Music theorists often use mathematics to understand music.

Indeed, mathematics is
"the basis of sound" and sound itself "in its musical aspects... exhibits a remarkable
array of number properties", simply because nature itself "is amazingly mathematical". [1]
Though ancient Chinese, Egyptians and Mesopotamians are known to have studied the
mathematical principles of sound,[2] the Pythagoreans of ancient Greece are the first
researchers known to have investigated the expression of musical scales in terms of
numerical ratios,[3] particularly the ratios of small integers. Their central doctrine was
that "all nature consists of harmony arising out of number".[4]
From the time of Plato, harmony was considered a fundamental branch of physics, now
known as musical acoustics. Early Indian and Chinese theorists show similar
approaches: all sought to show that the mathematical laws of harmonics and rhythms
were fundamental not only to our understanding of the world but to human well-being.[5]
Confucius, like Pythagoras, regarded the small numbers 1,2,3,4 as the source of all
perfection.[6]
To this day mathematics has more to do with acoustic than with composition, and the
use of mathematics in composition is historically limited to the simplest operations of
counting and measuring. The attempt to structure and communicate new ways of
composing and hearing music has led to musical applications of set theory, abstract
algebra and number theory. Some composers have incorporated the Golden ratio and
Fibonacci numbers into their work.[7][8]

Contents
[hide]

1 Time, rhythm and meter

2 Musical form

3 Frequency and harmony

4 Tuning systems

5 Connections to set theory

6 Connections to abstract algebra

7 Connections to number theory

8 The golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers

9 See also

10 References

11 External links

[edit] Time, rhythm and meter

Main article: Meter (music)
Without the boundaries of rhythmic structure a fundamental equal and regular
arrangement of pulse repetitivity, accent, phrase and duration music would be
impossible.[9] In Old English the word "rhyme", derived from "rhythm", became
associated and confused with rim - "number"[10] - and modern musical use of terms like
metre and measure also reflects the historical importance of music, along with
astronomy, in the development of counting, arithmetic and the exact measurement of
time and periodicity that is fundamental to physics.

[edit] Musical form

Main article: Musical form
Musical form is the plan by which a short piece of music is extended. The term "plan" is
also used in architecture, to which musical form is often compared. Like the architect,
the composer must take into account the function for which the work is intended and the
means available, practising economy and making use of repetition and order. [11] The
common types of form known as binary and ternary ("twofold" and "threefold") once
again demonstrate the importance of small integral values to the intelligibility and appeal
of music.

[edit] Frequency and harmony

Chladni figures produced by sound vibrations in fine powder on a square plate. (Ernst
Chladni, Acoustics, 1802)
A musical scale is a discrete set of pitches used in making or describing music. The
most important scale in the Western tradition is the diatonic scale but many others have
been used and proposed in various historical eras and parts of the world. Each pitch
corresponds to a particular frequency, expressed in hertz (Hz), sometimes referred to
as cycles per second (c.p.s.). A scale has an interval of repetition, normally the octave.
The octave of any pitch refers to a frequency exactly twice that of the given pitch.
Succeeding superoctaves are pitches found at frequencies four, eight, sixteen times,
and so on, of the fundamental frequency. Pitches at frequencies of half, a quarter, an
eighth and so on of the fundamental are called suboctaves. There is no case in musical
harmony where, if a given pitch be considered accordant, that its octaves are
considered otherwise. Therefore any note and its octaves will generally be found
similarly named in musical systems (e.g. all will be called doh or A or Sa, as the case
may be). When expressed as a frequency bandwidth an octave A-A spans from 110 Hz
to 220 Hz (span=110 Hz). The next octave will span from 220 Hz to 440 Hz (span=220

Hz). The third octave spans from 440 Hz to 880 Hz (span=440 Hz) and so on. Each
successive octave spans twice the frequency range of the previous octave.
Because we are often interested in the relations or ratios between the pitches (known
as intervals) rather than the precise pitches themselves in describing a scale, it is usual
to refer all the scale pitches in terms of their ratio from a particular pitch, which is given
the value of one (often written 1/1), generally a note which functions as the tonic of the
scale. For interval size comparison cents are often used.

The exponential nature of octaves when measured on a linear frequency scale.

This diagrams presents octaves as they appear in the sense of musical intervals,
equally spaced.
Example
Common name

name
Hz

Fundamental

Octave

Perfect Fifth

Octave

Major Third

A2,
110
A3
220
E3
330
A4
440
C4
550

Multiple

Ratio

Cents

of fundamental within octave within octave

1x

2x

3x

4x

5x

1/1 = 1x

2/1 = 2x

1200

2/2 = 1x

3/2 = 1.5x

702

4/2 = 2x

1200

4/4 = 1x

5/4 = 1.25x

386

Perfect Fifth
Harmonic seventh

Octave

E4
660
G4
770
A5
880

6x

6/4 = 1.5x

702

7x

7/4 = 1.75x

969

8x

8/4 = 2x

1200

8/8 = 1x

[edit] Tuning systems

Main articles: Musical tuning and Musical temperament
5-limit tuning, the most common form of Just intonation, is a system of tuning using
tones that are regular number harmonics of a single fundamental frequency. This was
one of the scales Johannes Kepler presented in his Harmonice Mundi (1619) in
connection with planetary motion. The same scale was given in transposed form by
Alexander Malcolm in 1721 and by theorist Jose Wuerschmidt in the 20th century. A
form of it is used in the music of northern India. American composer Terry Riley also
made use of the inverted form of it in his "Harp of New Albion". Just intonation gives
superior results when there is little or no chord progression: voices and other
instruments gravitate to just intonation whenever possible. However, as it gives two
different whole tone intervals (9:8 and 10:9) a keyboard instrument so tuned cannot
change key.[12] To calculate the frequency of a note in a scale given in terms of ratios,
the frequency ratio is multiplied by the tonic frequency. For instance, with a tonic of A4
(A natural above middle C), the frequency is 440 Hz, and a justly tuned fifth above it
(E5) is simply 440*(3:2) = 660 Hz.

The first 16 harmonics, their names and frequencies, showing the exponential nature of
the octave and the simple fractional nature of non-octave harmonics.

The first 16 harmonics, with frequencies and log frequencies.

Note Ratio

Interval

1:1

16:15 major semitone

9:8

major second

6:5

minor third

5:4

major third

4:3

perfect fourth

45:32 diatonic tritone

3:2

perfect fifth

8:5

minor sixth

5:3

major sixth

10 9:5

unison

minor seventh

11 15:8 major seventh

12 2:1

octave

Pythagorean tuning is tuning based only on the perfect consonances, the (perfect)
octave, perfect fifth, and perfect fourth. Thus the major third is considered not a third but
a ditone, literally "two tones", and is 81:64 = (9:8), rather than the independent and
harmonic just 5:4, directly below. A whole tone is a secondary interval, being derived
from two perfect fifths, (3:2)^2 = 9:8.
The just major third, 5:4 and minor third, 6:5, are a syntonic comma, 81:80, apart from
their Pythagorean equivalents 81:64 and 32:27 respectively. According to Carl
Dahlhaus (1990, p. 187), "the dependent third conforms to the Pythagorean, the
independent third to the harmonic tuning of intervals."
Western common practice music usually cannot be played in just intonation but requires
a systematically tempered scale. The tempering can involve either the irregularities of
well temperament or be constructed as a regular temperament, either some form of
equal temperament or some other regular meantone, but in all cases will involve the
fundamental features of meantone temperament. For example, the root of chord ii, if
tuned to a fifth above the dominant, would be a major whole tone (9:8) above the tonic.
If tuned a just minor third (6:5) below a just subdominant degree of 4:3, however, the
interval from the tonic would equal a minor whole tone (10:9) Meantone temperament
reduces the difference between 9:8 and 10:9. Their ratio, (9:8)/(10:9) = 81:80, is treated
as a unison. The interval 81:80, called the syntonic comma or comma of Didymus, is the
key comma of meantone temperament.
In equal temperament, the octave is divided into twelve equal parts, each semitone (half
step) is an interval of the twelfth root of two so that twelve of these equal half steps add
up to exactly an octave. With fretted instruments it is very useful to use an equal
tempering so that the frets align evenly across the strings. In the European music

tradition, equal tempering was used for lute and guitar music far earlier than for other
instruments.
Equally-tempered scales have been used and instruments built using various other
numbers of equal intervals. The 19 equal temperament, first proposed and used by
Guillaume Costeley in the sixteenth century, uses 19 equally spaced tones, offering
better major thirds and far better minor thirds than normal 12-semitone equal
temperament at the cost of a flatter fifth. The overall effect is one of greater
consonance. 24 equal temperament, with 24 equally spaced tones, is widespread in
Arabic music.
The following graph reveals how accurately various equal-tempered scales approximate
three important harmonic identities: the major third (5th harmonic), the perfect fifth (3rd
harmonic), and the "harmonic seventh" (7th harmonic). [Note: the numbers above the
bars designate the equal-tempered scale (I.e., "12" designates the 12-tone equaltempered scale, etc.)]
Frequency
Note Frequency (Hz) Distance from
previous note
A2

Log frequency
log2 f

Log frequency
Distance from
previous note

110.00

N/A

6.781

N/A

A2# 116.54

6.54

6.864

0.0833 (or 1/12)

B2

123.47

6.93

6.948

0.0833

C2

130.81

7.34

7.031

0.0833

C2# 138.59

7.78

7.115

0.0833

D2

146.83

8.24

7.198

0.0833

D2# 155.56

8.73

7.281

0.0833

E2

164.81

9.25

7.365

0.0833

F2

174.61

9.80

7.448

0.0833

10.39

7.531

0.0833

F2# 185.00

G2

196.00

11.00

7.615

0.0833

G2# 207.65

11.65

7.698

0.0833

A3

12.35

7.781

0.0833

220.00

Below are Ogg Vorbis files demonstrating the difference between just intonation and
equal temperament. You may need to play the samples several times before you can
pick the difference.

Two sine waves played consecutively - this sample has half-step at 550 Hz (C#
in the just intonation scale), followed by a half-step at 554.37 Hz (C# in the equal
temperament scale).

Same two notes, set against an A440 pedal - this sample consists of a "dyad".
The lower note is a constant A (440 Hz in either scale), the upper note is a C# in
the equal-tempered scale for the first 1", and a C# in the just intonation scale for
the last 1". Phase differences make it easier to pick the transition than in the
previous sample.

[edit] Connections to set theory

Main article: Set theory (music)
Musical set theory uses some of the concepts from mathematical set theory to organize
musical objects and describe their relationships. To analyze the structure of a piece of
(typically atonal) music using musical set theory, one usually starts with a set of tones,
which could form motives or chords. By applying simple operations such as
transposition and inversion, one can discover deep structures in the music. Operations
such as transposition and inversion are called isometries because they preserve the
intervals between tones in a set.

[edit] Connections to abstract algebra

Main article: Abstract algebra

Expanding on the methods of musical set theory, many theorists have used abstract
algebra to analyze music. For example, the notes in an equal temperament octave form
an abelian group with 12 elements. It is possible to describe just intonation in terms of a
free abelian group.[13]
Transformational theory is a branch of music theory developed by David Lewin. The
theory allows for great generality because it emphasizes transformations between
musical objects, rather than the musical objects themselves.
Theorists have also proposed musical applications of more sophisticated algebraic
concepts. Mathematician Guerino Mazzola has applied topos theory to music[citation
needed],

though the result has been controversial[citation needed].

The chromatic scale has a free and transitive action of

, with the action being

defined via transposition of notes. So the chromatic scale can be thought of as a torsor
for the group

[edit] Connections to number theory

Main article: Number theory
Modern interpretation of just intonation is fully based on fundamental theorem of
arithmetic.

[edit] The golden ratio and Fibonacci numbers

an example of Fibonacci chords

It is believed that some composers wrote their music using the golden ratio and the
Fibonacci numbers to assist them.[14] However, regarding the listener, the degree to
which the application of the golden ratio in music is salient, whether consciously or
unconsciously, as well as the overall musical effect of its implementation, if any, is
unknown.
James Tenney reconceived his piece "For Ann (Rising)", which consists of up to twelve
computer-generated tones that glissando upwards (see Shepard tone), as having each
tone start so each is the golden ratio (in between an equal-tempered minor and major
sixth) below the previous tone, so that the combination tones produced by all
consecutive tones are a lower or higher pitch already, or soon to be, produced.
Ern Lendvai analyzes Bla Bartk's works as being based on two opposing systems:
those of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale. In Bartok's Music for Strings,

Percussion, and Celesta, the xylophone progression at the beginning of the 3rd
movement occurs at the intervals 1:2:3:5:8:5:3:2:1. French composer Erik Satie used
the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including Sonneries de la Rose Croix. His use
of the ratio gave his music an otherworldly symmetry.
The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of
Debussy's Image, "Reflections in Water", in which the sequence of keys is marked out
by the intervals 34, 21, 13, and 8 (a descending Fibonacci sequence), and the main
climax sits at the position.

This Binary Universe, an experimental album by Brian Transeau (popularly known as

the electronic artist BT), includes a track titled 1.618 in homage to the golden ratio. The
track features musical versions of the ratio and the accompanying video displays
various animated versions of the golden mean.

[edit] See also

Music portal

Mathematics portal

Equal temperament

Interval (music)

Musical tuning

Piano key frequencies

3rd Bridge (harmonic resonance based on equal string divisions)