International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

Tourism and leisure: an integrative case in China

Xiao Honggen Jeremy R. Huyton

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Xiao Honggen Jeremy R. Huyton, (1996),"Tourism and leisure: an integrative case in China", International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 8 Iss 6 pp. 18 - 24
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Tourism and leisure: an integrative case in China

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Xiao Honggen
Lecturer, Huaqiao University, Peoples Republic of China and
Jeremy R. Huyton
Senior Lecturer, Birmingham College of Food, Tourism and Creative Studies, UK
Investigates the interrelationship between tourism and
leisure, based on a questionnaire survey and on personal
communication with international tourists, hospitality
workers and local residents.
Adopts an integrative
approach in the case study of
the two coastal cities of
Xiamen and Quanzhou, in the
Fujian Province of the Peoples Republic of China. Concludes that superficial homogeneity in social phenomena
of two cities in close vicinity
does not justify an actual
similarity in the interaction
between tourists and residents and the integration of
tourism and leisure.

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824
MCB University Press
[ISSN 0959-6119]

[ 18 ]

Introduction
The interrelationship between tourism and
leisure has been subject to much research
over the past decade and especially since
tourism has become an area of special
scrutiny. Definitions of leisure, recreation
and tourism indicate the importance of the
meaning and the subjective nature of these
areas of social interaction. Iso-Ahola[1]
argues that leisure is based on an individuals
own perception and that leisure becomes a
subjective perception of an actual or imagined activity a person participates in at a
given time[1].
The psychological perspective suggests that
motivations for leisure and tourist activity
emanate from the need to escape from routine
and stressful environments and to seek recreational opportunities[2]. It is further surmised that leisure is a subjective state of
mind, that recreation is a form of individual leisure experience and that tourism is
recreation on the move, engaging in activity
away from home in which the travel is the
least part of the satisfaction sought[1,3]. In
addition to qualitative studies of leisure and
tourism there have also been quantitive
investigations. Kaplan[4] described six kinds
of leisure;
1 permanent;
2 voluntary leisure of the rich;
3 temporary involuntary leisure of the
unemployed;
4 regularly allocated voluntary of the
employed on holidays and vacations;
5 the temporary incapacity of the employed;
6 the permanent incapacity of the disabled
and the voluntary retirement of the aged.
Kaplan linked leisure not only to technological progress but also to life stages, lifestyles
and tourism. The pursuit of leisure through
recreational and tourism behaviours is not a
fragmented social phenomenon but of a
broader social context which is rapidly
changing. The constraints of integrating
leisure and tourism have been tied to the
organization of physical planning and a sectoral approach by governmental agencies.
Thus, as a social process and/or a planning

issue, the integration of leisure, recreation

and tourism (LRT) constitutes a major challenge for geographical studies.
Despite the multifaceted nature of research
on leisure and tourism, fundamental questions concerning their interrelationship still
remain unresolved. Given the commonly
accepted assumption that leisure is for local
residents and tourism is for visitors, and that
tourism is viewed as profit-oriented while
leisure is perceived as a social service[5-7],
one must ask a series of questions:
Is the leisure experience also a tourist
experience?
Under what condition(s) does the tourism
experience become leisure experience?
To what extent can the frontiers between
leisure and tourism be identified?
What are the contributions which local
communities make towards leisure and
tourism?
How does leisure and tourism affect the
lifestyle of the local community?
What social factors play key roles in the
integration between tourism and leisure?
The purpose of this article is to examine the
empirical research on the interrelationship
between leisure and tourism, their integration and the impact of one on the other. With
its case set in the two Fujian coastal cities of
Xiamen and Quanzhou, this study attempts to
add to the existing knowledge of tourism and
leisure and to shed more light on the contribution of tourism to leisure lifestyles of residents in the two cities. Similarities and differences are analysed and managerial implications for hospitality sectors highlighted.

Leisure in Xiamen and Quanzhou

Located in close proximity, about 35 miles
apart on the south-east coast of Fujian
Province, the two cities have the same sociocultural context and share many similarities.
Xiamen and Quanzhou are both mediumsized cities, with populations of 662,000 and
550,000 and areas of 519 and 530 square kilometres respectively (1990 census). They are
special economic zones and cities which are
opening to the outside world. Facing Taiwan,

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China

Downloaded by United Arab Emirates University At 21:14 08 March 2016 (PT)

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

both cities were originally the birthplace for

millions of migrant Chinese; thus compatriot
Chinese from Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and
a number of south-east Asian countries are
the greatest tourist-generating markets. Both
port cities have excellent transportation
systems and both have Mandarin Chinese
and the Minnan dialect as their lingua
franca.
Besides superficial resemblances, there is
also a homogeneity of tourism and leisure.
Tourist attractions in both cities display a
blend of local cultural with natural scenery
and the tourism infrastructure has been
extensively improved in both cities over the
past decade. Because of this and the regions
long established history of overseas relations
and easy accessibility, international tourist
arrivals have steadily increased (from 1983 to
1993, 93,114 to 218,508 in Xiamen and 101,639 to
233,370 in Quanzhou). Similarly, tourist
receipts have increased from 53 million to
213 million Yuan in Xiamen and from 20 million to 84 million Yuan in Quanzhou, over the
same ten-year period.
The heavy foreign investment, the many
private enterprises and the year-round smuggling on the Taiwan Strait have brought
financial wellbeing and increased discretionary income to the residents, which in
turn has attracted many agricultural labourers from the underdeveloped inland provinces. An extensive variety of leisure and
recreation facilities have been established by
local governments and private enterprise
sectors in both regions. Thus domestic
business tourism, labour migration and the
close proximity to Hong Kong, Macau and
Taiwan have exerted a great influence on
leisure behaviour, recreation preferences
and lifestyle on the residents of these two
cities.
In China, leisure and recreation is made
available, in part, through a wide range of
resources, services, facilities and management. This range of services and programmes
is required to meet the diverse needs and
demands of individuals, families, groups,
clubs and societies. However, at present, Chinese leisure and recreation policies are not as
well implemented and sophisticated as their
tourism policies. The theoretical considerations of leisure and recreation are, in most
cases, subject to tourism research, because of
leisure lacking its own specialism. Even so,
such research is very much linked with the
traditional Chinese work ethic of traditional
Chinese society and its ideology towards
recreation and leisure.

Characteristics of leisure in China

On the whole, the phenomena of leisure and
recreation in China display five characteristics.
1 The intensity of work in China is lower
compared with that of western industrialized nations. Consequently, this leads to a
lesser desire for the pursuit of leisure and
recreation.Through Deng Xiaopings controlled market economy a transformation
is increasingly being felt. However, China
still tends to have a centrally-planned
economy, consequently many of the jobs in
industry and public and private business
require only the passing of eight hours in
the workplace. Thus manufacturing industries are seen as being less technically
sophisticated, and office work is generally
characterized by a cup of tea and an
issue of a magazine or newspaper.
2 Over the past two or three decades the
income of most of the working class was
very low and the situation has not significantly changed. After their daily expenses,
most Chinese families devote any discretionary income to building or purchasing
houses, to the general welfare of their
children and the enhancement of their
standard of living. Chinese families have a
strong predilection to the ideology of
working for the next generation; accordingly workers limited discretionary
income is seldom allocated to leisure and
recreation.
3 Because the participants of leisure and
recreation are few, primarily the salaried
and the non-agricultural classes of the
population, so too is the range of leisure
activities. The majority of the Chinese
agricultural population firmly believes in
the Confucianist virtue of filial piety and
the idea that one shows respect to ones
family. Therefore, recreation time is spent
with family and overt and outgoing leisure
behaviour is not encouraged.
4 It is normal for Chinese to incorporate
business or the visiting friends and relatives into ones leisure time. Therefore, the
instances when leisure and recreation are
pursued solely for their own sakes are
outnumbered by the regular family/business activities which are undertaken at
weekends or after work.
5 Despite the technological enhancement of
a familys indoor leisure experience, with
such equipment as a TV set, videorecorder and karaoke player, the public
facilities of leisure and recreation have not
kept pace and are still far from perfect.

[ 19 ]

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China

Downloaded by United Arab Emirates University At 21:14 08 March 2016 (PT)

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

[ 20 ]

Leisure policies in China

Ever since the State Council and the Central
Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
formulated and commenced their economic
reforms and open policies in 1979, contemporary Chinese society has seen a rapid change
in its economy. However, the transformation
of Chinas societal policies has direct positive
and negative effects on leisure.
Labour unionization in China has increased and has achieved a wider scope of
acceptance throughout industry. Thus, the
unions activity fund is now guaranteed,
through provisions from central government,
tax allowances of local authorities, allowances
from labour insurance premiums, membership fees and from work unit sponsorship.
Through such unionization the rights of
members can be better protected and their
public welfare, such as group activities, weekend excursions and other leisure activities,
has been extended to a wide cross-section of
the society.
The nationwide pay rise, under the State
Council Pay Rise Act for Public Sectors and
State-run Enterprises, 1993, has left the
salary-earning class with more disposable
income and this has increased the likelihood
of leisure expenditure.
The five-day working week introduced to
China from 1 May 1995 has lengthened the
available leisure time in a week and, as a
result, many leisure facilities, recreation
centres and tourist attractions may experience a boom from leisure participants and
local tourists.
While the unionization of work, improved
welfare, the nationwide pay rise and the
shortening of the working week will undoubtedly have a positive influence on leisure
development, the cancellation of free medical
treatment for workers in the public sector
and state-run enterprises and the revocation
of existing free higher education will exert
greatly negative impacts on leisure and recreation. This is because of more discretionary
income having to be spent on medical care
and childrens college education.
Although the above transformations and
policies apply for part of the Chinese population, namely the salaried class, they do not
account for the largest segment the
peasants and workers in small private
enterprises. For example, some foreign
capital enterprises do not guarantee a day
off for their employees. This is because the
joint venture management employs the
workers on a more-work-more-pay basis, a
system to which the workers have no
objection.

Hypothesis and methodology

Because there are many similarities between
Xiamen and Quanzhou, such as location, a
predominance of south-east Asian tourism,
heavy foreign investment and enterprise, and
both having the same bases of communication Mandarin and the Minnan dialect two
hypotheses are made concerning the development and integration of leisure, recreation
and tourism:
H1: In two similar cities of close vicinity,
homogeneous tourism development will
exert a homogeneous influence on the
awareness and behaviour of leisure.
H2: The integration of tourism and leisure in
two similar cities of close proximity and
with the same sociocultural context is
essentially homogeneous.
The present study was undertaken in Xiamen
and Quanzhou to examine the impact of
tourism on residents and the relationships
between residents and tourists, and leisure
and tourism. The study required information
from tourism and leisure participants to
ascertain their perceptions of the relationship of the two and their potential impacts. It
also demanded familiarity with tourism
resources and leisure facilities. Information
was obtained, via interviewer-administered
questionnaires, from 200 international
tourists, 200 hospitality workers and 200
residents in the two cities and was conducted
during the summers of 1992 and 1993. These
two separate two-month periods were
selected purposefully to coincide with the
peak season of tourism in both cities.
The questionnaires used were principally
the same, with only a few minor modifications being made to minimize any misunderstanding of the questions which may have
arisen because of any specific reference to
one city or the other.
Each survey consisted of 40 questions
which were divided into the following
categories:
perceptions of tourism impact;
demographic information;
attitudes towards tourism;
residents perception towards tourists and
the nature of the relationship between residents and tourists, leisure and tourism.
The administration of the 200 questionnaires
for international tourists was conducted in
the lobbies, restaurants or guests rooms of
eight major tourist hotels in both cities. The
questionnaires were written in three languages Chinese, English and Japanese and
were distributed to a multi-ethnic mix of
tourists. The samples were taken from

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China

Downloaded by United Arab Emirates University At 21:14 08 March 2016 (PT)

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

organized tour groups. Of the 200 questionnaires distributed, 178 were returned and
regarded as valid (an 89 per cent response
rate).
The 200 questionnaires for hospitality
workers were written only in Mandarin and
were distributed to the Xiamen and
Quanzhou branches of the China Travel Service (CTS) and the China International
Travel Service (CITS) as well as to staff in
four tourist hotels, i.e. two in each city. This
was because CTS, CITS and tourist hotels
best represent the tourist industry in both
cities. The samples ranged from department
managers down to ordinary managerial personnel, hotel workers and tour guides. A total
of 159 questionnaires were returned and
validly completed (a 79.5 per cent response
rate).
Also written in Mandarin were the 200
questionnaires for the citys local residents.
These were distributed, on a door-to-door
basis, throughout different urban areas, to
households that live near tourist, leisure and
recreation attractions, or to people who run
businesses and services for tourist/leisure
participants. Ninety-seven questionnaires
were collected and 41 completed questionnaires were mailed back, totalling 138, giving
a response rate of 69 per cent.
Besides the questionnaire survey, face-toface interviews in both cities were also conducted. Seventy-six individual tourists, 45
hospitality workers and 109 residents were
selected at random. This was to supplement
the scope and validity of the questionnaire
survey.

Results and findings

As has been previously stated, Xiamen and
Quanzhou attract a miscellany of tourists
from a variety of destinations. The following
charts give a clear summary of the tourists
demographics and the characteristics of their
visit.
Figure 1 is generally consistent with the
similarities and differences of the two cities.
Quanzhou attracts more visiting friends and
relatives (VFR) tourists, leading to a longer
stay during their visits and a greater use of
host families. While Quanzhou is a destination which draws larger numbers of the
elderly segment, more overseas Chinese
tourists and a relatively smaller number of
foreign tourists, Xiamen attracts more
foreign visitors but noticeably fewer compatriots from Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau.
Business and conference tourists tend to
fall into the middle-aged group and, while not
shown in the chart, stay longer in the two

cities. Official figures[8,9] show that

Quanzhou receives more international business people than Xiamen, but the tourist
revenue receipts for Xiamen are higher. The
reason for this is that, while 35 per cent of the
tourists to Xiamen visit friends and relatives,
some 30 per cent are business oriented who
would use hotels for their accommodation, as
opposed to many of the tourists who visit
Quanzhou who stay with their friends and
relatives.
Figures 2 and 3 analyse the responses to the
open-ended questions concerning the impact
of tourism on the lifestyles of the interviewees from the two host communities. The
economic benefit (including foreign
exchange) to Xiamen and Quanzhou is clearly
listed as the most advantageous aspect of
tourism, followed by increased jobs and
employment, and the provision of more and
better leisure and recreation facilities for
local residents. However, while tourism
brings prosperity and increased materialism,
it also has its down side, namely overcrowding and congestion, environmental pollution,
an increasing crime rate, an increase in
inflation and the debasing of local culture and
art to nothing more than a simple revenue
earner. This is not peculiar to Xiamen and
Quanzhou or even China, but is a worldwide
problem of tourism[6]. Thus tourism may be
seen as a mixed blessing for many developing
countries.
The relationship between tourism and
leisure in the two Fujian coastal cities is
revealed in Figures 4 and 5. Tourist activity
in Quanzhou is largely in accordance with
the leisure experience of the local residents
with some slight exceptions such as entertainment in night clubs and karaoke halls.
This is because of the fact that tourists live
mostly in hotels and use such services inside
their respective hotels. These figures also
indicate that most tourists to Quanzhou take
every opportunity to enjoy local culture,
while at the same time observing a certain
element of isolation from the community.
Thus in Quanzhou it may be said that the
leisure experience of residents and the
tourist activities combine with each other as
an integrative process.
Analysis of the situation in Xiamen, however, yields a different pattern in the relationship between leisure and tourism. The tourist
scenic spots and activities are less frequented
by local residents, who mostly obtain their
leisure experience from the public recreation
facilities of hotels and steer away from tourist
sites. The survey also shows that for Xiamen
residents leisure experience, they prefer
night clubs/karaoke, and relaxation from
parks and gardens. They also tend to spend

[ 21 ]

their leisure in the company of their children, a reflection of the working-for-thenext-generation ethic, mentioned earlier. In
the case of Xiamen there is no indication that
residents leisure activities influence tourist
activity or behaviour in any way. This is
shown clearly by the disparity relating to the

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

Figure 1
Characteristics of tourists to Quanzhou and Xiamen
Demographic information

Percentage
60

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40
20
0

>50

40-50

30-40

20-30

>20

Visitors

Male

Generating countries/regions
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
Taiwan Hong South- Japan Aus/NZ North Europe Other
Kong East Asia
America
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
Visiting

Figure 2
Positive perceptions of tourism impacts on
Quanzhou and Xiamen

Motivation
Town image
5 per cent
More
facilities
14 per cent

Business

Leisure

Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
>10 days

Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
Deluxe
hotel
Key

Local

Natural

Length of stay

6-10 days

2-5 days

Other

More money
57 per cent

Cultural mix
9 per cent
Jobs
15 per cent

Overnight

Figure 3
Negative perceptions of tourism impacts on
Quanzhou and Xiamen

Accommodation used
Devaluation of
culture
13 per cent

Overcrowding
36 per cent

Inflation
10 per cent

Ordinary
hotel

Quanzhou

[ 22 ]

Childrens Palace visits, with locals strong

liking and tourists strong dislike. Pizam
et al.[5] discussed a similar case in their study
of the Soviet Union, where they found that the
disparity between leisure and tourism
stemmed from an inadequacy in the promotion of local leisure and recreational facilities
to its tourist market.
The result of this study also suggests that
there are some shared drawbacks which both
cities need to solve in order to establish a
sustainable development of tourism and a
successful integration of leisure and
tourism[10]:
Traffic congestion. Congested roads, tricycle
riding, slow moving traffic, busy car parks
(especially in Quanzhou) overcrowded
stations/terminals and low carrying capacity of public transport (especially before
and after the traditional Chinese Spring
Festival).
People congestion. Crowds of people in the
streets, at attractions, in shops, on public
transport, etc.
Concentration of visitors in limited areas.
Concentration of visitors in a limited

Guest
house
Xiamen

Host family

Crime
11 per cent
Noise litter
30 per cent

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China

Downloaded by United Arab Emirates University At 21:14 08 March 2016 (PT)

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

Figure 4
Tourist activity and leisure experience of local
residents in Quanzhou

Figure 5
Tourist activity and leisure experience of local
residents in Quanzhou

Scenery

Scenery

Religions

Religions

Theatres

Culture

Local art

Parks

Night clubs

Night clubs

Public recreation

Public recreation

Private recreation

Private recreation

Food

Children's palace

Shops

Shops
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Key

Key
Tourists

Residents

number of streets (e.g. downtown, shopping

in limited areas centres) and key attractions, especially in Gulangyu, Xiamen.
Conflict of activities. Pedestrian versus
vehicle (especially in Quanzhou), inquisitive tourists versus ethnic performance/
religious rituals, curious tourist customers
versus everyday local shoppers and vice
versa.
Conflict of value and cultural misunderstandings. Rich/unique cultural connotation versus inadequate guide interpretation, religious preaching versus tourists
acceptance, well-trained performers versus
tourists who are eager to participate, etc.
Environmental pollution. Litter problem
(both tourists and residents), noise and
fumes from vehicles, erosion of paths and
stonework, graffiti on walls and
monuments, etc.
Respondents from both cities perceived the
impact of tourism similarly, as having a positive impact on the local economy and a combination of positive and negative impacts on the
host community with respect to culture, environment, lifestyles and social values. Collaborative actions between government agencies
and tourism enterprises should be taken
either from a legal perspective or from a managerially strategic point of view to reduce the
negative impact to a minimum.

Discussion and conclusions

The impact of tourism on leisure and the
integration of the two are far too complicated

Tourists

Residents

and subtle to be simplistically generalized

and assumed. The general perceptions held
that two similar cities in close vicinity will be
the same have proved otherwise in this case
study. One of the questions asked of the residents of Xiamen and Quanzhou was, I like to
spend a holiday in a place where there are
many foreigners, and to this the residents
responded very differently. More than 75 per
cent of the responses in Xiamen expressed a
dislike or strong dislike of the idea; while in
Quanzhou, only a modest 15 per cent felt a
dislike or strong dislike. On the other hand,
from the perspective of international tourists
who responded to the survey question, Are
tourist activities arranged in a way that facilitates direct contact with the locals?, more
than 67 per cent of the respondents in Xiamen
answered negatively, and felt that they would
have liked more interaction with the locals;
whereas the case in Quanzhou was
completely different, with most respondents
answering positively. Here the relationship
and interaction between tourists and residents, and tourism and leisure seem to be
well established, a stark contrast to
Xiamen.Thus the perceived superficial homogeneity of the social structure of the two
cities does not necessarily reflect an actual
similarity of the two cities in the relationship
between tourists and residents and the integration of tourism and leisure.
The current tourism and leisure management of the two cities sees Xiamen and
Quanzhou readily copying each others management objectives, marketing plans and
strategies. But, as this study highlights, the

[ 23 ]

Xiao Honggen and

Jeremy R. Huyton
Tourism and leisure: an
integrative case in China

Downloaded by United Arab Emirates University At 21:14 08 March 2016 (PT)

International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
8/6 [1996] 1824

[ 24 ]

cities are far from homogeneous in nature

and this provides an empirical basis on
which the management of each city can adapt
its management philosophy, objectives and
marketing efforts so as to align them to the
unique characteristics of tourism and leisure
of its own city.
It is generally understood that tourism
promotes cultural exchange, but it is revealed
in this study that, during the exchange, cultural differences, values and lifestyles of both
the locals and the tourists have to be respected when organizing tourist activities and
leisure experiences, so as to overcome such
problems as culture degradation. Moreover, it
is self-evident that tourism and leisure
should not be distanced in the holistic development of the hospitality industry. Leisure
activities should not be reserved purely for
local residents, for leisure-based tourism can
greatly enrich the tourist experience and at
the same time cultural exchange and mutual
understanding between people.
The results of this study also demonstrate
that, above all, economic development plays a
vital role in the integration of tourism and
leisure. Many leisure-based tourist activities
are so specifically targeted to international
tourists that they are far beyond the affordability of local residents. This partly accounts
for the reason that tourists experience is
often referred to, by tourism sociologists, as a
capsulation. For a developing country, such
as China, the increase of GNP and annual per
capita income is a necessary prerequisite for
the successful integration of tourism activities and leisure experience.
In summary this study is intended to make
a contribution to the body of knowledge

concerning the impact of tourism and the

interrelationship between itself and leisure.
Nonetheless, more comparative case studies,
especially more integrative case studies of
perceived superficially homogeneous cities,
should be conducted to explore similarities of
findings and to better identify the interactions between tourists and residents, and the
integration of tourism and leisure.

References
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Leisure and Recreation, Wm C. Brown,
Dubuque, IA, 1980.
2 Mannell, R.C. and Iso-Ahola,S.E., Psychological nature of leisure and tourism experience,
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 14, 1987,
pp. 314-31.
3 Kelly, J.R., Recreation Business, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY, 1985.
4 Kaplan, M., Leisure in America, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY, 1960.
5 Pizam, A., Jafari, J. and Milman, A., Influence of tourism on attitudes: US students
visiting USSR, Tourism Management, Vol. 12,
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6 King, B., Pizam, A. and Milman, A., Social
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Fujian Science and Technology Publishing
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