () is a good approximation to (), it may be possible to achieve the level of
accuracy required in a particular problem by truncating (499) at the leading term.
In this case, the equation for total strain (517) becomes,

() 1 sin (
= +
01
(1 + )2
(519)
(520)
Now note for = 0, (516) becomes:

1 2 2
= ( ) 1
4
(521)
()
2 01
= ( )
(522)
Or,
121
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Thus, the ratio of the axial end deflection to the mid-span bending deflection is of
the order of the mid-span bending deflection divided by the beam length. A Premise
of beam theory is that the max deflection to beam length ratio is small. Therefore,
the axial end deflection of interest is a small quantity.
Now consider the case where is specified. It becomes necessary to solve (520) for
the critical load.
Starting with (520),
(1 + 2 ) ( +
01
)=
(523)
(523) is a cubic equation in , where the roots are the critical load ratios
corresponding to the specified values of , 01 and .
1) Case of Zero Lateral Loading (Buckling)
For zero lateral loading of the initially straight beam 01 = 0 in (523) becomes:
(1 + 2 ) ( +
)=0
(524)
Two possibilities exist for satisfying (524):

(1)
(2)
= 1
First consider =
(525)
(526)
(where < 0 (496) ). Invert for :

=
(527)
Substitute (496)
, (527) becomes:
(528)
122
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
For > 0, (528) is the only possibility. However, for < 0 a branch occurs when
= , corresponding to = 1. For larger negative than , the branch in (2) is
active. In summary,
= = {
<1
>1
(529)
Figure 5-20: Graph of (529)
The essential points of Figure 5-20 are:

a) For greater (less negative) than , the end loading, , is proportional to
according to (528).
b) As is reduced through negative values and reaches , ceases to decrease
and, in fact, remains constant at = , (to lowest order) as becomes
larger negative than .
c) The beam buckles = 1. Thereafter, further increases in > 1, which
occur at constant , produce a non-zero lateral deflection ().

The implication is that the applied load cannot exceed the critical load. The
argument is that as = 1 is reached the beam begins to deflect laterally, i.e., ()
is increasing from zero as the end strain is increased at constant . This reflects the
indeterminacy in the mode shape at the critical load.
Actually, the existence of small imperfections in any real beam will prevent the
critical load from ever being deployed in the case of controlled end strain,
characteristic of statically independent, redundant structural configurations. The
123
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
behavior exhibited as the critical load is approached and () increases in
redundant system, is shifting load paths along lines of highest stiffness and away
from those in the post buckling state.
2) Post-Buckling Deflection
Return now to (472) and divide by .
=
1
( ())2
2 =0
(530)
Maintain 1 term approximation of ():

() = 1 sin (
(531)
As before (531) into (530) gives:
Solve (532) for 1 as,
1 2
= ( ) 12
4
(532)
2
( ) 12 = 4( )
(533)
1 = 2 ( + )
(534)
For the buckled state:
>1
= 1
A non-zero post-buckling deflection is predicted from (534) as,
() = 2 (1 + ) sin ( )
(535)
124
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 5-21: Graph of post-buckling deflection characteristic
Note that the post-buckling deflection represented by the figure above need not
even be an elastic deflection, although it can certainly be one. It is only necessary
that the shape of the post-buckled deflection curve be approximated as the one-term
sine function.
3) Zero End-Strain
Return now to (523) and take = 0, for full end-roll restraint. (523) becomes,
(1 + 2 ) =
01
(536)
For small (536) is approximated by the quadratic:

+ 22
From which,
01
=0
1 1
1
01
[ + + 2 ]
2 2
4
(537)
(538)
For yet smaller , (538) is approximated as,
01
(539)
125
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(538) or (539) can be used as a first guess to quickly iterate the desired root of
(537). From (497) and (536),
1 01 2 2 1 01 2 2
(1 + ) = (
)
= (
) ( )
4
(540)
Where is the radius of gyration of the cross-section and / is its slenderness ratio.
Consider a beam of solid circular cross-section of diameter .
2
2
= 16 ( )
(541)
(540) becomes,
(1 + 2 ) = 4 (
Now take the case where
01
01 2
)
(542)
= 0.5. By (539), a first guess of should be = 0.5.

01
) (1 + 2 ) = 1 (1 + )2
= 4 (
(543)
The following iteration gives the converged value of :
Table 5-1: Error iteration
0.500
0.400
0.450
0.460
0.465
Error
-0.2500
0.2160
0.0516
0.0195
0.0020
Therefore, = 0.465 for this case.

4) Stresses
The existence of non-zero in the coupled non-linear problem has both direct and
indirect effects on the beam stress. Indirectly, the bending stress in reduced as,
126
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(, )
1+
(544)
But an additional direct tensile stress component, /, is added. The strain

resultant at any (, ) in the beam is:
(, ) =
Where,
(, )
+
1+
(545)
(546)
5) End Spring
Return to (523) for which an axial spring is connected at = .
Figure 5-22: Beam with an axial end spring
Here is known only through the spring constant .

(1 + )2 (1 + ) =
Where,
=
01
(547)
5.8 Equivalent Beams of Sectionally Non-Uniform

When stress stops being proportional to strain, as in the case of a buckled parallel
element, the conventional formulas of beam theory are not applicable. This non127
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
linear behavior can often be modeled using beam theory extended to allow
sectionally non-uniform modulus of elasticity.
Figure 5-23: Beam with varying in
Force and moment equilibrium of the free-body of width can be written as:
= 0
(, ) = 0
(548)
= 0
= (, )
(549)
Following the Bernoulli hypothesis from chapter 1.
128
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 5-24: Bernoulli strain hypothesis
The linear strain shape function is:

(, ) (, )
=

(550)
(, ) = () (, )
(551)
(, )
(, )
=
( )( ) ()( )
(552)
Hookes law,
Substitute (551) into (550):
(, ) = (, )
()
( )
(553)
Substitute (553) into (548),

(, )
1
( )() = 0
( )( )
(554)
With,
=
()
()
(555)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(, )
1
( )() = ()
( )( )
(556)
1
[ 2 () 2 ()]
( )
(557)
Define,
( ) =
Back substitute into (556),

(, ) =
()( )
()( )( )
=
( )
2 () 2 ()
(558)

Example 5.7:
In conventional ship design, the critical buckling stress of a main structural member
is to be set at least equal to the yield strength so that if failure does occur, it would
be due to yielding not buckling. Consider now the situation for which the critical
buckling stress for the deck is below the longitudinal bending stress in the deck
(below the yield stress). Consider a transversely framed main deck as shown in
Figure 5-**.
130
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
Figure 5-25: Ship with a buckled deck
The following are characteristics of a typical intermediate size ship:

Table 5-2: Ship structural characteristics
Longitudinal Bending Moment (M)

Cross-sectional Moment of Inertia (I)
Cross-sectional Area (A)
Neutral Axis (above BL) (C)
6.0E+05
2.0E+08
6,000
20
Deck Area (Ad)
1,000
Distance of Deck to BL (Zd)

Young's Modulus (E)
(Zd)
cr
ft-tons
4
in
2
in
ft
2
in
40
3.0E+07
-19,350
ft
psi
psi
10,000
psi
From the given information it has been determined that the deck has buckled.
( ) >
19350 > 10000
Replace the deck by an unbuckled deck with an effective modulus of elasticity, .
The new location of the neutral axis is,
=
()
()
(559)
The stress in the height of the deck in the side shell becomes,
( ) =
( )
()( )
(560)
Note that this is not the stress in the upper deck, which remains .
For equal strain, ( ), in the side shell and deck,
( ) =
( )
=
= (
)
( )
(561)
(562)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
There are now 3 equations ( (559), (560), and (562) ) and 3 unknowns ( , ( ),
and ). Since these unknowns depend on one another in a closed-loop relation,
iteration is employed for solution. First find the values of inertia and location of NA
with the deck removed.
( ) +
(563)
(6,000)(20) (1,000)(40)
=
= 16

5,000
(564)
=
=
Using parallel axis theorem, find the moment inertia about the NA with the deck
removed.
= ( )2 ( )( )2
(565)
= 2 108 (1000)(20)2 (144) 5000(20 16)2 (144)

= 1.31 108 4
Now calculate the effective values in terms of ,
( ) =
( )
( )/
(566)
( ) + ( )
(567)
( )
()( )
The denominator of (566) is,

() =
And the first integral in () is,

1 =
( )
=
(568)
The parallel axis theorem gives,

= + 2 ( )
(569)
1 = + 2 ( ) ( ) = + ( )( )
(570)
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NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
( ) =
( )
[ + ( )( )] + ( )
(571)
Using (559),
=
( ) +
( ) +
=
( )
(572)
(573)
Introduce values from Table 5-2.

=
(30 106 )(16)(5,000) + (1,000)(40)

(30 106 )(5,000) + (1,000)
=
( ) =
(2.4 1012 ) + (40,000)

(30 106 )(5,000) + (1,000)
(6 105 )(2,240)(12)(30 106 )(40 )(12)

(30 106 )[1.31 108 + (16)(12)(5,000)(16 )] + (40 )(40)(144)(1,000)
=
3 1011
( )
Using the above calculations we obtain the following results from iteration:
Table 5-3: Iteration Results
The result in the third iteration gives a very close result. Therefore, take those
results and find the stress in the bottom of the hull:
133
NAME 4120/5120
Course Notes
(0) =
( )
( )
=
(5.805 108 )(17.64)

4.78 1015
= 21,420
Stress distribution is shown in the figure below with a comparison to that without
deck buckling.
Fig. 5-29: Stress distribution of section with and without deck buckling.
Note that if the deck is removed entirely, we have:
(6 105 )(2240)(12)(12)(40 )
( ) =
Where,
= 16
= 1.31 108 4
( ) = 35,465
and (0) = 23,637
134

4120 Notes (Final Draft)

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4120 Notes (Final Draft)

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SHIP STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

By: Matthew Dawson

1.0 Ship Structural Loads

Static (constant over time)

Figure 1-1: Static load components on hull (PNA, 2008)

Low frequency dynamic (vary with time, periods up to several minutes)

1.2 Ship Structure Responses

Figure 1-2: Primary, secondary, and tertiary structure (PNA, 2008)

Figure 1-3: Primary hull structure

Where () is the weight distribution, and () is the buoyancy distribution.

Secondary response the response of a panel of stiffened plating on the sides,

1.3 Elementary Beam Bending

Figure 1-4: Symmetric beam

Internal force equilibrium:

Figure 1-5: Beam element

By summing the forces in the vertical direction we have

Cancelling terms yields,

By summing the moments about the beam element we have

Cancelling high-order and like terms yields,

1.4 Flexure Formula

Figure 1-6: Bernoulli Hypothesis: Plane sections remain plane in bending.

By the definition of strain,

Substituting into equations (8) and (10)

Now substitute eq. (12) into Hookes Law

Cancelling out we arrive at the Flexure Formula.

Now integrate (16) four times.

The beam deflection is now determined in terms of constants of integration in

The constraints are the following:

Figure 1-7: Primary hull weight/buoyancy and equivalent force distribution

Plugging in 1 and 2 into equation (17)

Now recall equation (15) and set it equal to equation (25)

By simplifying (26) we arrive back at eq. (5)

And by simplifying we arrive back to eq. (7)

Example 1.2: Tertiary hull plating

Figure 1-8: Hydrostatic pressure exerted on hull

Example 1.2(a): Tertiary hull plating assuming pinned-pinned beam

Figure 1-9: Pinned-pinned beam

Applying the end conditions at x=0 we get

Applying the end conditions at x=a we get

Substituting 1 into (37) and solving for 3 we get

Example 1.2(b): Tertiary hull plating assuming beam is fixed-fixed

Figure 1-10: Fixed-fixed beam

Similarly, by applying the end conditions on the right side

Solving equations (46) and (47) for 1 and 2 .

seen that the maximum moment occurs at = 2 (where () = 0).

The ratio between the moments a midspan becomes

Example 2(c): Given a maximum stress ( ) of 25380psi determine the minimum

Substituting (54) into (57)

Assume the depth to draft ratio is

= 0.9 and the thickness comes out to be.

Example 1.3: Cantilever beam with end load

Figure 1-11: Cantilever beam with end load.

From Equation (15) we know that

Summing the forces in the z-direction from Figure 12

Applying the end conditions on the left we get

And on the left side we get

Example 1.4: Beam with spring

Figure 1-12: Cantilever beam with an end spring

Figure 1-13: Free-body diagram of cantilever end

Summing the forces in the z-direction we get

Applying the end conditions at x=L

Solving for the constants yields

and the governing equations for shear, moment, slope, and