MY JOURNEY WITH

REPTILES

A project report presented by:

Shubhashish Banerjee
3rd year zoology student
Annada College
Vinoba Bhave University,
Hazaribag.
With special thanks to: Shailendra Singh (coordinator IUCN-TSA/MCBT
turtle’s cons. Range country program-India), Kumar Manish Ranjan (ex-
DFO-Hazaribag Wild Life Division), and DEPT. OF FOREST IN INDIA (JHARKHAND).

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
(ANNADA COLLEGE, HAZARIBAG)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Shubhashish

Banerjee Roll no. 6533264 registration no.
503391/04 Department Of Zoology, Hazaribag has
completed this project report in partial fulfillment of
the requirement in practical paper of Bsc. (zoology)
degree from Vinoba Bhave University, hazaribag
(Jharkhand) during the academic session 2008-09.

2
 Head of the Department Supervisor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great opportunity for me to acknowledge my sincere indebtedness to
Bill Allen (editor – National Geographic Magazine), my Head of the zoology
Department Prof. Tapas Kumar Saha and Mr. Sanayal for giving me the
presentation idea for my project report. I also thank Mr.Shailendra Singh
(co-ordinator IUCN-TSA/MCBT turtles cons. Range country program-India.)
for helping me in identification of some turtles, Mr. Kumar Manish Arvind
(DFO-Hazaribag Wild Life Division) for his valuable experiences and advices
along with whom we managed to completed the censes programme for the
Hazaribag Sanctuary, Mr. Ujjwal Roy because of whom I could have
managed to get my photographs for the project, I also thank them for their
encouragement since the initiation till the completion of this project which
took about a year to complete.

I would also like to thank the people around these places (Hazaribag, Ranchi,
Koderma) it was because of them; I got some of the very useful information’s.

I express my warm appreciation for my friends who accompanied me in this

project. Without their active and sincere co-operation, I might not have been
able to give the project the present shape.

Shubhashish Banerjee.
Department Of Zoology
Annada College Hazaribag

3
 (Vinoba Bhave University)

Roll no. : 6533264

Reg. no. : 503391/04
INDEX

Sl.No. Chapters Pg.No.

1. India as a mega diversity nation 5

2. Come lets start the journey 6
3. Locations of study 7
(a) map of India
(b) map of Jharkhand
(c) map of Hazaribag
(d) map of Koderma
(e) map of Ranchi
4. Snakes 11
(a) Features of poisonous & non-poisonous snakes 13
(b) How to know about the Sexes in Snakes?
(c) General Anatomy of a snake 20
(d) The skeleton of a snake 22
(e) skin
(f ) Skin Shedding (Ecdysis)
(g) Teeth & Fangs
5. Crocodiles 39
6. Tortoise 51
7. Lizard 61
8 Reference 74

4
 INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION
Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high level of
biodiversity. A split in the single giant continent around 70 million years ago, led to the
formation of northern and southern continents, with India as part of Gondwanaland – the
southern landmass, together with Africa, Australia, and the Antarctica. Later tectonic
movement shifted India northward across the equator to join the northern Eurasian
continent. As the intervening shallow tithes sea dried up, plants and animals that had
evolved both in Europe and in Far East migrated into India before Himalayas had formed.
A final influx came from Africa with Ethiopian species, which were adapted to the
savannas and semi arid regions. Thus, India’s special geographical position or ‘niche’
between three distinctive centers of biological evolution and radiation of species is
responsible for our rich and varied biodiversity.
Among the bio rich nations, India is among the top 10 or 15 countries for its great variety
of animals and plants, many of which are not found elsewhere. It is one of the 12 mega
biodiversity in the world. The country is divided into 10 bio geographic regions.

India has 350 different mammals (rated eighth highest in the world), 1200 species of birds
(eighth in the world), and 453 species of reptiles (fifth in the world). India has 50,000
known species of insects, including 13,000 butterflies and months. It is estimated that the
number of unknown species could be several times higher. Including diversity of ferns
(1022 species) and orchids (1082 species).

It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are endemic to the country and found nowhere else
in the world. Among the plant species, the flowering plants have a much higher degree of
endemism, a third of these are not found elsewhere in the world. Among amphibians found
in India, 62% are unique to this country. Among lizards, of 153 species recorded, 50%
are endemic. High endemism has also been recorded for various groups of insects, marine
worms, centipedes, mayflies and freshwater sponges.

ANIMALS INDIA’S WORLD RANKING NUMBER OF SPECIES

IN INDIA
MAMMALS 8TH 350
BIRDS 8TH 1200
REPTILES 5TH 453
TH
AMPHIBIANS 15 182
ANGIOSPERMS 15TH-20TH 14500

5
 Come let’s start the journey

Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia, are air-breathing, cold-blooded vertebrates that
have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers. They are tetrapods (having or
having descended from vertebrates with four limbs) and amniotes, whose embryos are
surrounded by an amniotic membrane. Modern reptiles inhabit every continent with the
exception of Antarctica, and four living orders are currently recognized:

• Crocodilia (crocodiles, gavials, caimans, and alligators): 23 species

• Sphenodontia (tuatara from New Zealand): 2 species
• Squamata (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenids ("worm-lizards"): approximately
7,900 species
• Testudines (turtles, tortoises, and terrapins): approximately 300 species

The majority of reptile species are oviparous (egg-laying) although certain species of
squamates are capable of giving live birth. This is achieved, either through ovoviviparity
(egg retention), or viviparity (offspring born without use of calcified eggs). Many of the
viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those
of mammals with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. Extant reptiles range in

6
size from a tiny gecko, Sphaerodactylus ariasae, that grows to only 1.6 cm (0.6 in), to the
saltwater crocodile that may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1,000 kg. The science
dealing with reptiles is called herpetology.

LOCATIONS OF STUDY
JHARKHAND (KODERMA, HAZARIBAG, RANCHI - ORMANJHI, MUTA

Map of India for the ease of locating the places

7
 Map of Jharkhand

JHARKHAND (KODERMA, HAZARIBAG, RANCHI) FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.

HAZARIBAG

FOREST RESOURCE MAP OF HAZARIBAG DISTRICT, JHARKHAND.

8
EASY REACHABLE PLACES FOR STUDY

HAZARIBAG

The term Hazribagh's etymological significance is 'A City of Thousand Gardens'.

Occupying an area of 6147 sq. km and located at 23.98° N 85.35° E, Hazaribag is 2019 ft
high above sea level in the Chotanagpur Plateau.

The 2001 Census has recorded a population of 127,423. The local inhabitants of
Hazaribag cultivate crops or are engaged in coalmines to earn their living.

Hazaribag, with its panoramic rhapsodies, congenial salubrious climate abounds in lush
verdant flora. The eminent tourist spots include Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary, Hazaribag
Lake and Canary Hills.

KODERMA

9
The district is bounded by 24015’46’’ and 240 49’18’’ N latitude and 85026’01’’and
85054’16’’ east longitude and covers an area of about 1500.00 Sq Km.
About 41% part of the Koderma district is covered with forests. The total forest area of
Koderma district is 53,841.37 hectare. The per capita forest area in hectare is 0.14. The
Koderma forest is rich in Khair, Sakhuwa, Semal, Gamhar, etc. The area of reserved
forest in Koderma forest division is 639.68 Sq Km. Presently the reserved forest area of
Koderma district is declared as wild life sanctuary.

RANCHI

10
Ranchi is located at 23.35° N 85.33° E. The total area covered by Ranchi - Municipal Area
is about 110 square kilometers and the average elevation of the city is 2,140 feet above sea
level.

Geographically, Ranchi is located on southern part of the Chota Nagpur plateau which
forms the eastern edge of the Deccan plateau system. The area surrounding Ranchi has
been endowed with natural attractions and it is referred to as the “City of Waterfalls”. The
most popular waterfalls are Dasham, Hundru, Jonha Falls, Hirni and Panchghat, which are
all active perennially. Attached to it is Birsa Munda zoological park and Crocodile
Breeding Center at Ormanjhi and Muta simultaneously.

The Subernarekha River and its tributaries constitute the local river system. Dams in
Kanke, Rukka and Hatia have been built over these channels to cater to the water
requirements of the local population.

Ranchi has a hilly topography and its combination with dense tropical forests ensures that it
enjoys a comparatively moderate climate compared to the rest of the state.

11
 SNAKES

(A frog falls prey to a green pit viper snake)

WELCOME TO THE WORLD OF

SNAKES

12
SNAKES

13
A snake is an elongate legless carnivorous reptile of the suborder Serpentes that can be
distinguished from legless lizards by the lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all
squamates, snakes are ectothermic amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Like
lizards, from which they evolved, they have loosely articulated skulls, and most can
dislocate their lower jaw in order to swallow prey much larger than their own head. In
order to accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear
one in front of the other instead of side by side, and they have only one functional lung.
Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the
cloaca.

Medusa by Caravaggio

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica. Fifteen families are currently
recognized comprising 456 genera and over 2,900 species. They range in size from the tiny,
10 cm long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in length. The
recently discovered fossil Titan boa was 13 m or 43 ft long. Snakes are thought to have
evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the Cretaceous period (c 150 Ma).
The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma).

Most species are non-venomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and
subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause
painful injury or death to humans. The greatest age known for any snake is just under 30
years, attained by both the anaconda and the black-lipped cobra.

Snakes are cold blooded legless reptiles, closely related to lizards, which share the order
Squamata. There is also one species of legless lizard which superficially resembles snakes,
but are not otherwise related to them. A love of snakes is called ophiophilia, a fear of
snakes is called ophidiophobia (or snake phobia), a specialist in snakes is an ophiologist.

There are over 270 species of snakes in India out of which about 60 are venomous. In
Features of poisonous & non-poisonous snakes
size, color and habits they can be very different from each other.

14
 Non Poisonous Snakes

Head - Rounded
Fangs - Not present
Pupils - Rounded
Anal Plate - Double row of plates
Bite Mark - Row of small teeth.

Poisonous Snakes

Head - Triangle - except Cobra

Fangs - Present
Pupils - Elliptical pupil
Anal Plate - Single row of plates
Bite Mark - Fang Mark

((Approximately 2500 different species of snakes are known.

Approximately 20 % of the total number of the snake species is
poisonous.

15
How to know about the Sexes in Snakes? - Can you
make out if the Snake, you are looking at, is a Male
or Female??
Sexing Snakes Takes a Bit of Experience
Sometimes we are curious if the snake that we are looking at is a male or female,
but telling the difference is not a simple matter as male and female snakes look
similar externally. However, with a bit of experience there are ways to tell, but
these methods should be done by experienced persons only. If you are a new
learner and want to know the sex of the snake, please find an experienced person
or vet to demonstrate it for you, as the methods carry a risk of injury if done
incorrectly.

Relevant Male Snake Anatomy

Male snakes have a pair of hemipenes (sex organs) that normally sit (inverted)
inside the snake from the cloaca down along the tail on either side of the snake's
midline.

Visual Clues

Since the sex organs are held internally, sexing visually is difficult, but there are
visible clues. Because of the presence of the hemipenes, these visual clues relate
to the shape and length of the tail. The first method is to visually see a difference in
tail size and structure. Males have two hemipenes which are stored next to each
other at the base of the tail. Each hemipene is tucked into its own 'pocket'. The
effect of this is quite simple, it makes the tail appear fatter for a longer distance,
generally making the overall tail length longer also. A female's tail narrows right
from the base, making it almost 'carrot' shaped. The exact shape and length
varies from species to species, but generally, the male has a longer tail. Some
species of snake are even easier to identify the sex. In some boas and pythons,
males have prominent 'spurs' either side of their cloaca. This however, is not a
guaranteed method in many species, as females too have spurs:

• Male: Tail thicker and longer than in females, and also tapers less
evenly to the tip (thicker for a bit then suddenly thinning).
• Females: Tail thinner and shorter than in males and tapers smoothly,
evenly and more quickly.

16
While the differences can be fairly notable when comparing snakes, it is more
difficult if we don't have males and females side by side. The process is shown in
the pictures below.

Corn Snake = Female tail above, male tail below. Notice the male has a thicker and longer
tail in comparison to the female. Both snakes are the same size and age.

Bulgarian Sand Boa - Female tail above, male below. In many boa constrictors, the females
are larger and so their tails are thicker. However, a male considerably shorter than the
female may have a longer tail.

Probing

17
The second method is by use of a probe. A small, rounded metal rod can be
inserted into the tail through the cloaca into the two 'pockets' either side of the
base of the tail. The probe will penetrate farther into the male, whereas the female
will only probe just a few scale lengths. This method should be carried out only by
experienced keepers; it is a dangerous task if wrongly executed. Minimal force is
needed for the probe to penetrate, yet it is a known mistake for people to apply too
much pressure, resulting in the rupture of a female's scent glands. A lubricant
must be used on the probe, Vaseline or KY Jelly is common substances to be used
in this manner.

Here the probe is inserted into the scent glands of a female corn snake.

Photo shows how far the probe was inserted in relation to the tail length of a female
corn snake.

18
 Here the probe is inserted into the hemipenal 'pocket' of a male corn snake.

Photo shows how deep the probe penetrated the male's hemipenal 'pocket'.

Popping

19
The third method can be used on juvenile snakes. It is referred to as 'popping',
which involves manually manipulating the hemipenes out of the male snake, while
a female will slightly evert her scent glands. This method works better with
younger snakes, directly after hatching is the time to obtain best results. At this
age, the snake has not developed much muscle tone, making it relatively easy to
force the hemipenes from the pockets.

'Popping' in a male juvenile corn snake. The hemipenes are clearly visible.

How to do this if you are right handed like me. With your left hand, hold the body
of the snake upside down in such a manner that the cloaca is held above the level
of the rest of the body. With your right hand, pull the tail downwards slightly, and
have your thumb resting approximately 2cm away from the cloaca. Gently roll and
push your thumb down and across towards the cloaca, while at the same time
bringing the tail upwards. This whole process sounds very complicated on paper,
but I assure you it's easy once you get the hang of it.

General Anatomy of a snake:

20
Details of General Anatomical Features:

Snakes have no moveable eyelids, limbs, ear openings, sternums, or urinary

bladders. Most species have only one functioning lung, although many have a
second, vestigial (essentially nonfunctioning, or only marginally functional) lung.
The organs in the snake body are necessarily elongated, to fit within the narrow
confines of its body cavity. Lizards differ from snakes anatomically by having their
two lower jawbones fused together, while the lower jawbones of the snake are
connected by a flexible band of tough tissue that enables the two bones to
articulate separately. The quadrate bones that connect the lower jaw to the skull
are, in the lizard, small and fixed, but in the snake long and flexible; this gives the
lizard the ability to crush its prey with its jaw, a capability lacking in the snake
(which is why the fangs of pit vipers are in the upper rather than the lower jaw), but
allows the snake to expand its mouth to receive and swallow large prey, which the
lizard cannot. Lizards have only a few ribs, while snakes have many.

21
 Skeleton

The skeleton of a snake, though sometimes described as a simple structure, is

anything but. A complicated--architecturally and functionally--skull at its head is
followed, to the tail, by at least five divisions of vertebral structures. First come two
un-ribbed "Atlas" vertebrae, followed by 1-3 un-ribbed neck vertebrae. Next follow
from 100-600 ribbed mid-body vertebrae and 2-10 un-ribbed pre-pelvic and pelvic
vertebrae. These are attached to a variable number of un-ribbed tail vertebrae that
are often modified, individually and collectively, to perform specialized functions
peculiar to the species.

Mid-body ribs--only the mid-body vertebrae have ribs--attach to and articulate with
the mid-body vertebrae, and laterally, with each other.

This leaves their tips that stretch to the snake's belly region, unattached. Such an
arrangement gives the snake considerable ability to expand its girth to swallow

22
prey and convey it down the gullet, to the stomach, into the small and large
intestines, and finally to the anal cavity, from which residual, un-metabolized,
waste matter is expelled.

Skin

A snake's skin consists of a scaly integument that protects the animal from
abrasion and prevents water loss. The integument on the snake's back and sides
is thinner than that of the belly. Scales on the back and sides are more numerous
than belly scales and are either smooth or keeled with noticeable ridges. Belly
scales, also referred to as scutes, are thick and large, and are commonly arranged
in narrow strips that extend from one side of the belly to the other; undertail
scales--those extending beyond the snake's venter--are either singular like those
of the belly, divided, or initially singular then divided; the particular arrangement of
the undertail scales is distinctive to a species. Head scalation, too, is used to
distinguish between species and individual scales or scale groups on the dorsal,
lateral, ventral, and frontal head used in identification have special names.

Scalation of a snake

Coloration and Markings

Scale coloration and marking is the most common method used to distinguish
one snake species from another, but many species exhibit considerable variation

23
in color and marking, even within litters, and the juveniles of some species are
scarcely representative of their adult coloration and marking.

(a) (b)

Image (a) and (b) showing the different skin type and its colorations / markings

Markings on a snake's body may be absent or may consist of an imprecise

nomenclature of stripes, saddles, blotches, spots, diamonds, bars, hourglasses, or
bands, each of which may also have nuances of coloration on their borders and
interiors. Combinations of these marks on some snakes produce a wide array of
patterns that can be confusing to the neophyte herpetologist

Skin Shedding (Ecdysis)

Snakes shed their skins when they outgrow them; snakes with slow metabolisms
eat less often, grow slowly, and shed infrequently; those that eat often have, in
general, a more robust metabolism, which leads to faster growth and more
frequent shedding. Shedding, also known as ecdysis is hormonally directed and is
carried out in distinct phases. New skin is produced under the existing one; when
the new skin is complete, it secretes a fluid that separates it from the old skin and
causes the latter to take on a bluish hue (since the eye covering is a part of the
snake's skin, this area becomes opaque, making the snake temporarily blind); just
before shedding the intervening fluid is reabsorbed and the old skin returns to its
earlier coloration until the skin is shed, usually in a single piece, beginning at the
head, as the snake literally turns its old skin inside out. When you find a discarded
snake skin, the outer surface is actually the portion that was, prior to shedding, the
inner surface of the skin. Although the markings of the snake are only slightly
evident in most shed skins, those slight marks, plus the clearly evident scale
pattern in the skin may be used to identify the species of snake involved.

24
 Photo shows Skin Shedding (Ecdysis) of a snake.

Photo: my collection of shedded skin of snake (ecdysis)

Head, Skull and Jaws

Snake skulls consist, in general, of a bony, inelastic brain-case that is connected

with the rest of the skull by flexible ligaments that enable the snake to exercise an
extraordinary range of jaw articulation. The lower jaw is attached to the posterior
skull, providing for a large, wide mouth. The right and left lateral portions of the
lower jaw attach to each other at the lower snout by elastic cartilaginous tissue that
enables them to move freely and independently.

Teeth & Fangs

25
Snake teeth follow three forms. The teeth of most non-poisonous snakes--such as
boas, pythons, rat snakes, whip snakes, ground snakes, and lined snakes--consist
of two rows of numerous small teeth on the upper jaw, and one row of similar teeth
on the lower jaw; the teeth on both jaws curve toward the back of the mouth, as in
the Indian rat snake:

Fig. showing snake fang and venom

In between the non-poisonous snakes and the virulently venomous ones are
snakes with grooved fangs such as the hog-nosed snakes; such snakes have one
row of moderate-sized teeth on each side of the upper jaw and a pair of rear-facing
fangs positioned deep in the mouth; the groove in these fangs allow venom,
supplied by glands on the upper head, to flow into the body of the snake's prey
during capture and ingestion; the venom of such snakes functions, in general,
more as an anesthetic than as a tissue digester. Being positioned deep in their
throats, are useless as defensive weapons. Certain species found in other parts of
the world have similar fangs that can be used in defense, and such snakes are
capable of envenomating humans, sometimes with even fatal results.

26
The teeth of venomous vipers, adders, mambas and cobras include hollow fangs
that inject tissue-digesting and/or neurotoxic venom, under pressure, via tubes
attached to venom sacs positioned in the lateral posterior of the head; the fangs
can be fixed and numerous, as in the elapids (cobras and coral snakes)

In pit vipers, such as copperheads, cottonmouths, and rattlesnakes, the hollow

fangs consist of a pair of relatively long, erectile, and retractable teeth similar to
hypodermic needles:

(Pits of Malabar Pit Viper)

Snakes have good vision especially King Cobra and the Tree snakes, but most of them
are near-sighted like borrowing snakes and the others. Of course, all are colour-blind. They
do not have eye-lid to cover their eye.

Snakes can smell pretty well mainly by their sensitive tongue, but not much by their
nostrils. The tongue picks up the odours/molecules in the air and the Jacobson's organ
above the mouth will make out what the odour is.

Snakes like Pythons & Pit Vipers have heat sensing pits, which help in detect warm-
blooded animals like rodents & birds in absolute darkness.

27
Venomous Snakes

Venom is a prey-immobilizing substance in snakes that is used secondarily as a defense

system. Venom is not composed of a single substance, but is toxic saliva consisting of a
complex mixture of chemicals called enzymes. Almost all venoms are composed of
approximately 90% proteins. Two general types of toxins are known, neurotoxins and
hemotoxins.

• Hemotoxin (blood toxin): Hemotoxic venom attacks the circulatory system and
muscle tissue causing excessive scarring, gangrene, and sometimes leads to
amputation of the affected area. This venom basically destroys tissue and blood
cells. In addition to killing the prey, part of the function of hemotoxic venom for
some animals is to aid digestion. The venom breaks down protein in the region of
the bite, making prey easier to digest e.g. : Vipers

• Neurotoxin (nerve toxin): Neurotoxic venom attacks the victim's central nervous
system and usually results in heart failure and/or breathing difficulties or even total
respiratory paralysis. e.g.: Cobras, Kraits, Coral snakes.

Photo: me with a baby Karait, a poisonous snake of this region (Hazaribag)

Some snakes have venom that is both hemotoxic and neurotoxic.

Organs of Respiration

The snake's respiratory system consists of a glottis at the front of the mouth that
leads to a windpipe; the glottis is moveable to prevent it from being closed off
during prey ingestion; although it may appear that the mouth is completely filled
with prey when the snake is swallowing food, the moveable glottis, whose opening
is on the floor of the lower jaw, remains open so the snake can continue to induct
and exhaust air from its lungs and air sacs. The windpipe, extending from the
glottis, divides into two bronchial tubes, each leading to lungs; the right lung is
primary and the left is secondary, considerably smaller and either non-functional or

28
only marginally so. The forward portion of each lung is used for gas exchange and
is highly vascular (supplied with blood vessels); the posterior portions of each lung
are hydrostatic, non-vascular air sac that, in the right lung, extends nearly to the
Venter and serves to regulate pressures inside the body. Induction and
exhaustion of air is performed, not by a diaphragm, but by the movement of the
ribs under the control of specialized muscles.

Organs of Reproduction and Copulation

In the female, the gonads are ovaries positioned in the same area of the body as
the testes are in the male; ovaries are attached to oviducts that conduct eggs to
the uterus (located between the ovaries and the anal cavity) where, in egg-bearing
(oviparous) snakes, the eggs are fertilized by sperm from the anal cavity and then
are encased in shells before being expelled. In live-birthing (viviparous) snakes
the eggs are fertilized in and continue to develop in the uterus until, at birth, the
young are expelled through the anal cavity.

The male produces sperm in testicular gonads, and the sperm is conducted from
each teste to the anal cavity, where the male copulatory organs, the hemipenes,
are positioned. Hemipenes means "half-penis"; it was so named because early
anatomists believed the two halves of the organ, each of which is a fully functional
penis [in the reptilian sense, though not in mammalian terms], were drawn together
during copulation. In fact, only one of the paired hemipenes is used during
copulation, although both are evaginated simultaneously.

The hemipenes are ornate, externally grooved organs that serve to conduct sperm
from the anal cavity of the male to that of the female. One of the evaginated
hemipenes is inserted into the female, where it becomes enlarged to the point that
it cannot be withdrawn until copulation is complete. The external architecture of
the hemipenes is such that it functions to transfer sperm from the male to the
female without the use of internal ducts; the transfer is performed entirely via the
organ's external grooves.

Indian Snakes
Indian subcontinent boasts of housing approximately 10 percent of the total snake
species found in the world, adding up to somewhere around 200 species in
number. From warm seas to semi-deserts, swamps, lakes and even the Himalayan
glaciers, one can find snakes in almost all the habitats in India. The snakes of India
range from Worm Snakes, about 10 cm in length, to the King Cobra, measuring up
to 6 m. In the following lines, we have mentioned the four most popular species
of Indian snakes:

Photo: Me with a rat snake having an

educational discussion about there behavior
and habitat.The rat snake is active during the
day, hunting for rodents, frogs, toads and

29
birds along fields and in bushes. Large rat snakes can give a painful bite and are
quick to defend themselves. We have heard them growl throatily, when first
caught. The color varies from jet black to yellowish or brown.

COBRA

Photo: Cobra

Cobra, scientifically known as Naja naja, is one of the poisonous snake species
native to the Indian subcontinent. It grows to an average height of 1 m and has two
circular ocelli patterns on the rear of its hood. These patterns seem to be
connected by a curved line, giving the look of spectacles.
Snake with broad head when the hood is not raised. The colour is variable from
light wheat brown to dark mud brown; has a variable spectacle like marking on the
hood. Usually 2 - 4ft and can grow up to 5ft. Found in Scrub jungle to Moist
Deciduous forest; Common in Agricultural fields & in Human habitations. Good
swimmer and a climber too.Feeds on small rodents, birds & eggs, toads, lizards &
small snakes. The Most widely distributed amongst Indian venomous snakes,
sighted very frequently in south peninsular India.

Cobras when cornered or threatened raise their hood and hiss. Initial symptoms of
a cobra bite may vary – Pain & swelling, burning or disorientation. It’s responsible
for a large number of fatal bites.

30
Can be confused with other snakes like- Banded Racer & sometimes Rat Snake.

KING COBRA:

Photo: King cobra

Indian King Cobra snake belongs to the Ophiophagus Genus and is scientifically
known as Ophiophagus Hannah. It is believed to be the largest poisonous
terrestrial snake, measuring up to 5.7 m in length. However, the weight of a King
cobra rarely exceeds 44 lb (20 kg). A large-sized snake that may be up to 5 mts. in
length. It has distinct cross bands on its forebody. Found in dense forests of South
India, Himalayan foothills up to an elevation of 2000 mts., Orissa, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal and North east India.

Photo: king cobra eating another snake.

Russell’s viper

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 Fig. shows distribution of Russell’s viper

Russell’s viper is known by a number of other names, like Daboia, Tic Polonga,
etc. A highly poisonous snake of the Viperidae family, it is scientifically known as
Vipera russelli. Indian Russell's viper is responsible for most of the snakebite
deaths within its habitat.

Fig.: Russell’s viper

Apart from the above-mentioned species, the following types of snakes are also
commonly found in India:

• Saw Scaled Viper

• Purple Pit Viper
• Krait
• Flower Snake
• Common Rat Snake

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 The above fig. shows lethal effect of viper bite in humans.

Common Worm Snake

(Typhlina bramina): A small worm-like snake found all over India. In the hills, it
lives up to an elevation of 1000 mts.

Indian Rock Python

Photo: Indian rock python

(Python molurus): A large thick-bodied snake found in many parts of India. It

ranges from the mangrove forest to arid scrublands and dense rain forest of the
eastern Himalayas up to an elevation of about 2000 mts.

33
Python: Pythons are among the largest snakes in the world. They grow to 8 or
9 metros in length and have enough muscle power to overcome and swallow a
full-grown leopard. The two species of python found in India are the Indian
rock python, which lives in both scrub forest and dense jungle throughout the
country, and the regal python, which is found in north-east India and Nicobar
Islands. The one there is possibility of your seeing is the rock python although
the snake skin industry has all but wiped it out in many areas.
Rock pythons grow to 6 meters in length and are heavy bodied, smooth snakes
with a brown blotchy pattern much like that of the common sand boa. An
interesting feature of pythons is that they have "spurs". Snakes have evolved from
lizard-like reptiles with legs, and the python and boas are the only snakes which
have not completely lost their legs. They live in cool, damp caves, tree stumps and
hollows. They hunt at night for small mammals and other prey. They can go for
days without eating, but must have water. One specimen in a zoo didn’t eat for two
years.

Female rock pythons lay up to 100 eggs between March and June and stay with
them for the 80 days till they hatch. When herpetologists (those who study snakes)
first discovered that pythons stay with their eggs, they thought that the snake was
safeguarding the eggs from predators like the mongoose and the wild pig. We
know that the mother python also keeps the eggs free from fungus, maintains them
at the right dampness, and protects them from ants. But most wonderful of all, she
can control the temperature at which they are incubating. She can raise her own
body temperature by jerking her muscles. The faster she jerks the warmer she
gets, thus warming up the eggs.

Discoveries like this are constantly being made about snakes, because there is still
a lot to be learnt about these fascinating creatures. Studying snakes is thus not
only interesting but there is also great scope for making new discoveries in the
field.

Python snake, also known as Ajgar, is one of the most massively built snakes of
the Indian subcontinent. It belongs to the Boidae Family and is dependent on water
to quite an extent. One of the unique features of the Rock pythons of India is that
they can raise their body temperature above the ambient level, through muscular
contractions.

34
 Indian python

Rat Snake
(Ptyas muscosus): A large-scaled snake found all over India up to an elevation of
about 4000 mts. It is capable of adapting to almost any environment. They are
prodigal rat-eaters.

Rat Snake

Rat snakes are large, fast moving snakes which grow to a length of 2 ½ meters or
more. Their size and color are similar to the cobras. Rat snakes are found
wherever rats and frogs/toads are prevalent. So, of course, they are often found in
rice fields and in human habitation. As hill forests are cleared and agriculture
spreads to the slopes, rat snakes too are spreading "upwards". We recently saw
one 2,000 meters up in plains. Formerly they were rarely seen above 1,000
meters.

35
 Photo: me with a rat snake (non poisonous).

The rat snake is active during the day, hunting for rodents, frogs, toads and birds
along fields and in bushes. Large rat snakes can give a painful bite and are quick
to defend themselves. We have heard them growl throatily, when first caught. The
color varies from jet black in the hilss all the way to yellowish or brown. The female
lays about 8 to 16 eggs and the young start their diet on frogs. During the breeding
season, male rat snakes perform a combat dance. This is actually their way of
protecting the area they live in and preventing other male snakes from coming into
their territory.

Many other snakes also perform this wrestling match in which the contestants don’t
get hurt. But it is always between males and has nothing to do with mating, as
people claim. Because rat snakes are the most frequently seen large Indian
snakes, myths and stories about them are common.

Flying Snake

(Chrysopelea ornata): A small to medium-sized snake found in the forest of

southwest India and northeastern parts of the country north of Bihar and south of
Jharkhand. They prefer to live on large trees and appear to glide for some
distance.

Dog-faced Watersnake

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(Cerberus rhynchops): A medium-sized snake found in the coastal tracts. They live
in muddy and rocky areas in estuaries, mangrove swamps, salt pans and deserted
creeks.

Common Krait

Photo: Common krait

(Bungarus caeruleus): A medium-sized snake with thin white bands on its body.
Found almost all over India up to elevation of about 1700 mts. They are nocturnal
in habit.

Photo: me with karait (Bungarus caeruleus)

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Banded Krait
(Bungarus caeruleus): A medium to large-sized snake with prominent yellow and
black bands on its body. Found in northeast India, Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh up to an elevation of 1500
mts.

Water Snakes

As their name suggests, water snakes spend most of their time in water. They eat
frogs and fish. None of the Indian freshwater snakes are venomous however sea
snakes are very venomous. Some fresh water snakes have mild venom to help
them catch their prey. But the venom is not harmful to man.

Water snakes are average-sized snakes: not too thin and not too fat. They do not
move fast on land like tree snakes but take their time getting around. Once in the
water, however, they are strong, swift swimmers.

38
 Crocodiles

(Crocodile and a woman in their natural instinct)

Introduction

39
I think that crocodiles are quite fascinating animals and the more that people know
about them, the better they can understand them. Hopefully by understanding
them, people may develop an appreciation of crocodiles which in turn may lead to
some rational decisions being made about their long-term conservation and
management here in Jharkhand.

Survivors
Crocodilians are the worlds largest and perhaps most exciting reptiles. They are
also great survivors and their prehistoric ancestors, the Archosaurs, date back over
240 million years to the Triassic period. They have survived major upheavals such
as the break up of the continents and the ice ages. They have witnessed the rise
and fall of the dinosaurs and have seen the evolution of mammals and birds. Since
man colonised the world, no species of crocodile has become extinct; however 17
out of the 23 species of crocodilians around the world are endangered.

Distinctive appearance

Photo: Crocodiles of Muta breeding center (Ranchi)

They have distinctive features such as long jaws, protective armour, streamlined
body and long tail. These, together with various anatomical and physiological
adaptations, make the crocodile perfectly suited to an aquatic and predatory
lifestyle. Their features have changed very little from those of their prehistoric
ancestors, proving that their body form has been highly successful in nature. Some
experts believe that the crocodile, in its present form, has not changed for the last
100 million years. May be a perfect design?

40
Their role

Photo: Crocodiles of Muta breeding center (Ranchi)

Crocodiles are cold blooded and have a body temperature similar to the
surrounding air, land or water. Since they lack a reptilian thermostat, they seek a
habitat with warm water and air temperature all year round. Though much
maligned, crocodiles play an important role in wetland environments. They help
keep the balance in the complex web of life in freshwater and estuarine
ecosystems. They are key predators at the top of the food chain and eat a wide
range of prey. They are also prey, when smaller, to other animals such as feral
pigs, goannas, turtles, barramundi, sea eagles and even other crocodiles. Being

41
predator and prey, the crocodile plays an important role in keeping a wetland
ecosystem healthy and when a wetland habitat is healthy, the fishery is considered
to be healthy too.

Fresh Water
Mainly a freshwater species, the mugger crocodile is found in lakes, rivers and
marshes. Muggers prefer slow-moving, shallower bodies of water rather than, fast-
flowing, deep areas. Also known to thrive in man-made reservoirs and irrigation
canals. Although it prefers freshwater, it has some tolerance to saltwater therefore
is occasionally reported from saltwater lagoons. It is sympatric with the gharial
(Gavialis gangeticus) in some areas of India and with the saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus) in other areas, but separated by habitat most of the time. It is
adapted to terrestrial life like its cousin, the Cuban crocodile, more than most
crocodilians, but is ecologically most similar to the African Nile crocodile. It is
known to be more mobile on land, can migrate considerable distances over land in
search of a more suitable habitat. It can chase prey on land for short distances.
They are also known to dig burrows as shelters during the dry seasons.

Estuarine

Photo: Estuarine crocodile and freshwater crocodile

The Estuarine (Saltwater) crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is found in the warm

climate from Sri Lanka and India in the west to the Caroline Islands in the east, to
the north from Burma and South-East Asia, to Australia, Vanuatu and the Solomon
Islands in the south. In Australia, they are restricted to northern parts of the

42
continent, from about Rockhampton on the east coast of Queensland to Broome
on the west coast of Western Australia. Estuarine crocodiles are the largest of
living crocodilians and quite probably the largest living reptiles on earth. They have
broader snouts than "freshies" with an uneven "up and down" jaw line and irregular
sized teeth. They vary in colour from grey, olive-brown to almost black, with ragged
dark mottling. Males can grow to 7 metres (23 feet) but most are less than 5

metres. Females are usually less than 4 metres in length and may begin nesting at
about 12 years of age. Maximum lifespan is unknown however it is estimated that
they can live for at least 70 to 100 years.

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In fashion
The skin of the saltwater crocodile, especially from the belly surfaces, is the most
prized of all crocodilian skins for fashion leather. Demand for skins (for use in
shoes, belts, suitcases, briefcases and handbags) supported a significant crocodile
harvesting industry in northern Australia between the end of World War II and the
1960s. Two factors led to the industry's decline and final cessation. Firstly,
saltwater crocodiles progressively became more difficult to find. Their populations
declined due to relentless and skilled hunting. Secondly, by the late 1960's early
1970's, conservationists and governments were concerned that the species might
become extinct in Australia. At a time when the industry had almost literally 'killed
the goose that laid the golden egg', federal and state governments protected
crocodiles by legislation. "Freshies" have oesteoderms (boney buttons) in their
belly scales, are much smaller and have slower growth rates. This greatly reduces
the value of their hides and makes them less attractive for leather.

Reproduction

Photo: you have to walk 13km to Muta crocodile breeding centre, just 5km more to go..

"Salties" breed in the wet season (Nov-Mar) and build a nest consisting of a large
mound of vegetation and soil. The nest is usually located in grass or fringing forest
along the banks of a watercourse or freshwater swamp. About 50 eggs are laid
inside the nest mound and incubation takes between 65 and 110 days. The female
usually guards the nest vigorously as she hides in a nearby wallow. The incubation

44
temperature determines the gender of the hatchlings with very high or low
temperatures producing females, and temperatures of 31º to 32ºC producing
males. Pigs and goannas eat crocodile eggs and floods destroy many nests.
These factors contribute to the, what sounds like an alarming statistic that about
25% of eggs laid will hatch. From those hatchlings that emerge, less than 1%
survives to adulthood. This is about average for most species in nature.

Baby crocodiles
Young crocodiles are born with a horn or egg tooth on the tip of their snout, which
later drops off. This enables them to break out of the egg. When hatching, young
crocodiles squawk to attract the mother, who may in turn dig them out and carry
them gently to the water in her mouth. Unhatched eggs are sometimes rolled
around on the mother's tongue to help the young emerge. Hatchlings are about 70
grams and about 25-30 centimetres long and may be protected as a crèche for
several months in the water by the mother. More than half the hatchlings die in
their first year of life because young crocodiles become prey for other animals. A
high proportion of juveniles are displaced from rivers by larger crocodiles and
many die during their exile. They are also known to have a homing instinct with
some specimens having travelled more than 60km to return to their capture site.

Feeding
Smaller crocodiles appear to feed throughout the year, reducing their intake during
cooler periods. Larger crocodiles are affected more by cool weather and their food
intake is greatly reduced or can stop altogether. They can live for months at a time
without feeding as they carry extensive energy supplies in the form of fat. The wet
season seems to be the period when growth and feeding are maximised in
crocodiles of all sizes. Young crocodiles eat small animals such as crabs, prawns,
fish, frogs and insects. Larger crocodiles take bigger prey including pigs, birds,
reptiles, turtles, wallabies and even other crocodiles. This cannibalistic behaviour is
believed to be an important population controlling mechanism.

Strange Habits
Crocodiles have a tendency to retain hard, indigestible objects in their stomach
and most crocodiles over two meters long have been found to have stones in their
stomach. It is believed that the stones are used as gastroliths (to aid in grinding up
food) and that they also may function as ballast (just as in a ship's hull). This
tendency for retention of hard objects can also confound coroners' inquests where
people have been killed by crocodiles. Along with the human remains, bullets are
often recovered from the stomachs of large crocodiles. The bullets usually come

45
from other animals that have been shot and have died, and are later eaten by
crocodiles. The animals are digested but the bullets remain.

Photo: A man holding a baby crocodile in his hand.

Limitations

Photo: A hunter got hunted.

A unique feature of crocodilian physiology is their ability to maintain strenuous

activity for only short periods of time, after which they become totally exhausted.
This can occur during the capture of prey, being captured or even fighting other
crocodiles. This extreme exertion is carried out anaerobically (without oxygen), and
must be followed by a period of rest so that the "oxygen debt" can be repaid. The
result of anaerobic activity is a build up of lactic acid in the blood, making it acidic.
Although crocodiles can withstand higher levels of blood acidity than other animals,
sometimes it can prove fatal. This is why larger crocodiles, over 5m, often die
during capture operations, if they are allowed to struggle excessively.

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Hunting
Crocodiles use a combination of active hunting and the more passive "sit and wait"
strategy. Juveniles tend to position themselves in shallow water with all four feet on
the bottom and wait until potential prey comes within striking distance of the jaws.
The movement of prey is detected by the enlarged sensory pits along the sides of
the jaw. The most common strategy of larger crocodiles involves an underwater
approach to potential prey on the bank, in the water at the bank or in overhanging
vegetation. Once a crocodile is attracted by the movement, sound and perhaps
smell of potential prey, it will orient its head towards the prey, submerge (usually
without a ripple), and swim underwater until it reaches the immediate vicinity of the
prey. Then as the head silently emerges, if the prey is within striking distance, it will
lunge with the jaws opening then slamming shut. A crocodile can lunge more than
half its body length into the air or out on the bank. Once caught, small prey is
usually crushed and swallowed. Larger prey is squeezed tightly until all movement

Photo: Crocodile skin product

stops. The largest prey evokes the full attack sequence. Once the crocodile has a
grip, it will roll to throw the prey off balance so it can be dragged into deeper water
and drowned. Because the stomach of the crocodile is small relative to the size of
some prey taken, head shaking, thrashing and rolling is used to dismember large
prey into smaller pieces for eating.

Unique features
Estuarine crocodiles are unique in the reptile world and use their blood system to
remove salt from the body. Lingual glands at the back part of their fleshy tongue

47
excrete excess salt when the animal is living in a highly saline environment. They
also are one of the few reptiles to have a four chambered heart (just like us) and
have the ability to slow their heart rate down to one beat every thirty seconds or so.
They have been observed in captivity holding their breath for up to four to six hours
underwater. In the wild in Orissa, one crocodile was observed making a voluntary
dive and holding its breath for three hours and ten minutes. Salties have a
protective translucent third eyelid called the nictitating membrane, which closes
sideways across the eye. This allows them to see and swim at the same time. It is
just like swimmers' goggles, "crocodile style". At night, crocodiles are easily
detected by their "eye shine" which is the red reflector look that they assume when
illuminated in the dark. The tail of the estuarine crocodile is 49.5% of its total body
length, the longest of any crocodile. The tail is used to propel the animal through
the water and scutes (spikes) along the top of the tail are an important part of the
tail. Not only do they increase the surface area and therefore thrust for the tail, they
are made of cartilage, have a good blood supply and are an important device used
for temperature regulation.

Behaviors
Although crocodilians have a rich repertoire of behaviours, there is little information
available on those of saltwater crocodiles. In the "daily life" category of behaviours,
regulating body temperature is perhaps the most obvious. With a preferred body
temperature of 30° to 33° C, crocodiles use the water, sun and shade to regulate
their body temperature and move between these warm and cool parts of their
environment to adjust it. They are regularly seen basking in the sun with a mouth
gaping posture. One theory is that this is done to cool the brain through
evaporation from the palate while the body is heated by the air and sun. Other
theories include strengthening jaw muscles or maybe a display to other crocodiles.
One of the most common displays seen during interactions between crocodiles is
"snout lifting". This signals, "I give in". It is very common when large crocodiles
approach smaller ones. Salties adopt an inflated posture that seems to be a threat
display. This is often accompanied by "tail arching", a display in its own right but
also a means of making the body rigid to enable the head to be swung with power.
The same posture can be adopted before "head slapping", which signals a
crocodile's presence to all around. Saltwater crocodiles are rated out of all
crocodilians as the most intolerant of other members of the same species. One
behavioural trait that is well documented is that saltwater crocodiles are highly
territorial. Little is known about the territory sizes or the frequency with which
successful challenges to territories are made.

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Description:
Crocodiles are among the more biologically complex reptiles despite their
prehistoric look. Unlike other reptiles, they incorporate muscles used for aquatic
locomotion into respiration (e.g. M. diaphragmaticus), giving them the functional
equivalent of a diaphragm; a cerebral cortex; and a four-chambered heart. Their
external morphology on the other hand is a sign of their aquatic and predatory
lifestyle. A crocodile’s physical traits allow it to be a successful predator. They have
a streamlined body that enables them to swim swiftly. Crocodiles also tuck their
feet to their sides while swimming, which make them faster by decreasing water
resistance. They have webbed feet which, although not used to propel the animal
through the water, allow it to make fast turns and sudden moves in the water or
initiate swimming. Webbed feet are an advantage in shallower water where the
animals sometimes move around by walking.

Crocodiles have a palatal flap, a rigid tissue at the back of the mouth that blocks
the entry of water. The palate has a special path from the nostril to the glottis that
bypasses the mouth. The nostrils are closed during submergence. Like other
archosaurs, crocodilians are diapsid, although their post-temporal fenestrae are
reduced. The walls of the braincase are bony but they lack supratemporal and
postfrontal bones. Their tongues are not free but held in place by a membrane
which limits movement; as a result, crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.

Crocodilian scales have pores that are believed to be sensory, analogous to the
lateral line in fishes. They are particularly seen on their upper and lower jaws.

49
Another possibility is that they are secretory, as they produce an oily substance
that appears to flush mud off.

Crocodiles are very fast over short distances, even out of water. Since crocodiles
feed by grabbing and holding onto their prey, they have evolved sharp teeth for
tearing and holding onto flesh, and powerful muscles that close the jaws and hold
them shut. These jaws can bite down with immense force, by far the strongest bite
of any animal. The crocodile's bite force is more than 5,000 pounds per square
inch (340 atm), compared to just 335 pounds per square inch (22.8 atm) for a
rottweiler, 400 pounds per square inch (27 atm) for a large great white shark, or
800 pounds per square inch (54 atm) to 1,000 pounds per square inch (68 atm) for
a hyena. The jaws are opened, however, by a very weak set of muscles.
Crocodiles can thus be subdued for study or transport by taping their jaws or
holding their jaws shut with large rubber bands cut from automobile inner tubes. All
crocodiles have sharp and powerful claws. They have limited lateral (side-to-side)
movement in their neck.

Protection
The Environmental Protection Agency, crocodile’s park a nature conservation
authority for the crocodiles, are attempting to meet the challenge of protecting
crocodiles and preventing their extinction, while trying to ensure that people can
safely co-exist with these animals. However, despite wide community awareness
of and response to warning signs, and educational information provided by fauna
authorities, occasionally crocodiles continue to pose a threat to people.

50
Tortoise

(
Lissemys punctata)

51
 Tortoises:
Tortoises or land turtles are land-dwelling
reptiles of the family of Testudinidae, order
Testudines. Like their marine cousins, the sea
turtles, tortoises are shielded from predators
by a shell. The top part of the shell is the
carapace, the underside is the plastron, and
the two are connected by the bridge. The
tortoise has both an endoskeleton and an
exoskeleton. Tortoises can vary in size from a
few centimeters to two meters. Tortoises tend
to be diurnal animals with tendencies to be
crepuscular depending on the ambient
temperatures. They are generally reclusive
animals.

Photo: myself with a tortoise rescue mission

Turtles, tortoises and terrapins

Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order
Testudines, it is also common to see certain members described as terrapins,
tortoises or sea turtles as well. Precisely how these alternative names are used,
if at all, depends on the type of English being used.

• British English normally describes these reptiles as turtles if they live in the
sea; terrapins if they live in fresh or brackish water; or tortoises if they live
on land. However, there are exceptions to this where American or Australian
common names are in wide use, as with the Fly River turtle.
• American English tends to use the word turtle for all freshwater species, as
well as for certain land-dwelling species (e.g. box turtles). Oceanic species
are usually referred to as sea turtles, and tortoise is restricted to members
of the true tortoise family, Testudinidae. The name terrapin is typically
reserved only for the brackish water diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys
terrapin; the word terrapin being derived from the Algonquian word for this
animal.
• Australian English uses turtle for both the marine and freshwater species
but tortoise for the terrestrial species.

To avoid confusion, the word chelonian is popular among veterinarians, scientists,

and conservationists working with these animals as a catch-all name for any
member of the superorder Chelonia which includes all turtles, tortoises and
terrapins living and extinct, as well as their immediate ancestors. It is based on the
Ancient Greek word χελώνη (chelone, modern Greek χελώνα), meaning tortoise.

52
Birth

Female tortoises dig nesting burrows in which they lay from one to thirty eggs. Egg
laying typically occurs at night, after which the mother tortoise covers her clutch
with sand, soil, and organic material. The eggs are left unattended, and depending
on the species, take from 60 to 120 days to incubate. The size of the egg depends
on the size of the mother and can be estimated by examining the width of the
cloacal opening between the carapice and plastron. The plastron of a female
tortoise often has a noticeable V-shaped notch below the tail to facilitate passing
the eggs. Upon completion of the incubation period, a fully-formed hatchling uses
an egg tooth to break out of its shell. It digs to the surface of the nest and begins a
life of survival on its own. Hatchlings are born with an embryonic egg sac which
serves as a source of nutrition for the first 3 to 7 days until they have the strength
and mobility to find food. Juvenile tortoises often require a different balance of
nutrients than adults, and therefore may eat foods which a more mature tortoise
would not. For example, it is common that the young of a strictly herbivorous
species will consume worms or insect larvae for additional protein.

Lifespan

File photo: Desert tortoise

Desert Tortoise in Rainbow Basin near Barstow, California.

There are many old wives tales about the age of turtles and tortoises, one of which
being that the age of a tortoise can be deduced by counting the number of
concentric rings on its carapace, much like the cross-section of a tree. This is not
true, since the growth of a tortoise depends highly on the access of food and
water. A tortoise that has access to plenty of forage (or is regularly fed by its
owner) will grow faster than a Desert Tortoise that goes days without eating.

Tortoises generally have lifespans comparable with those of human beings, and
some individuals are known to have lived longer than 150 years. Because of this,

53
they symbolize longevity in some cultures, such as China. The oldest tortoise ever
recorded, almost the oldest individual animal ever recorded, was Tu'i Malila, who
was presented to the Tongan royal family by the British explorer Captain Cook
shortly after its birth in 1777. Tui Malila remained in the care of the Tongan royal
family until its death by natural causes on May 19, 1965. This means that upon its
death, Tui Malila was 188 years old. The record for the longest-lived vertebrate is
exceeded only by one other, a koi named Hanako whose death on July 17, 1977
ended a 215 year life span.

The Alipore Zoo in India was the home to Adwaita, which zoo officials claimed was
the oldest living animal until its death on March 23, 2006. Adwaita (sometimes
spelled with two d's) was an Aldabra Giant Tortoise brought to India by Lord
Wellesley who handed it over to the Alipur Zoological Gardens in 1875 when the
zoo was set up. Zoo officials state they have documentation showing that Adwaita
was at least 130 years old, but claim that he was over 250 years old (although this
has not been scientifically verified). Adwaita was said to be the pet of Robert Clive.

Harriet, a resident at the Australia Zoo in Queensland, was apocryphally thought

to have been brought to England by Charles Darwin aboard the Beagle. Harriet
died on June 23, 2006, just shy of her 176th birthday.

Timothy, a spur-thighed tortoise, lived to be approximately 165 years old. For 38

years she was carried as a mascot aboard various ships in Britain's Royal Navy.
Then in 1892, at age 53 she retired to the grounds of Powderham Castle in Devon.
Up to the time of her passing in 2004 she was believed to be the UK's oldest
resident.

According to articles published by the Daily Mail and the Times in December 2008,
Jonathan, a Seychelles Giant tortoise living on the island of St Helena may be as
old as 176 or 178 years. If true, he could be the current oldest living animal on
Earth.

Sexual dimorphism

Many, though not all, species of tortoises are sexually dimorphic, though the
differences between males and females vary from species to species. In some
species, males have a longer, more protruding neck plate than their female
counterparts, while in others the claws are longer on the females. In most tortoise
species, the female tends to be larger than the male. Some believe that males
grow quicker, while the female grows slower but larger. The male also has a
plastron that is curved inwards to aid reproduction. The easiest way to determine
the sex of a tortoise is to look at the tail. The females, as a general rule have a
smaller tail which is dropped down whereas the males have a much longer tail
which is usually pulled up and to the side of the rear shell.

54
General Information: Giant tortoises move very slowly on dry land. On land
move at only 0.17 miles per hour.

Diet

File photo: A baby tortoise feeding on flower.

Most land based tortoises are herbivores, feeding on grazing grasses, weeds,
leafy greens, flowers, and some fruits. Pet tortoises typically require a diet based
on alfalfa, clover, dandelions, and some varieties of lettuce. Certain species
occasionally consume worms or insects, but too much protein can be detrimental
as it can cause shell deformation and other medical problems. Cat or dog foods
should not be fed to tortoises, as these do not contain the proper balance of
nutrients for a reptile; in particular, they are too high in protein. Additionally, it
should not be assumed that all captive tortoises can be fed on the same diet. As
different tortoise species vary greatly in their nutritional requirements, even
commercial food pellets should be offered only to the species specifically listed on
the label or packaging. The best approach to determining the proper diet is to
consult a qualified veterinarian, a herpetologist, or a care sheet provided by a
reputable source.

Photo: a small tortoise kept in aquarium.

55
Photo: Skeleton of a tortoise

56
Tortoises in religion

The bas-relief from Angkor Wat,

Cambodia, shows Samudra manthan-
Vishnu in the centre, his turtle avatar
Kurma below, asuras and devas to left
and right.
In Hinduism, Kurma (Sanskrit: कुम)र was
the second avatar of Vishnu. Like the
Matsya Avatara also belongs to the Satya
Yuga. Vishnu took the form of a half-man
half-tortoise, the lower half being a
tortoise. He is normally shown as having
four arms. He sat on the bottom of the
ocean after the Great Flood. A mountain
was placed on his back by the other gods
so that they could churn the sea and find
the ancient treasures of the Vedic
peoples. Tortoise shells were used by
ancient Chinese as Oracle Bones to
make predictions

Fig showing Inscriptions

Male and female distinction

Fig shows male female distinction.

57
Lissemys punctata

Photo: A Lissemys punctata rescued from a nearby place of Tilliya dam

Indian Flap-shelled Turtle Lissemys punctata is a species of turtle found in South

Asia. They are widespread and not uncommon.

Description

Carapace viewed from above is broadly oval in adults and more circular in young,
widest just anterior to hind limbs, width of disc 77-86 per cent of its length;
carapace moderately arched, shell height 35-40.5 per cent of carapace length;
margin of carapace smooth, slightly flared posteriorly; marginal bones not united
with pleurals; plastron large but mostly cartilaginous, its length 88-97.5 per cent of
carapace length; pair of large flaps that can be closed over hind limbs and smaller
flap over tail; seven plastral callosities; head large, its width 21.5-25 per cent of
carapace width; proboscis short and stout; nasal septum without lateral ridge;
edges of jaws smooth, alveolar surfaces expanded and granular; claws large and
heavy; penis thick, oval, with deep dorsal cleft and four pointed, soft papillae; tail
very short in both sexes.

Carapace lengths of two adult males, 145 and 162 mm; of three adult females,
170-250 mm. Females with carapace lengths of 270 to 275 mm., and weights of
4.3 to 4.5 kilograms.

58
Status

The flap-shelled turtle was placed in Appendix I of CITES in 1975 at the request of
Bangladesh. However, L. p. punctata was the taxa listed, not L. p. andersoni.
Subsequent reviews of the literature and available data could find no evidence to
support this endangered status. Some scientists now classify L. p. punctata and L.
p. andersoni as a single subspecies. This subspecies is the most common aquatic
turtle in India. Consequently, the Indian flap-shelled turtle was removed from the
endangered species list in 1983 (48 FR 52740). This action however did not affect
the turtle's status on Appendix I of CITES.

Photo: shows pathetic condition of turtles in Jharkhand

Distribution

Pakistan, India (Sikkim), Sri Lanka, Nepal and

Bangladesh (Indus and Ganges drainages), Burma
(Irrawaddy and Salween rivers). Introduced to the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

It is also found in the desert ponds of Rajasthan where

hundreds are killed every year during the dry
summers. The race andersoni is found in Bangladesh,
India, Nepal and Pakistan.

Type locality: "Des grandes Indes" (= continental

India); restricted to "Pondicherry, Coromandel Coast,
India" (11º 56'N; 79º 53'E, on the southeast coast of
India) by Webb (1980).

Photo: me and turtles.

59
WWF-India's proposed Interventions
WWF-India proposes to initiate measures for the conservation of the marine turtles
in India by developing a comprehensive plan for the five endangered
species of marine turtles and associated ecosystem, by involving
stakeholders in the process. WWF-India also pushes for better
implementation of the laws and regulations.

• Conservation of Green turtle nesting site to be initiated in Gujarat, Goa,

Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands to be identified for promoting
conservation through awareness projects.

• Research on linkages between turtle conservation and fisheries

replenishment in areas depleted by over-fishing.

• Facilitate dialogue between the trawl operators and State government in

Orissa and other states.

• Initiate a campaign for the implementation of fisheries bycatch management

measures through workshops, posters and informed dialogue among
stakeholders.

• The concept of eco-tourism could be promoted at identified sites in Goa.

• A turtle Interpretation Centre could be set up in the Puri - Konark drive in

Orissa in collaboration with the Department of Environment & Forest, Govt.
of Orissa.

• Communication campaign on turtle conservation through print (newspaper

ads) and audio-visual (short documentary & spot releases) in vernacular
languages.

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 File photo: An initiative for awareness against killing of turtles.

Lizard
Lizards

Photo: A magnificent ability of a lizard to run over the water, a subject of biophysics

61
Lizards: Lizards are a large and widespread group of squamate reptiles, with
nearly 5,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica as well as
most oceanic island chains. The group, traditionally recognized as the suborder
Lacertilia, is defined as all extant members of the Lepidosauria (reptiles with
overlapping scales) which are neither sphenodonts (i.e., Tuatara) nor snakes.
While the snakes are recognized as falling phylogenetically within the anguimorph
lizards from which they evolved, the sphenodonts are the sister group to the
squamates, the larger monophyletic group which includes both the lizards and the
snakes.

Lizards typically have four limbs and external ears, while snakes lack both these
characteristics. However, because they are defined negatively as excluding
snakes, lizards have no unique distinguishing characteristic as a group. Lizards
and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the
sphenodonts which have a more primitive and solid diapsid skull. Many lizards can
detach their tails in order to escape from predators, an act called autotomy, but this
trait is not universal. Vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in
most lizards, and most communicate with body language or bright colors on their
bodies as well as with pheromones. The adult length of species within the
suborder ranges from a few centimeters for some chameleons and geckos to
nearly three meters (9 feet, 6 inches) in the case of the largest living varanid lizard,
the Komodo Dragon. Some extinct varanids reached great size. The extinct
aquatic mosasaurs reached 17.5 meters, and the giant monitor Megalania prisca is
estimated to have reached perhaps seven meters.

Many people think of lizards (suborder Sauria of the scaled reptile order,
Squamata) as inhabitants of desert regions. But except for the cold arctic and
antarctic regions and some isolated islands, lizards are found almost everywhere
around the world. Of the almost 3,800 species worldwide, over 110 varieties can
be found in the United States. Lizards including iguanas, monitors, geckos, and
horned lizards are the most abundant and the most varied and fascinating of the
reptile groups.

In some regions of the US, people mistake lizards for salamanders. Salamanders
and lizards somewhat resemble each other, but are not related. Both are cold-
blooded; they cannot maintain body temperatures that are much warmer or cooler
than their surroundings. But salamanders are amphibians; they are related to
frogs. They have moist skin and have no scales or claws. They usually avoid
sunlight, whereas lizards love to stay in the sun. Lizards and snakes are closely
related, together making up the reptilian order Squamata.

62
 Fig: Internal anatomy of a female lizard

Physiology
A feral Jackson's Chameleon from
a population introduced to Hawaii
in the 1970s.

Sight is quite important for most

lizards, both for locating prey and
for communication, and as such,
many lizards have highly acute
color vision. Most lizards rely
heavily on body language, using
specific postures, gestures and
movements to define territory,
resolve disputes, and entice mates.
Some species of lizard also utilize
bright colors, such as the iridescent patches on the belly of Sceloporus. These
colors would be highly visible to predators, so are often hidden on the underside or
between scales and only revealed when necessary.

A particular innovation in this respect is the dewlap, a brightly colored patch of skin
on the throat, usually hidden between scales. When a display is needed, the
lizards erect the hyoid bone of their throat, resulting in a large vertical flap of
brightly colored skin beneath the head which can be then used for communication.
Anoles are particularly famous for this display, with each species having specific
colors, including patterns only visible under ultraviolet light, as lizards can often
see UV.

63
 Evolution and relationships

Photo: The fossil mosasaur Prognathodon, a varanid.

The retention of the basic 'reptilian' amniote body form by lizards makes it tempting
to assume any similar animal, alive or extinct, is also a lizard. However, this is not
the case, and lizards as squamates are part of a well-defined group.

The earliest amniote was superficially lizard-like, but had a solid, box-like skull,
with openings only for eyes, nostrils, etc (termed Anapsid). Turtles retain this skull
form. Early anapsids later gave rise to two new groups with additional holes in the
skull to make room for and anchor larger jaw muscles. Those with a single hole,
the Synapsids, gave rise to the superficially lizard-like Pelycosaurs which include
Dimetrodon and the Therapsids, including the Cynodonts, from which would evolve
the modern mammals.

The Diapsids, possessing one temporal fenestra before the eye and one behind it,
continued to diversify. One branch, the Archosaurs, retained the basic Diapsid
skull, and gave rise to a bewildering array of animals, most famous being the
crocodilians, the pterosaurs, the dinosaurs and their descendants, birds. The
Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs radiated from the same basal Diapsid group.

The smaller Lepidosaurs which would give rise to the lizards began to reduce the
skull bones, making the skull lighter and more flexible. The modern Tuatara retains
the basic Lepidosaur skull, distinguishing it from true lizards in spite of superficial
similarities. Squamates, including snakes and all true lizards, further lightened the
skull by eliminating the lower margin of the lower skull opening.

64
Lizard diversfication

Within the Lacertilia are found four generally recognized suborders, Iguania,
Gekkota, Amphisbaenia and Autarchoglossa, with the "blind skinks" in the family
Dibamidae having an uncertain position. While traditionally excluded from the
lizards, the snakes are usually classified as a clade with a similar subordinal rank.

Size: The largest lizard is the Komodo monitor. It can grow longer than a person.
The largest lizard is the Komodo monitor, which can grow to be over 3 meters long
(9 or 10 feet) and weigh nearly 300 pounds. The smallest is a certain gecko that is
under 70 millimeters total length. The smallest lizard is a tiny gecko.

Photo: Skeleton of a monitor lizard

Characteristics: Most lizards have dry, scaly skin, four legs, clawed feet, external
ear openings, and a long tail. However, glass lizards do not have tails and
therefore resemble snakes. They can be carefully identified by their moveable
eyelids and/or external ear openings that snakes never possess. Other species,
such as horny 'toads,' have short, rounded tails. Also lizards, unlike their snake
relatives, usually have a pectoral girdle and sternum.

Another observable characteristic of most lizards is a fragile, detachable tail. Many

species have a weak fracture plane between their tail vertebra. A slight tug or
bump can be all that's necessary and after breaking off, the thrashing tail attracts
the would-be predator away from the lizard. In some species and especially in
young lizards, brightly colored tails further enhance their probability of being shed
rather than losing a life. However, not all lizards lose their tails that readily. Most
notable of this group is the collared lizard (Photos above), whose sturdy tail is
rarely lost.

65
Lizard tails serve numerous purposes. They aide in balance and locomotion,
maintain social status, and are a body area for fat storage. The tail provides a food
source during periods of starvation and reproduction. Tail-less lizards also seem to
lose social status; for example tail-less males are less likely to find a mate, and tail-
less adolescents find it more difficult to acquire a home range. Losing the tail has
serious consequences and does put the lizard in a more threatened state of
existence. If they live long enough, some lizards can grow back their tail.

Food: Lizard diets are highly variable. Most smaller species are insectivores; their
diets are dominated by arthropods (insects and spiders). Other species are
herbivores. Galapagos Island's marine iguanas feed on algae gathered off the
rocks at low tide. Spiny lizards are omnivores, eating both plants and small
animals. Some of the larger lizards like the Gila Monster are carnivores; they eat
small vertebrates including other lizards. Most lizards detect their food by sight,
that is movement of their prey alerts them. Whiptails are believed to use their
sense of smell to detect small animals buried in the soil.

Most lizards have small teeth in a single row along the edges of both the upper and
lower jaws plus patches of teeth on their mouth roof. Food is crushed in their jaws,
then swallowed with little chewing. A few species that feed on snails have broad
rear teeth for crushing shells.Some lizards eat bugs and spiders. Others eat plants,
small animals, or even other lizards.Most lizards use their eyes to look for food.
Some use their sense of smell. Lizards have jaws with teeth. They also have teeth
on the roof of their mouth.

Habitat: Many species of lizards do live in deserts, however other varieties reside
in temperate forests, rainforests, prairies, marshes and streams, subterranean
burrows, rocky outcrops, and there are even a few gliders in the leafy tops of trees.
But the majority of lizards do live on the ground or in trees.

Lizards are the easiest reptile to view because they are abundant and because
they are most active in warm, daylight summer hours. They usually feed when
temperatures raise above sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit. During extreme midday
heat, some lizards retreat into burrows and underneath rocks and debris. They
may again emerge in cooler afternoon temperature. Other species are more active
during midday heat. In southern United States, some species of geckos are
entirely nocturnal. Most lizards hibernate through the winter, although a stretch of
warm days may bring some out to feed.

Locomotion: Lizards move in remarkable ways. Most lizard species are capable
of running, climbing, and clinging except for the few burrowing species whose legs
are tiny or altogether lacking. A few species of monitors are capable of swimming,
and they sometimes navigate from one island to another nearby. A few lizards
found in Asia and the East Indies can spread out a fold of skin along the sides of
their bodies, forming a sort of sail that they use to glide through the air. These

66
glider lizards are also called 'flying dragons.' More often, people see lizards that
swiftly scamper over old fences, logs, rocks, tree trunks, and across the ground.
Some geckos who spend most of their life in trees have retractable claws. Some
have slits in their toes that function like a suction disk, allowing them to cling tightly
to vertical and upside down surfaces. Some lizards raise their front bodies and
forelegs off the ground and scamper along on their hind legs. Several lizards that
live on the ground get along with weak, nearly useless legs or do not have legs at
all.

Reproduction: Most lizards deposit their eggs in a simple nest. The female skink
may coil around her eggs to protect them from intruders. Other lizards do not lay
their eggs, but give birth after hatching their eggs inside the body. Still other lizard
species reproduce similar to mammals, giving birth to live young. Unlike female
mammals, these female lizards do not nurse or care for their young after birth.
Some species of North American whiptails and European lacertid lizards have only
female individuals; adult females lay unfertilized eggs that hatch only into females.

Predators: The full range of lizard predators in not known and they vary somewhat
from species to species, and are also linked to habitat locations. In general many
lizards are eaten by raptors and other predatory birds, carnivorous mammals,
snakes, and by other lizards.

Defenses: Some lizard species have the

ability to easily detach their tails, thereby
giving them a chance to escape from the
predator. When threatened, other lizards
may bluff by swelling up, hissing, or lashing
their tail. Collared lizards, especially the
male, will initiate belligerent displays that
include a rapid series of pushups. African
chameleons are known for the way they can
change color, and several other lizards have

Photo: Lizard missing its tail some of that same ability. And though some
species may change color for protection, some become darker or lighter to change
the amount of heat they absorb.

The Gila monster of southwestern US and the beaded lizard of Mexico are the only
poisonous lizards; however, many others should be carefully approached. Not all
lizards are harmless fighters. Many species are capable of lacerating human skin
with their powerful jaws. Horned lizards, also called 'horned toads,' have sharp
spines on their heads and backs plus another strange defense ability. They can
squirt a thin stream of blood from their eyes for a distance of three feet.

Other Threats: Human activities sometimes threaten the survival of certain lizards.
In some countries, people gather their eggs and hunt iguanas and other large

67
lizards for food. Historically, lizards have been killed for their skins in order to make
wallets, handbags, and other products. Today, many countries forbid killing lizards
for there skins. In many locations, development and construction destroys their
habitats.

Southeastern Five-line Skink

Habitat: Lizards live in deserts, forests, prairies,

marshes, and rocky areas. Most lizards live on the
ground or in trees.

Lizards are fun and easy to watch. They are most

active on warm, summer days. On very hot days,
some lizards hide.

Most lizards sleep through the winter. On warm

days, they sometimes come out to eat.

Locomotion: Most lizards can run, climb, and cling.

A few can swim.

People often see lizards dart over logs and rocks.

They run quickly across the ground. However, some
lizards have small, weak legs. These lizards move
slowly.

Enemies: The lizard has many enemies. Some lizards are eaten by birds. They
are also eaten by animals, snakes, and other lizards.

Defenses: Some lizards break off their tails to escape enemies. Other lizards may
swell up, hiss, or move their tail or body to scare an enemy. Some lizards can
change colors to hide.

Few lizards are dangerous. But, be careful of lizards. Many lizards bite or have
sharp spines.

Other Threats: Human are a probem for lizards. Some people eat lizards or lizard
eggs. In the past, people killed lizards and sold their skin.

The lizard's habitat is sometimes destroyed by people building towns or farms.

Indo-Pacific Gecko (exotic)

Hemidactylus garnoti

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 Description: maximum length to 5 inches; brown
or gray with pale spots; mostly light but can be
dark; conspicuous toe pads and bulging eyes
distinguish them from anoles

Food: insects

Habitat: frequently found near buildings on walls;

primarily nocturnal but most active around dusk
when rocks and walls are still warm from the day
and frequently feed near insect-attracting lights;

Range: scattered colonies in South and Central

Florida

Breeding: unisexual -- all individuals are self-fertilizing females; it's the only gecko
to have expanded its range beyond Miami and the Keys, probably because just
one gecko can begin a localized colony

Iguania

Photo: Anoles mating, Gainesville, FL

The suborder Iguania, found in Africa, south Asia, Australia, the New World, and
with iguanas colonizing the islands of the west Pacific, form the sister group to the
remainder of the squamata. They are largely arboreal, and have primitively fleshy,
non-prehensile tongues, but this condition is obviously highly modified in the
chameleons. This clade includes the following families:

69
 • Family Agamidae – Agamid Lizards, Old World Arboreal Lizards
• Family Chamaeleonidae – Chameleons
• Family Corytophanidae – Helmet Lizards
• Family Crotaphytidae – Collared Lizards, Leopard Lizards
• Family Hoplocercidae – Dwarf and Spiny Tail Iguanas
• Family Iguanidae – American Arboreal Lizards, Chuckwallas, Iguanas,
Iguanids
• Family Opluridae – Malagasy Iguanas
• Family Phrynosomatidae – North American Spiny Lizards
• Family Polychrotidae – Anoles and kin
• Family Tropiduridae – Tropidurid Lizards

Relationship to humans

Photo: Komodo dragons on Rinca

Most lizard species are harmless to humans. Only the very largest lizard species
pose threat of death; the Komodo dragon, for example, has been known to stalk,
attack, and kill humans. The venom of the Gila monster and beaded lizard is not
usually deadly but they can inflict extremely painful bites due to powerful jaws. The
chief impact of lizards on humans is positive as they are significant predators of
pest species; numerous species are prominent in the pet trade.

70
Lizard symbolism plays important, though rarely predominant roles in some
cultures (e.g. Tarrotarro in Australian Aboriginal mythology). The Moche people of
ancient Peru worshiped animals and often depicted lizards in their art.[2] According
to a popular legend in Maharashtra, a Common Indian Monitor, with ropes
attached, was used to scale the walls of the Sinhagad fort in the Battle of
Sinhagad.

Green iguanas (Iguana iguana), are popular exotic pets.

Green Iguanas are eaten in Central

America and Uromastyx in Africa and
India. In North Africa, Uromastyx are
considered dhaab or 'fish of the
desert' and eaten by nomadic tribes. In
India too, these lizards are caught for
their meat, about which Malcolm
Smith says ..with certain castes of
Hindoos it is a regular article of
diet..the meat is said to be excellent
and white like chicken...the head and
feet are not eaten, but the tail is
considered a great delicacy...the fat
of the body is boiled down and the
resulting oil is used as an embrocation and also as a cure for impotence.

Lizard Tails

Many lizards, including the Green Anole, Brown Anole, Southeastern Five-lined
Skink. and Indo-pacific Gecko, can cast off their tails at will when threatened or
molested. The tail "piece" continues to wiggle (twitch), attracting the attention of
prey such as birds or cats, while the lizard flees to safety. This is possible because
of a single natural weak point in the vertebrae of the tail and a muscle arrangement
at that point designed for separation. The lizard can regenerate a new tail, but it is
cartilage and has no bones. It grows back slowly and frequently "stubby" lizards
are observed. The new tail does not get the stripes, colors or other markings of the
original and usually appears dark grayish. This new tail can be dropped off
repeatedly. Skinks and geckos are especially quick to discard their tails.

71
 Another new species of lizard discovered in India

Photo: May 2008. By Varad B. Giri, a scientist of the Bombay Natural History Society

(Below comparative photograph)

Photo: Almost the same lizard located by me near Gibraltar house in Hazaribag,
Jharkhand.

Basically the comparative photographs looks like the same apart from its tail portion that of
Hemidactylus aaronbaueri, another species and not like H. sataraensis.

(Research view on the photo: “Basically if you check carefully, the gecko in the
photograph sent by you is more like H. giganteus or H. flaviviridis. This is my wild guess
and should not be considered as a final identification.”) Varad B Giri scientist ‘B’
Bombay Natural History Society.

72
Another new species of ground dwelling lizard, Hemidactylus sataraensis, has
been discovered in India by a team from the Bombay Natural History Society
(BNHS). The geckos belonging to this genus are chiefly arboreal and many of
them are well known to humans. The lizards or geckos which are common in
houses mostly belong to this genus. In India there are 21 species in this genus,
however this new lizard from Maharashtra is the largest species of Hemidactylus
from India.

This distinctive new species of gecko is chiefly rock dwelling and occurs on the
cliffs in the northern Western Ghats. This gecko was first photographed by
herpetologist Mr. Ashok Captain of Pune. After consultation with Mr. Varad B. Giri,
of the Bombay Natural History Society, and Dr. Aaron M. Bauer of Villanova
University they realised that this is an interesting and as yet undescribed species.
Dr. Aaron M. Bauer is an expert on lizards and an authority in this group.

Unique herpetofauna diversity

The discovery of a new, large, rock dwelling species of Hemidactylus proves the
fact that this region has a unique diversity of herpetofauna. Presently this species
is only known from the type locality, but by looking at habitat preference of this
species, it is strongly felt that it may be present in other regions of the northern
Western Ghats and needs immediate attention. This also highlights the need for
more intensive systematic surveys in this region to document the diversity. And the
data generated will eventually be utilized to conserve the species and its
habitats.

Varad had submitted his findings to a scientific journal, Hamadryad which are
published recently. Varad had named this new species honouring Dr. Bauer as
Hemidactylus aaronbaueri.

New snake-like lizard discovered in India

A previously unknown species of legless lizard as been discovered in a remote
Indian forest, reports the Associated Press.

Sushil Kumar Dutta, leader of a team of researchers from NGO Vasundhra and the
North Orissa University, found the 7-inch long creature in the forests of
Khandadhar near Raurkela in Orissa state, about 625 miles southeast of New
Delhi.

"Preliminary scientific study reveals that the lizard belongs to the genus
Sepsophis," Dutta told the Associated Press. "The lizard is new to science and is
an important discovery. It is not found anywhere else in the world."

73
 Photo: newly discovered snake like lizard

The closest relatives of the newly discovered species are skinks found in Sri Lanka
and South Africa.

Scientists say limbless forms of lizards have evolved independently several times,
probably to facilitate underground movement. Most limbless lizards live under leaf
litter or in upper levels of soil.

Limbless lizards are not snakes. They can be distinguished by their external ear
holes and flat, non-forked tongues.

74
References:
Kumar Manish Ranjan (DFO-Hazaribag Wild Life Division)

Shailendra Singh (co-ordinator IUCN-TSA/MCBT turtle’s cons. Range country program-

India.)

A book named: Snakes of India

Lianne McLeod, DVM (for detection of sex in snakes)

Chris Jones - Director - PetClub UK Ltd. (for detection of sex in snakes)

Varad B. Giri (Herpetologist) - Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Australian Crocodiles - A Natural History- Graham Webb 1989

Hugh Edwards 1998

Dr Mark Read - Senior Conservation Officer - Queensland Environmental

Protection Agency.

Internet links:

http://www.wildindia.org/wiki/Rat_snake

http://www.wildindia.org/wiki/Python.

http://www.mapofindia.com

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