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Here is the project report of a civil engineering student who has spent 6 months on a training
site.Due to security reasons,the project details, estimation, some portion of design and
quantity calculations have been omitted.But to help the civil engineering students we had
shown all the necessary works..
out providing adequate side slopes and dressing of excavation bottom. The soil present
beneath the surface was too clayey so it was dumped and was not used for back filling. The
filling is done in layer not exceeding 20 cm layer and than its compacted. Depth of
excavation was 54 from Ground Level.
LAYING OF FOUNDATION
At our site, Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area,
normally the entire area of the structure. Normally raft foundation is used when large load is
to be distributed and it is not possible to provide individual footings due to space constraints
that is they would overlap on each other. Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing
differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading
positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can
spread the loads over a larger area.
In laying of raft foundation, special care is taken in the reinforcement and construction of
plinth beams and columns. It is the main portion on which ultimately whole of the structure
load is to come. So a slightest error can cause huge problems and therefore all this is checked
and passed by the engineer in charge of the site.
Apart from raft foundation, individual footings were used in the mess area which was
extended beyond the C and D blocks.
CEMENT
Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminate and aluminoferrite It is
obtained by blending predetermined proportions limestone clay and other minerals in small
quantities which is pulverized and heated at high temperature around 1500 deg centigrade
to produce clinker. The clinker is then ground with small quantities of gypsum to produce a
fine powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When mixed with water, sand and
stone, it combines slowly with the water to form a hard mass called concrete. Cement is a
hygroscopic material meaning that it absorbs moisture In presence of moisture it undergoes
chemical reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement remains in good condition as long
as it does not come in contact with moisture. If cement is more than three months old then it
should be tested for its strength before being taken into use.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three different grades The
classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of cement-sand mortar cubes of
face area 50 cm2 composed of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with a
water-cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are
(i) 33 grade
(ii) 43 grade
(iii) 53 grade
The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand mortar in
N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above mentioned procedure.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is obtained by either intergrinding a pozzolanic material
with clinker and gypsum, or by blending ground pozzolana with Portland cement. Nowadays
good quality fly ash is available from Thermal Power Plants, which are processed and used in
manufacturing of PPC.
effects. As the reaction between water and cement continues, the paste loses its plasticity.
This early period in the hardening of cement is referred to as setting of cement.
INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT
Initial set is when the cement paste loses its plasticity and stiffens considerably. Final set is
the point when the paste hardens and can sustain some minor load. Both are arbitrary points
and these are determined by Vicat needle penetration resistance
Slow or fast setting normally depends on the nature of cement. It could also be due to
extraneous factors not related to the cement. The ambient conditions play an important role.
In hot weather, the setting is faster, in cold weather, setting is delayed Some types of salts,
chemicals, clay, etc if inadvertently get mixed with the sand, aggregate and water could
accelerate or delay the setting of concrete.
STORAGE OF CEMENT
It needs extra care or else can lead to loss not only in terms of financial loss but also in terms
of loss in the quality. Following are the dont that should be followed
(i) Do not store bags in a building or a godown in which the walls, roof and floor are not
completely weatherproof.
(ii) Do not store bags in a new warehouse until the interior has thoroughly dried out.
(iii) Do not be content with badly fitting windows and doors, make sure they fit properly and
ensure that they are kept shut.
(iv) Do not stack bags against the wall. Similarly, dont pile them on the floor unless it is a
dry concrete floor. If not, bags should be stacked on wooden planks or sleepers.
(v) Do not forget to pile the bags close together
(vi) Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in a header-and-stretcher
fashion.
(vii) Do not disturb the stored cement until it is to be taken out for use.
(viii) Do not take out bags from one tier only. Step back two or three tiers.
(ix) Do not keep dead storage. The principle of first-in first-out should be followed
in removing bags.
(x) Do not stack bags on the ground for temporary storage at work site. Pile them on a raised,
dry platform and cover with tarpaulin or polythene sheet.
COARSE AGGREGATE
Coarse aggregate for the works should be river gravel or crushed stone .It should be hard,
strong, dense, durable, clean, and free from clay or loamy admixtures or quarry refuse or
vegetable matter. The pieces of aggregates should be cubical, or rounded shaped and should
have granular or crystalline or smooth (but not glossy) non-powdery surfaces.Aggregates
should be properly screened and if necessary washed clean before use.
Coarse aggregates containing flat, elongated or flaky pieces or mica should be rejected. The
grading of coarse aggregates should be as per specifications of IS-383.
After 24-hrs immersion in water, a previously dried sample of the coarse aggregate should not gain
in weight more than 5%.
Aggregates should be stored in such a way as to prevent segregation of sizes and avoid
contamination with fines.
Depending upon the coarse aggregate color, there quality can be determined as:
FINE AGGREGATE
Aggregate which is passed through 4.75 IS Sieve is termed as fine aggregate. Fine aggregate
is added to concrete to assist workability and to bring uniformity in mixture. Usually, the
natural river sand is used as fine aggregate. Important thing to be considered is that fine
aggregates should be free from coagulated lumps.
Grading of natural sand or crushed stone i.e. fine aggregates shall be such that not more than
5 percent shall exceed 5 mm in size, not more than 10% shall IS sieve No. 150 not less than
45% or more than 85% shall pass IS sieve No. 1.18 mm and not less than 25% or more than
60% shall pass IS sieve No. 600 micron.
BRICKWORK
Brickwork is masonry done with bricks and mortar and is generally used to build partition
walls. In our site, all the external walls were of concrete and most of the internal walls were
made of bricks. English bond was used and a ration of 1:4 (1 cement: 4 coarse sand) and 1:6
were used depending upon whether the wall is 4.5 inches or 9 inches. The reinforcement shall
be 2 nos. M.S. round bars or as indicated. The diameter of bars was 8mm. The first layer of
reinforcement was used at second course and then at every fourth course of brick work. The
bars were properly anchored at their ends where the portions and or where these walls join
with other walls. The in laid steel reinforcement was completely embedded in mortar.
Bricks can be of two types. These are:
1) Traditional Bricks-The dimension if traditional bricks vary from 21 cm to 25cm in
length,10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in height in different parts of country .The commonly
adopted normal size of traditional brick is 23 * 11.5*7.5 cm with a view to achieve
uniformity in size of bricks all over country.
2) Modular Bricks Indian standard institution has established a standard size of bricks such
a brick is known as a modular brick. The normal size of brick is taken as 20*10*10 cm
whereas its actual dimensions are 19*9*9 cm masonry with modular bricks workout to be
cheaper there is saving in the consumption of bricks, mortar and labour as compared with
masonry with traditional bricks.
There are many checks that can be applied to see the quality of bricks used on the
site.Normally the bricks are tested for Compressive strength, water absorption, dimensional
tolerances and efflorescence. However at small construction sites the quality of bricks can be
assessed based on following, which is prevalent in many sites.
Visual check Bricks should be well burnt and of uniform size and color.
Striking of two bricks together should produce a metallic ringing sound.
It should have surface so hard that cant be scratched by the fingernails.
A good brick should not break if dropped in standing position from one metre above ground
level.
A good brick shouldnt absorb moisture of more than 15-20% by weight, when soaked in
water For example; a good brick of 2 kg shouldnt weigh more than 2.3 to 2.4 kg if
immersed in water for 24 hours.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN BRICK MASONRY WORK
Bricks should be soaked in water for adequate period so that the water penetrates
to its full thickness. Normally 6 to 8 hours of wetting is sufficient.
A systematic bond must be maintained throughout the brickwork. Vertical joints
shouldnt be continuous but staggered.
The joint thickness shouldnt exceed 1 cm. It should be thoroughly filled with the
cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 (Cement: Sand by volume)
All bricks should be placed on their bed with frogs on top (depression on top of the
brick for providing bond with mortar).
Thread, plumb bob and spirit level should be used for alignment, verticality and
horizontality of construction.
Joints should be raked and properly finished with trowel or float, to provide good bond.
A maximum of one metre wall height should be constructed in a day.
Brickwork should be properly cured for at least 10 days
REINFORCEMENT
Steel reinforcements are used, generally, in the form of bars of circular cross section in
concrete structure. They are like a skeleton in human body. Plain concrete without steel or
any other reinforcement is strong in compression but weak in tension. Steel is one of the best
forms of reinforcements, to take care of those stresses and to strengthen concrete to bear all
kinds of loads
Mild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked steel high strength deformed
bars conforming to IS: 1786 (grade Fe 415 and grade Fe 500, where 415 and 500 indicate
yield stresses 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2 respectively) are commonly used. Grade Fe 415 is
being used most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use of plain mild steel bars
because of higher yield stress and bond strength resulting in saving of steel quantity. Some
companies have brought thermo mechanically treated (TMT) and corrosion resistant steel
(CRS) bars with added features.
Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold-worked steel high strength deformed bars start
from 8 mm diameter. For general house constructions, bars of diameter 6 to 20 mm are used
Transverse reinforcements are very important. They not only take care of structural
requirements but also help main reinforcements to remain in desired position. They play a
very significant role while abrupt changes or reversal of stresses like earthquake etc.
They should be closely spaced as per the drawing and properly tied to the main/longitudinal
reinforcement
COVER BLOCK
Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods from touching the shuttering plates and
there by providing a minimum cover and fix the reinforcements as per the design drawings.
Sometimes it is commonly seen that the cover gets misplaced during the concreting activity.
To prevent this, tying of cover with steel bars using thin steel wires called binding wires
(projected from cover surface and placed during making or casting of cover blocks) is
recommended. Covers should be made of cement sand mortar (1:3). Ideally, cover should
have strength similar to the surrounding concrete, with the least perimeter so that chances of
water to penetrate through periphery will be minimized. Provision of minimum covers as per
the Indian standards for durability of the whole structure should be ensured.
Shape of the cover blocks could be cubical or cylindrical. However, cover indicates thickness
of the cover block. Normally, cubical cover blocks are used. As a thumb rule, minimum cover
of 2 in footings, 1.5 in columns and 1 for other structures may be ensured.
Structural element
Footings
40
Columns
40
Slabs
15
Beams
25
Retaining wall
THINGS TO NOTE
Reinforcement should be free from loose rust, oil paints, mud etc. it should be cut, bent and
fixed properly. The reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in position by providing
proper cover blocks, spacers, supporting bars, laps etc. Reinforcements shall be placed and
tied such that concrete placement is possible without segregation, and compaction possible by
an immersion vibrator.
For any steel reinforcement bar, weight per running meter is equal to d*d/162 Kg, where d is
diameter of the bar in mm. For example, 10 mm diameter bar will weigh 1010/162 = 0.617
Kg/m
Three types of bars were used in reinforcement of a slab. These include straight bars, crank
bar and an extra bar. The main steel is placed in which the straight steel is binded first, then
the crank steel is placed and extra steel is placed in the end. The extra steel comes over the
support while crank is encountered at distance of (1-distance between the supports) from
the surroundings supports.
For providing nominal cover to the steel in beam, cover blocks were used which were made
of concrete and were casted with a thin steel wire in the center which projects outward. These
keep the reinforcement at a distance from bottom of shuttering. For maintaining the gap
between the main steel and the distribution steel, steel chairs are placed between them
FORM WORK
Forms or moulds or shutters are the receptacles in which concrete is placed, so that it will
have the desired shape or outline when hardened. Once the concrete develops adequate
strength, the forms are removed. Forms are generally made of the materials like timber,
plywood, steel, etc.
Generally camber is provided in the formwork for horizontal members to counteract the
effect of deflection caused due to the weight of reinforcement and concrete placed over that.
A proper lubrication of shuttering plates is also done before the placement of reinforcement.
The oil film sandwiched between concrete and formwork surface not only helps in easy
removal of shuttering but also prevents loss of moisture from the concrete through absorption
and evaporation.
The steel form work was designed and constructed to the shapes, lines and dimensions shown
on the drawings. All forms were sufficiently water tight to prevent leakage of mortar. Forms
were so constructed as to be removable in sections. One side of the column forms were left
open and the open side filled in board by board successively as the concrete is placed and
compacted except when vibrators are used. A key was made at the end of each casting in
concrete columns of appropriate size to give proper bondings to columns and walls as per
relevant IS.
quality. The use of oil, which darkens the surface of the concrete, is not allowed. Oiling
is done before reinforcement is placed and care taken that no oil comes in contact with
the reinforcement while it is placed in position. The formwork is kept thoroughly wet
during concreting and the whole time that it is left in place.
Immediately before concreting is commenced, the formwork is carefully examined to
ensure the following:
a) Removal of all dirt, shavings, sawdust and other refuse by brushing and washing.
b) The tightness of joint between panels of sheathing and between these and any hardened
core.
c) The correct location of tie bars bracing and spacers, and especially connections of
bracing.
d) That all wedges are secured and firm in position.
e) That provision is made for traffic on formwork not to bear directly on reinforcement
steel.
VERTICALITY OF THE STUCTURE
All the outer columns of the frame were checked for plumb by plumb-bob as the work
proceeds to upper floors. Internal columns were checked by taking measurements from outer
row of columns for their exact position. Jack were used to lift the supporting rods called
props
STRIPPING TIME OR REMOVAL OF FORMWORK
Forms were not struck until the concrete has attained a strength at least twice the stress to
which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of form work. The strength
referred is that of concrete using the same cement and aggregates with the same proportions
and cured under conditions of temperature and moisture similar to those existing on the work.
Where so required, form work was left longer in normal circumstances
Form work was removed in such a manner as would not cause any shock or vibration that
would damage the concrete. Before removal of props, concrete surface was exposed to
ascertain that the concrete has sufficiently hardened. Where the shape of element is such that
form work has re-entrant angles, the form work was removed as soon as possible after the
concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking occurring due to the restraint imposed. As a
guideline, with temperature above 20 degree following time limits should be followed:
Structural Component
Age
Footings
1 day
6m
Underside of slabs spanning less 7 days
than 4m
Underside of slabs spanning more 14 days
than 4m
Flat slab bottom
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