DEEP SEA METALLIC DEPOSITS AND THEIR MINING

TECHNIQUES
A SEMINAR REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MINING ENGINEERING
BY
KARTIK SHARMA
ROLL NUMBER: 15BMI70018

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
JODHPUR-342001
2016

A SEMINAR
ON
DEEP SEA METALLIC DEPOSITS AND THEIR MINING
TECHNIQUES

BY

KARTIK SHARMA

UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF

Dr. D. M. SURANA
FORMER PROF. AND H.O.D.

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
JODHPUR-342001
2016

ABSTRACT

Scientists have been interested in deep sea mining as early as the 1960s, but collapse in the
world metal prices resulted in reduced interest in deep sea mining until recent years, in which
the feasibility of deep sea mining and its possible techniques are being researched thoroughly.
The deep sea mineral deposits are hosted by habitats like seamounts and hydrothermal vents.
Seamounts are undersea mountains which are formed by volcanic activity and are found in
chains or clusters. Hydrothermal vents are openings in the sea bed which gushes out hot
water containing mineral deposits and host an extraordinary array of aquatic life. The major
deep sea mineral deposits are Manganese Nodules, Crusts type deposits and Seafloor Massive
Sulphide Deposits. This report covers the proposed mining techniques to extract the deep sea
deposits. It also includes major challenges against these methods and the current status of
deep sea mining world-over including India. The deep sea mining techniques can be
classified mainly as; Air Lift System, Hydraulic System and Continuous Line Bucket System.
Deep sea mining has to work against complex topography of the sea floor, huge depths, high
pressure, low temperature, natural forces like currents and waves etc. The industry has to
develop easy and cheap means to supply power to the deep sea mining equipments. Two
mining companies, Bluewater Metals of Sydney, Australia, and Nautilus Minerals, Brisbane,
Australia are pushing ahead with mining exploration in the territorial waters of island nations
in the southwest Pacific Ocean. They have been given leases by the International Seabed
Authority to start exploratory work and test the feasibility of possible mining activities that
can be undertaken in those sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. D. M. SURANA, former
Professor and Head of Mining Engineering Department, for his kindness in allowing me to do
work on the present topic and for his inspiring guidance, constructive criticism and valuable
suggestions throughout this seminar work. I am also thankful to Prof. A. S. Sheoran,
Professor and Head of Mining Engineering Department, for his help and guidance.

Date:

KARTIK SHARMA
ROLL NO: 15BMI70018
B.E. IV YEAR
M.B.M. ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. KARTIK SHARMA, student of Final Year B.E. (Mining
Engineering) has submitted the seminar report entitled DEEP SEA METALLIC
DEPOSITS AND THEIR MINING TECHNIQUES which is record of his own work
carried out under my guidance.

Dated

Dr. D.M. SURANA

FORMER PROF. AND HEAD
Department of Mining Engineering
M.B.M. Engineering College,

JODHPURCONTENTS

ABSTRACT------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
CERTIFICATE--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
CONTENTS------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES-------------------------------------------------------------vi
1.0 INTRODUCTION------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
2.0 TYPES OF DEPOSITS-------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2.1 Manganese Nodules-----------------------------------------------------------------------2
2.1.1 Hydrogenetic nodules---------------------------------------------------------------2
2.1.2 Diagenetic nodules------------------------------------------------------------------2
2.1.3 Hydrothermal manganese deposits-----------------------------------------------2
2.2 Crusts Type Deposits----------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.2.1 Cobalt rich manganese crusts-----------------------------------------------------3
2.2.2 Hydrothermal manganese crusts--------------------------------------------------4
2.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphide Deposits ---------------------------------------------------4
2.3.1 Active and inactive sites------------------------------------------------------------4
2.3.2 Size of seafloor massive sulphide deposits---------------------------------------5
3.0 DEEP SEA HABITATS------------------------------------------------------------------------6
3.1 Seamounts-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
3.2 Hydrothermal Vents-----------------------------------------------------------------------8
4.0 MINING TECHNIQUES----------------------------------------------------------------------9
4.1 Vehicles for Deep Sea Exploration----------------------------------------------------10
4.1.1 Human operated vehicles---------------------------------------------------------11
4.1.2 Remotely operated vehicles-------------------------------------------------------13
4.1.3 Autonomous underwater systems------------------------------------------------16
4.2 Mining Systems---------------------------------------------------------------------------18
4.2.1 The air lift system------------------------------------------------------------------18
4.2.2 The hydraulic system--------------------------------------------------------------19
4.2.3 The continuous line bucket system---------------------------------------------- 20
5.0 CHALLENGES TO DEEP SEA MINING------------------------------------------------22
6.0 CURRENT STATUS OF DEEP SEA MINING------------------------------------------22
6.1 Current Status of India in Deep Sea Mining------------------------------------------26
7.0 CONCLUSIONS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
REFERENCES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure
No.

Title

Page
No.

2.1

Manganese-Nodules at the Bottom of the Atlantic Sea (source:

http://www.2peter3.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/manganesenodules.gif)

2.2

Seafloor Massive Sulphide Deposits in the Bismark Sea (source:

http://www.grida.no/images/marine/newsletter/dec-sms-deposits.jpg)

3.1

Seamount in Las Gemelas (source:

http://www.underseahunter.com/images/bereiche/new000025_deepsee_ske
rry_natgeo.jpg)

Hydrothermal Vent on the Mid Atlantic Ridge (source:

3.2

http://www.whoi.edu/cms/images/archives-Selectedimagesalvindives2473-26262624-1-4_124179_153533.jpg)

4.1

The HOV Johnson-Sea-Link (Humphris, 2009)

12

4.2

ROV Jason II(left) and ROV Kaiko(right) (Humphris, 2009)

15

4.3

Examples of AUVs, The Spray Glider (left) and Urashima (right)

(Humphris, 2009)

17

4.4

The Air Lift System (Shyam, 1982)

19

4.5

The Hydraulic System (source:

https://instrumentalism.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/dustpan.jpg)

20

4.6

The Continuous Line Bucket System (Shyam, 1982)

21

Table
No.

Title

Page
No.

2.1

Summary of SMS Deposits Locations and Depths (Boschen et al., 2013)

4.1

HOVs that can operate at depths >1000 m (Humphris, 2009)

11

4.2

ROVs for deep-sea exploration (operating depth >1000 m) (Humphris,

2009)

13

4.3

AUVs for deep-sea exploration (operating depth >1000 m) (Humphris,

2009)

16

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Deep sea mining has generated significant interest around the world for over five decades,
due to the potential of deep sea minerals such polymetallic nodules, cobalt rich crusts and
polymetallic sulphides that occur on the deep seabed and are considered as alternative
sources of minerals, such as Cu, Ni, Co, Pb, Zn, Cd besides Fe and Mn, for industrial
development. (Sharma, 2015)
Interest in deep sea mining began in the 1960s but the collapse of world metal prices
dampened early deep sea mining interests. It is only in the last decade that there has been a
significant emergence of commercial interest in deep sea exploration, with a marked increase
in the number of applications to the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the autonomous
United Nations body responsible for managing the mineral resources of the High Seas. There
is also significant exploration activity within national waters, particularly in the Pacific
Ocean. Pacific Island Countries (PICs) are dealing directly with other national governments
and private companies. Deep sea minerals present potential new revenue streams that could
support national development goals. With recent and ongoing advances in marine technology,
deep sea mining is not merely a very real possibility, it is imminent. However, only a limited
area of the deep-sea has been scientifically studied and there have been no commercial scale
mining trials to date. (Allsopp et al., 2013)
Mining of minerals from the deep-sea floor has been on-hold due to several factors such
as current availability of Cu, Ni, Co, Mn from terrestrial sources and their fluctuating prices.
None-the-less, exploration for new resources from deep-sea areas and development of
technologies for deep-sea mining have been progressing consistently. These coupled with
recent projections of deep-sea minerals as the alternative source for metals and granting of
licenses for exploration and mining of seafloor massive sulphides to private entrepreneurs,
indicate the continuing interest and support the perception that such deposits may serve as
sources of metals in the 21st century. (Sharma, 2011)

This seminar report discusses various types of marine mineral deposits, deep sea habitats
and mining techniques for such deposits. Before concluding the report, it includes technical
challenges against deep sea mining and its current status.

2.0 TYPES OF DEPOSITS

The deep sea deposits can be divided into three main categories, manganese nodules,
crusts type deposits, and seafloor massive sulphide deposits, each of which have been
discussed below.
2.1 Manganese Nodules
Manganese nodules form on the vast deep water abyssal plains and are composed
primarily of manganese and iron but with significant amounts of nickel and copper. Cobalt is
also present in lower concentrations. In addition, there are traces of other significant elements
such as platinum or tellurium that are important in industry for various high-tech products.
Nodules of economic interest have been found in four areas: the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture
Zone (CCFZ) in north-central Pacific Ocean, the Penrhyn Basin in south-central Pacific
Ocean, the Peru Basin in the south-east Pacific, and the centre of the North Indian Ocean.
(Alsopp et al., 2013)
Mn nodules can be classified into the following three types : Hydrogenetic nodules,
Diagenetic nodules and Hydrothermal Manganese Deposits.
2.1.1 Hydrogenetic nodules: Hydrogenetic nodules form by direct deposition of manganese
and associated elements (cobalt, nickel and copper) from seawater. The most extensive
deposits of nodules are found in the deep-water regions of the Pacific and Indian Oceans in
association with sharks teeth, whales ear bones, cosmic spherules and dark chocolatecoloured clays. (Glasby et al., 2013)
2.1.2 Diagenetic nodules: Diagenetic nodules are formed as a result of remobilization of
manganese in the sediment column. One of the most extensive deposits of diagenetic
manganese nodules in the World Ocean occurs between the Clarion and Clipperton Fractures
Zones (C-C FZ) in the Equatorial North Pacific. (Glasby et al., 2013)

2.1.3 Hydrothermal manganese deposits: Hydrothermal manganese deposits are formed as a

result of the discharge of high temperature hydrothermal fluids at the seafloor (with
temperatures up to 3200C). These high temperature fluids are typically found at hotspots and
at divergent plate margins. (Glasby et al., 2013)
The Fig 2.1 shows manganese nodules as they occour at the bottom of the atlantic ocean. As
shown in the picture, their surface is generally smooth. Their average size is between 5 to 10
centimeters in diameter. The bottom is buried in the sediment and is generally rougher than
the top. An area in the Central Indian Ocean has been identified containing manganese
nodules. Each square meter of the sea floor here contains around 5 kilograms of manganese
nodules.

Fig 2.1 Manganese-Nodules at the Bottom of the Atlantic Sea (source:

http://www.2peter3.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/manganese-nodules.gif)
2.2 Crusts Type Deposits
Cobalt rich manganese crusts and Hydrothermal manganese crusts are the two main types
of crusts deposits which are discussed below.
2.2.1 Cobalt rich manganese crusts: Cobalt rich Manganese crusts (also referred to as
ferromanganese crusts) may be defined as hydrogenous manganese crusts having a cobalt
content more than 1 percent. These crusts are typically 5 to 100 mm thick and occur on older
seamounts in the equatorial Pacific in the Mid-Pacific Mountains and Line Islands. The crusts
are commonly found on exposed surfaces on the slopes of seamounts and on the summits of
9

oceanic plateaux at water depths between 3000 meters

1100 meters. Based on grade,

tonnage, and oceanographic conditions, the central equatorial Pacific offers the best potential
for crust mining, particularly within the EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone) of Johnston Island
(USA), the Marshall Islands, and international waters in the Mid-Pacific Seamounts. Cobaltrich crust mining is much more technologically challenging than Manganese Nodule mining
as crusts are attached to rock substrates. (Glasby et al., 2013; Allsopp et al., 2013)
2.2.2 Hydrothermal manganese crusts: Compared to manganese nodules and crusts,
hydrothermal manganese crusts are relatively restricted in the marine environment and
constitute less than 1 percent of the manganese deposits in the worlds oceans. These deposits
occur in all types of active oceanic environments such as mid-ocean ridge spreading centers,
back arc basins, island arcs and hot spot volcanoes. Of key importance is the role of boiling
of the ascending hydrothermal fluid, which leads to sulphide deposition and seawater
intrusion into the upper part of the volcano. This in turn results in the development of an
oxycline within the water column, above which FeOOH can precipitate. Hydrothermal
manganese crusts have been located on Enareta and Palinuro seamounts in the Tyrrhenian Sea
off the west coast of Italy, along the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc and at the Pitcairn hotspot.
(Glasby et al., 2013)
2.3 Seafloor Massive Sulphide Deposits
Seafloor Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits are areas of hard substratum with high base
metal and sulphide content and are commonly found at hydrothermal vent sites. Seafloor
Massive Sulphides form at hydrothermal vents (black smokers) along oceanic ridges and
contain sulphur rich ore. SMS are rich in copper, gold, zinc, lead, barium and silver. (Boschen
et al., 2013; Alsopp et al., 2013)
Seafloor Massive Sulphides form as the result of a series of chemical reactions that start
when seawater filters down through permeable ocean crust into rocks heated by magma
below. The heat catalyzes reactions that leach metals from the rocks into the fluids. The hot
fluids which can reach up to 400C under the pressure in the deep, rise buoyantly back to the
seafloor. As they emerge from the crust, they encounter cold water, which causes metal
sulphides to precipitate out of the fluids and form solid deposits, near and on the seafloor,
similar to the one shown in Fig. 2.2. (Drew, 2009)

10

2.3.1 Active and inactive sites: Active hydrothermal vent ecosystems are necessarily tied to
volcanic and tectonic systems at mid ocean ridge spreading centers, back arc basin spreading
centers, and seamount volcanoes; as such, they are subject to intermittent catastrophic
destruction, including complete re-pavement by molten lava associated with volcanic
eruptions that results in cessation of fluid flux and demise of populations dependent on
microbial primary production. Active sulphide deposits have detectable emissions. Inactive
deposits (also called relict or fossil deposits) have no detectable emissions. SMS deposits can
be either inactive or active, with continued hydrothermal

Fig 2.2 Seafloor Massive Sulphide Deposits in the Bismark Sea (source:
http://www.grida.no/images/marine/newsletter/dec-sms-deposits.jpg)
activity required to build on existing deposits. However, the distinction between active and
inactive deposits is not always clear, with rapid switching in activity of deposits complicating
the definition of active and inactive areas. (Dover, 2010; Boschen et al., 2013)
2.3.2 Size of seafloor massive sulphide deposits: The size of SMS deposits can vary widely,
such as at the Trans Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) and Broken Spur sites along the Mid Atlantic
Ridge (Table 2.1). The Trans Atlantic Geotraverse site includes an SMS mound 250 m
diameter and 50 m high, topped with hydrothermal vent chimneys, whilst the Broken Spur
site hosts at least five sulphide mounds ranging in size from 5 m high and 3 m diameter to 40
11

m high with a 20 m base. Deposits at Mid Atlantic Ridge are comparable in size to those at
the Southern Explorer Ridge where ten of the largest sulphide mounds had a diameter of 150
m and depth of 5 m, amounting to a total of 2.7-4.5 million tonnes of SMS deposit. Estimates
of gold and silver deposits at Southern Explorer Ridge alone amount to 2.0-3.4 tonnes of gold
and 255- 396 tonnes of silver. The following table 2.1 shows locations and depths of SMS
deposits in the world ocean. (Boschen et al., 2013)
Table 2.1 Summary of SMS Deposits Locations and Depths (Boschen et al., 2013)
Ocean

Region

Activity

Maximum or single
reported depth (m)
of individual
deposits

Indian

Red Sea
Central Indian Ridge

Active
Active
Inactive
Inactive
Active

1540-2200
2460-3320
2850
1500-2940
200-1000

Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Inactive
Inactive
Active
Active
Active
Inactive
Active
Active
Active
Active
Inactive
Active
Inactive
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Inactive

1080
1850
2800-3300
2000
1110-1360
1540-2450
2400
2600
1470
3640-3676
2520-2650
2000-2600
740-1450
930-1800
1764-2500
1500-2500
1920-2500
1980-2500
2000
2200-2240
2270-3000
400
4000
2400
4100
865-3670
3900

Mediterranean
Southern Ocean
North Pacific

Southwest Indian ridge

Aeolian arc,
Tyrrhenian Sea
Bransfield Strait
Explorer Ridge
Gorda Ridge
Gulf of California
Izu-Bonin Arc
Juan de Fuca Ridge
Galapagos Rift
Mariana Arc
Mariana Trough
Northern East Pacific Rise

South Pacific

Okinawa Trough
Kermadec Arc
Lau Basin
Manus Basin
North Fiji Basin

Arctic

North Atlantic

Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
Southern East Pacific Rise
Kolbeinsey Ridge
Lena Trough
Mohns Ridge
Gakkel Ridge
Northern Mid-Atlantic
Ridge

12

3.0 DEEP SEA HABITATS

The deep sea covers about 70% of the Earth and has an average depth of 3,200 metres.
About 50% of the deep ocean floor is an abyssal plain comprised mainly of mud flats.
Superimposed on the deep sea bed are other deep sea features including submarine canyons,
oceanic trenches, underwater mountains called seamounts (Fig 3.1) and hydrothermal vents
(Fig 3.2). This great variety of benthic (sea bottom) habitats support multitudinous life forms.
In recent years, scientists have documented hundreds more species living in deep sea habitats;
however the vast majority of the deep sea environment remains unexplored. Deep sea mining
has been proposed for different types of seafloor habitats including seamounts, hydrothermal
vents, and manganese nodules on the abyssal plain. (Allsopp et al., 2013)
3.1 Seamounts
Seamounts are undersea mountains which are usually formed by volcanic activity and
often occur in chains or clusters. Globally, there are estimated to be over 30,000 seamounts
rising 1000 m or more from the seafloor, and more than 100,000 smaller features. Scientific
research to date has been carried out on fewer than 300 seamounts, so the knowledge base on
the seamounts is still very limited. (Allsopp et al., 2013)
Seamount habitats represent a treasure house of biological diversity. Water currents are
enhanced around seamounts, delivering nutrients which promote the growth of animals like
corals, anemones, featherstars and sponges. Some stands of corals which have been
discovered on seamounts are several centuries old. One example of such seamount is the
Seamount in Las Gemelas (Fig. 3.1). Las Gemelas was designated a Seamounts Marine
Management Area in 2011 by Laura Chinchilla, president of Costa Rica. Overall, there is
evidence that seamounts tend to support a high biomass and abundance of fauna but
additional data from a broader range of seamounts is needed to

13

Fig 3.1 Seamount in Las Gemelas (source:

http://www.underseahunter.com/images/bereiche/new000025_deepsee_skerry_natgeo.jpg)
establish whether this is the case in general. (Allsopp et al., 2013)
3.2 Hydrothermal Vents
A hydrothermal vent is a geyser on the seafloor which gushes hot water into the cold,
deep ocean. These hot springs are heated by molten rock below the seabed. Deep-sea vents
have been found in the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic and Indian Oceans. They are primarily
concentrated along the earths Mid-Oceanic Ridge system, a continuous underwater mountain
chain that bisects the oceans and is a 60,000 kilometer seam of geological activity. It is
thought that hundreds, if not thousands, of hydrothermal vent sites may exist along the MidOceanic Ridge but as yet only about 100 sites have been identified because they are very
difficult to find. In 1977, scientists discovered that vents were populated with an
extraordinary array of animal life. Many animal species are exclusively native (endemic) to
vent sites. Hydrothermal vent habitats are thus considered to hold intrinsic scientific value.
(Allsopp et al., 2013)
Hydrothermal-vent ecosystems are localized areas of the seabed where heated and
chemically modified seawater exits the seafloor as diffuse or focused flow and where
microbial chemoautotrophs are at the base of the food web. Most vent ecosystems tend to be
linearly distributed on hard substrata (basalt) associated with new ocean crust along seafloor
14

spreading centers, though there are sites where active vents on spreading centers are
sediment-hosted (e.g., Guaymas Basin in the Gulf of California, Gorda Ridge in the northeast
Pacific). Vents are also associated with seamount volcanic systems (e.g., Loihi Seamount;
seamounts of the Kermadec Ridge). (Dover, 2014)
The spatial extent of any given vent field depends on the geological setting, but they tend
to be at most a hundred meters or so in maximum dimension and separated from one another
by 50-100 km at one extreme or, at the other extreme, to be much smaller features (on the
order of 10-50 m maximum dimension) arrayed linearly in clusters and spaced at intervals
ranging from a few kilometers to tens of kilometers on the axis of fast spreading centers (e.g.,
the 90N vent field on the East Pacific Rise). In Fig 3.2, a black smoker chimney releases
hot hydrothermal vent fluid filled with mineral particles that make it look like smoke. This
hydrothermal vent was found on a vent site called snake pit on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
(Dover, 2014)

15

Fig 3.2 Hydrothermal Vent on the Mid Atlantic Ridge (source:

http://www.whoi.edu/cms/images/archives-Selectedimagesalvindives2473-2626-2624-14_124179_153533.jpg)

4.0 MINING TECHNIQUES

Worldwide demand for mineral resources has been growing rapidly, and it will be more
pronounced globally in the near future. This social trend makes us recognize the importance
of having more than one source from which we can obtain a mineral resource that is
indispensable for a specific industry as a raw material. We can select ourselves an import of
the resource from a production area and/or an exploitation of the resource. From the
engineering viewpoint it is necessary to establish a reliable technology for exploiting the
resource. Most of the mineral resources consumed in relevant industries are currently
supplied from land mining, and this resource supply is envisaged to be maintained for two or
more decades. We know that the mineral resources are available from the ocean as well as
from the land. Previous ocean explorations discovered mud that include plenty of rare earth
elements distributed on the floor in the Pacific Ocean. Thus far, some methods were proposed
for collecting muds or nodules, including mineral resources, such as the hydro-dredge, and
the continuous line bucket (CLB). (Nishi et al., 2015)
All seabed mining operations follow a similar system using a seabed resource collector,
lifting system and support vessels to transport the ore. Most proposed seabed collection
systems envisage the use of remotely operated vehicle techniques which extract deposits from
the seabed using mechanical or pressurised water drills. Currently diamond mining off the
coast of Namibia uses either a hose attached to a Remotely Operated System (ROV) to
collect shallow diamond bearing gravels or a drill to reach deeper gravel deposits. Another
mining technique is dredging (Hydraulic System). Dredging is proposed for mining
phosphates off the coast of Namibia and New Zealand. The following text provides details
about deep sea exploration vehicles followed by mining techniques proposed for extracting
deep sea deposits. (Alsopp et al., 2013)
4.1 Vehicles for Deep Sea Exploration
Dramatic advances in deep submergence vehicles and technologies have enabled
scientists to routinely explore the ocean depths. For many years, researchers have towed
instruments near the seafloor to collect various kinds of data (e.g., acoustic, magnetic, and
16

photographic) remotely. With the development of sophisticated acoustic and imaging systems
designed to resolve a wide range of ocean floor features, towed vehicle systems have become
increasingly complex. Some now use fiber-optic, rather than coaxial, cable as tethers (A rope
or chain with which the vehicle is tied) and hence are able to transmit imagery as well as data
in real time. However, since the 1960s, scientists have been transported to the deep ocean and
seafloor in submersibles, or human-occupied vehicles (HOVs), to make direct observations,
collect samples, and deploy instruments. More recently, two other types of deep submergence
vehicles, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs),
have been developed that promise to greatly expand our capabilities to map, measure, and
sample in remote and inhospitable parts of the ocean, and to provide the continual presence
necessary to study processes that change over time. These data and samples form the basis for
designing the mining techniques to extract the deep sea deposits. (Humphris, 2009)
4.1.1 Human occupied vehicles: The deep-sea exploration vehicles most familiar to the
general public are submersibles, or HOVs (Human Occupied Vehicles). This technology
allows a human presence in much of the worlds oceans, with the deepest diving vehicles
capable of reaching 99 percent of the seafloor. As of 2009, there exist about 10 submersibles
available worldwide for scientific research and exploration that can dive to depths greater
than 1000 m. Table 4.1 summarises these HOVs along with their maximum operating depth.
All require a dedicated support ship. These battery-operated vehicles allow two to four
individuals (pilot(s) and scientist(s)) to descend into the ocean to make observations and
gather data and samples. The duration of a dive is limited by battery life, human endurance,
and safety protocols, and typically does not exceed 810 hours, including transit time to and
from the working depth (about 4 hours for a seafloor depth of 4000 meters). (The Russian
MIR submersibles are an exception; they operate on a 100-kilo watt hour battery that can
accommodate dive times in excess of 12 hours.) (Humphris, 2009)
Table 4.1 HOVs that can operate at depths >1000 m (Humphris, 2009)
Vehicle

Operating organization

Maximum
operating
depth (m)

HOV (under construction)

China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and

Development Association (COMRA), China
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC), Japan
National Deep Submergence Facility, Woods
Hole Oceaneographic Institute, USA

7000

Shinkai 6500
Replacement HOV (in
planning stages)

6500
6500

17

MIR I and II
Nautile
Alvin
Pisces IV

P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russia

Institut Francais de Recherche pour
l'Exploitation de la MER (IFREMER), France
National Deep Submergence Facility, Woods
Hole Oceaneographic Institute, USA
Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory, USA

Pisces V

Johnson-Sea-Link I and II

6000
6000
4500
2170
2090

Hawaii Undersea Research

Laboratory, USA
Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, USA

1000

Housed in a personnel sphere, the divers are maintained at atmospheric pressure despite
the ever increasing external pressure with depth (1 atm every 10 meters). Cameras on pan and
tilt mounts with zoom and focus controls are located on the exterior of the vehicles, as well as
quartz iodide and/or metal halide lights to illuminate the area. Submersibles are also equipped
with robotic arms that can be used to manipulate equipment or pick up samples, and a basket,
usually mounted on the front of the vehicle, to transport instruments, equipment, or samples.
These vehicles can handle heavy payloads, maintaining neutral buoyancy as their weight
changes through a variable ballast control system. All these capabilities, together with their
slow speeds (12 knots), make submersibles best suited to detailed observations, imaging,
and sampling in localized areas, rather than operating in a survey mode. Fig 4.1 shows one
such HOV called Johnson-Sea-Link. The operating organization is Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institute, USA. It carries a pilot and scientist in the forward sphere, along
with a submersible technician and an observer. (Humphris, 2009)

18

Fig 4.1 The HOV Johnson-Sea-Link (Humphris, 2009)

Submersibles have enabled geologists to explore the global mid-ocean ridge system, and
have provided them with a detailed view of the nature of volcanic and tectonic activity during
the formation of oceanic crust. Submersibles played an important role in the discovery of
hydrothermal vents and their exotic communities of organisms, and continue to be used
extensively for investigation of these extreme deep-sea environments. HOVs will continue to
provide important capabilities for deep-sea research at least for the foreseeable future.
(Humphris, 2009)
4.1.2 Remotely operated vehicles: Over the past 20 years, marine scientists have begun to
routinely use ROVs to collect deep-sea data and samples. ROVs were originally developed
for use in the ocean by the military for remote observations, but were adapted in the mid1970s by the offshore energy industry to support deep-water operations. There are many
ROVs commercially operated today, ranging from small, portable vehicles used for shallow
water inspections to heavy, work-class, deepwater ROVs used by the offshore oil and gas
industry in support of subsea cable laying, retrieval, and repair. As shown in the Table 4.2,
there are about a dozen ROVs that are available to the international scientific community.

19

While some of these have dedicated support ships, many can operate in the flyaway mode;
that is, they can be shipped to, and operated on, a number of different ships. (Humphris,
2009)
Table 4.2 ROVs for deep-sea exploration (operating depth >1000 m) (Humphris, 2009)
Vehicle

Operating organization

Nereus (hybrid)
(under construction)

National Deep Submergence Facility (NDSF),

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC), Japan
National Oceanography Center (NOC), UK
National Deep Submergence Facility (NDSF),
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), USA
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), USA

Kaiko 7000
Isis
Jason II

ATV
CV (Wireline Reentry
System)
Victor 6000
ROV (on order)
ROPOS
Tiburon
Quest
Hercules
Sea Dragon 3500
Hyper Dolphin
Aglantha
Ventana
Cherokee

Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation

de la MER (IFREMER), France
NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration, USA
Canadian Scientific Submersilble Facility (CSSF),
Canada
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
(MBARI), USA
Research Centre Ocean Margins, Germany
Institute for Exploration, USA
China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and
Development Association (COMRA), China
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC), Japan
Institute of Marine Research, Norway
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
(MBARI), USA
Research Centre Ocean Margins, Germany

Maximum
operating depth
11000

7000
6500
6500

6000
6000
6000
6000
5000
4000
4000
4000
3500
3000
2000
1500
1000

Unlike the HOVs, ROVs are unoccupied, and are tethered (attached) to a support ship
usually by a fiber-optic cable that has sufficient bandwidth to accommodate a wide variety of
oceanographic sensors and imaging tools. The cable provides power and communications
from the ship to the ROV, allowing control of the vehicle by a pilot on board. The pilot can
also use the manipulator arm(s) to collect samples and perform experiments. The cable
transmits images and data from the ROV to the control room on board the ship where
20

monitors display the images of the seafloor or water column in real time. These capabilities,
together with their excellent power and lift, allow ROVs to perform many of the same
operations as HOVs. (Humphris, 2009)
Obvious advantages of using ROVs are that they remove the human risk factor from
deep-sea research and exploration and, through the shipboard control room, allow a number
of scientists and engineers to discuss the incoming data and make collective decisions about
the operations. Another distinct advantage is their ability to remain underwater for extended
periods of time because power is provided continuously from the ship. This endurance means
that scientists can make observations over periods of many days, instead of a few hours a day,
and gives them the flexibility to react to unexpected events. The disadvantage of an ROV is
that its tether (cable attaching the ROV to the ship) constrains operations because the range of
the vehicle with respect to the ship cannot exceed a few hundred meters. Movement of the
ship must therefore be carefully coordinated with the movements of the vehicle this
requires a ship equipped with a dynamic positioning system. In addition, the tether is heavy
and produces drag on the vehicle, making it less maneuverable and vulnerable to
entanglement in rugged terrain. However, with careful tether management, ROVs are well
suited to mapping and surveying small areas, as well as to making more detailed
observations, imaging, and sampling of specific features. (Humphris, 2009)
While many of the ROVs available to the scientific community have a wide range of
capabilities, a few are purpose-built. For example, the Wireline Reentry System known as CV
(Table 4.2), and operated by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, is a direct hang-down
vehicle designed specifically for precision placement of heavy payloads on the seafloor or in
drill holes. Unlike conventional, near-neutrally buoyant ROVs, the Wireline Reentry System
can handle payloads of a few thousand kilograms, depending on the water depth. It has been
used, for example, to install seismometer packages in, and recover instruments packages
from, seafloor drill holes in water depths up to 5500 m, as well as to deploy precision
acoustic ranging units on the axis of the mid-ocean ridge. (Humphris, 2009)
Another ROV being built at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution for a specific purpose
is Nereus (Table 4.2). More correctly referred to as a hybrid remotely operated vehicle, or
HROV, because it will be able to switch back and forth to operate as either an autonomous
underwater vehicle (sub section 4.1.3) or an ROV on the same cruise, Nereus will be capable
21

of exploring the deepest parts of the worlds oceans, as well as bringing ROV capabilities to
ice-covered oceans, such as the Arctic. Nereus will use a lightweight fiber-optic micro-cable,
only 1/32 of an inch in diameter, allowing it to operate at great depth without the high-drag
and expensive cables typically used with ROV systems. Once it reaches the bottom, it will
conduct its mission while paying out as much as 20 km of micro-cable. Once the mission is
complete, it will detach from the micro-cable and guide itself to the sea surface for recovery,
while the micro-cable is recovered for reuse. (Humphris, 2009)
Fig. 4.2 shows ROVs named Jason II and Kaiko. Jason is equipped with sonars, video and
still imaging systems, lighting, and numerous sampling systems. Jasons manipulator arms
collect samples of rock, sediment, or marine life and place them in the vehicles basket or on
elevator platforms that float heavier loads to the surface. Pilots and scientists work from a
control room on the ship to monitor Jasons instruments and video while maneuvering the
vehicle. The average Jason dive lasts one to two days, though operators have kept the vehicle
down for as long as seven days.

Fig 4.2 ROV Jason II (left) and ROV Kaiko (right) (Humphris, 2009)
Kaiko was a remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV) built by the Japan Agency for
Marine-Earth

Science

and

Technology (JAMSTEC)

for

exploration

of

the deep

sea. Kaiko was the second of only four vessels ever to reach the bottom of the Challenger
Deep, as of 2010.
4.1.3 Autonomous underwater vehicles: Although the concept of Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles or AUVs has been around for more than a century, it is only in the last decade or two
that AUVs have been applied to deep-sea research and exploration. AUV technology is in a
phase of rapid growth and expanding diversity. As of 2009, there are more than 50 companies
around the world operating AUVs (Table 4.3) for a variety of purposes. (Humphris, 2009)
22

Table 4.3 AUVs for deep-sea exploration (operating depth >1000 m) (Humphris, 2009)
Vehicle

Operating organization

Dorado Class

Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute

(MBARI), USA
China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and
Development Association (COMRA), China
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
National Oceanography Center (NOC), UK
National Deep Submergence Facility (NDSF),
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Research Centre Ocean Margins, Germany
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC), Japan
Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation
de la MER (IFREMER), France
Alfred Wegener Institute, Germany
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), USA
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
USA
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
National Oceanography Centre, UK
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI),
USA
Univ. of Washington, USA

CR-01, CR-02
Sentry
REMUS Class
Autosub 6000
Autonomous
Benthic
Explorer
Explorer 5000
Jaguar/Puma
Urashima
(hybrid)
Aster x
Bluefin AUV
Bluefin 21 AUV
Odyssey Class
SeaBED
Autosub 3
Spray Gliders
Seaglider

Maximum operating
depth (m)
6000
6000
6000
6000
6000
5500

5000
5000
3500
3000
3000
3000
3000
2000
1600
1500
1000

As of 2009, there are about a dozen AUVs being used specifically for deep sea exploration,
although the numbers continue to increase. These unoccupied, untethered vehicles are
preprogrammed and deployed to drift, drive, or glide through the ocean without real-time
intervention from human operators. All power is supplied by energy systems carried within
the AUV. Data are recorded and are then either transmitted via satellite when the AUV comes
to the surface, or are downloaded when the vehicle is recovered. (Humphris, 2009)
They are generally more portable than HOVs and ROVs and can be deployed off a wide
variety of ships. By virtue of their relatively small size, limited capacity for scientific
payloads, and autonomous nature, AUVs do not have the range of capabilities of HOVs and
23

ROVs. They are, however, much better suited than HOVs and ROVs to surveying large areas
of the ocean that would take years to cover by any other means. They can run missions of
many hours or days on their battery power and, with their streamlined shape, can travel many
kilometers collecting data of various types depending on which sensors they are carrying.
Hence, AUVs are frequently used to identify regions of interest for further exploration by
HOVs and ROVs. (Humphris, 2009)
Fig 4.3 shows the AUVs Spray Glider and Urashima. The Spray Glider is operated under the
Woods Hole Oceanographic institution, USA, and Urashima under Japan Agency for MarineEarth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Japan. Spray Gliders are used to take vertical
profiles of data, giving scientists a clearer understanding of the temperature, salinity, and
turbidity of specific areas of the oceans. These measurements are then used to determine and
understand ocean circulation and its influence on the global climate.

Fig 4.3 Examples of AUVs, The Spray Glider (left) and Urashima (right) (Humphris, 2009)
URASHIMA is an autonomous deep-sea exploration robot which is able to cruise along the
seafloor in order to acquire extremely high detailed seafloor topography and sub-bottom
structure.
The first of the Dorado Class of AUVs (Table 4.3), operated by Monterey Bay Aquarium
Research Institute, was deployed in late 2001 to measure the inflow of water into the Arctic
basin through the Fram Strait. Autosub (Table 4.3), operated by the National Oceanography
Centre, Southampton, UK, was deployed to measure flow over the sills in the Strait of
Sicily. The REMUS (Remote Environmental Monitoring Units) (Table 4.3) class of AUVs is
extremely versatile and they have been used on many types of missions. REMUS can also
carry a video plankton recorder, a plankton pump, video cameras, electronic still cameras,
and, most recently, a towed acoustic array. Still other AUVs are designed specifically for
near bottom work. They have proved particularly useful for near-bottom surveying and
mapping, which can be accomplished autonomously while the support ship simultaneously

24

conducts other, more traditional, operations. In the future, AUVs will play an important role
in the development of long-term seafloor observatories. (Humphris, 2009)
The following section contains details about the various mining systems that are designed on
the basis of the seafloor samples and surveying data obtained by the vehicles for deep sea
exploration (HOVs, ROVs and AUVs).
4.2 Mining Systems
4.2.1 The air lift system: The air lift system has been proposed by Deep Sea Ventures which
is the service contractor to Ocean Mining Association. Fig 4.4 shows the air lift system. It has
two ships with a tow line in between. One is an ore carrier and the other one carries the air lift
system. The air lift system consist of a long pipe suspended from a vessel. To function
properly, the volume of air, the points along the pipe at which the air is injected, the diameter
of the pipe and the size of the nodules must be mutually calibrated. A gathering head at the
bottom is designed to collect the nodules from the seabed and feed them to the bottom of the
pipe to force the slurried mixture of nodules, air and water up and into the ship. The dredge
head must be designed to screen the nodules for proper size and air injection process must be
maintained at a level that carries the nodules to the surface at the desired rate. ( Shyam, 1982)

Fig 4.4 The Air Lift System (Shyam, 1982)

25

4.2.2 The hydraulic system: Hydraulic suction mining lowers a pipe to the seafloor which
transfers nodules up to the mining ship. Another pipe from the ship to the seafloor returns the
tailings to the area of the mining site. In the hydro dredge method, a self propelling robot
transports the mud of nodules, by suction, into a pipe in which the muds or nodules are forced
to flow upwards. (Glasby et al., 2013; Nishi et al., 2015)
Fig 4.5 shows the hydraulic system. It is operated in a manner of a huge under water
vacuum cleaner. It is similar to the air lift method but its operation depends upon pumped
water to induce flow into the pipe. The technology of hydraulic dredge pumps has been
refined in pipeline coal slurries and in mud pumping in oil fields. It requires the placement of
pumps along the pipe length. While the air compressors in the air lift system can be mounted
on the deck of the surface vessel, in the hydraulic system the moving mechanical parts have
to be placed at depths of 5,000 meters. The hydraulic lift system will be very heavy. The
complexity and the time required to assemble and disassemble hydraulic units will demand
that they operate continuously which is another serious drawback of the system. The
advantage of this system is that it can be modeled using convenctional slurry transport
systems as a source of information because the design calculations are based on available
information on fluid mechanics. The air lift system on the other hand with its complex
mixture of solid, liquid and gas, requires extensive testing before the operational
characteristics of the system can be determined. (Shyam, 1982)

Fig 4.5 The Hydraulic System (source:

https://instrumentalism.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/dustpan.jpg)

26

4.2.3 The continuous line bucket system: The continuous line bucket system operates much
like a conveyor belt, running from the sea floor to the surface of the ocean where a ship or
mining platform extracts the desired minerals and returns the tailings to the ocean (Fig 4.6).
The continuous line bucket (CLB) system consists of a long loop of cable with dredge
buckets attached at 25 meter to 50 meter intervals which is driven by ship board traction
motors. Buckets continually descend to the seafloor, scrape the bottom, scoop up the nodules,
return to the surface and as they pass over the ship to descend again, deposit the nodules into
the ship. Two ships are used to keep the ascending and descending portion of the cable far
apart in order to prevent them from being entangled. The continuous line bucket system is
relatively inexpensive and uncomplicated to operate. (Shyam, 1982; Glasby et al., 2013)

Fig 4.6 The Continuous Line Bucket System (Shyam, 1982)

The advantage of the continuous line bucket is that it does not have to be designed for a
specific depth, nodule size or sediment type. The CLB can be driven solely by axially moving
a circularly shaped slender structure. The simplicity of the driving mechanism is another
advantage of this method compared to other methods. Some disadvantages of this system are
that the cable will have to be shark proofed and the buckets cannot be controlled as they
move across the seabed. In the process, the buckets pick up too much of the sediment
although it is surmised that much of it may be washed away during the buckets return to the
surface. (Shyam, 1982; Nishi et al., 2015)

27

A disadvantage of the CLB lies in the instability of the trajectories of the bucket travelling
on the floor. In the traditional CLB, the configuration of grounding part of the circularly
shaped cable changes temporarily, and thus the trajectories of those buckets randomly
fluctuate, making the bucket trajectory unpredictable. If full scale tests prove that the buckets
can be filled to 50 percent of their capacity, the system may be used because of its simplicity
and other relative advantages. The air lift system and hydraulic system put a considerable
volume of sediment into the upper water column. The continuous line bucket system will
create more disturbance on the seabed because of the intense scraping action.
Environmentally the bucket system is considered to be less deleterious than other two
systems. (Shyam, 1982; Nishi et al., 2015)
5.0 CHALLENGES TO DEEP SEA MINING
To be minimally economic, the nodules need to be mined at a rate of about 5,000 tonnes
per day on a year-round basis. Using a 10 m wide gathering device, the nodule collecting
head would have to traverse the seafloor at a rate of 2 km/hr from a water depth of about
4,500 m and the nodules would need to have a Ni+Cu+Co content more than 2.5 percentage
to be economic. Ideally, the nodules would need to be mined at a rate of 3 Mega Tonne of
nodules per year, without a break throughout the year, not allowing for shutdowns for
necessary maintenance work. This would be a formidable proposition. However, it should be
borne in mind that manganese nodules are a relatively low-grade ore deposit located at great
depth in a hostile environment. Nonetheless, it should be borne in mind that mining deep-sea
manganese nodules is based on the assumption that only 2.53.0 percentage of the total mass
of the nodules lifted from the deep-sea floor (percentage of Ni+Co+Cu) will be collected on
the mining vessel for subsequent processing. This is a very low yield and explains why
mining of deep-sea nodules has failed to become a major industry so far. (Glasby et al.,
2013)
In order to mine nodules from the deep-sea floor on this scale, the nodules need to be
brought to the surface by hydraulic lift in a riser pipe with a diameter 3 times that of the
nodules in order to avoid clogging of the pipe which requires a minimum diameter of the
pipe of 3033 cm. It is the stringent requirements for lifting the nodules from the sea floor to
the sea surface that has essentially prevented the development of a large-scale deep-sea
mining industry. (Glasby et al., 2013)
Ferromanganese crusts, on the other hand, are typically found on hard-rock substrata at
water depths less than 2,600m and may cover up to 360 km 2 on a seamount. The distribution
28

of these crusts on seamounts is complex and

controlled by a wide-variety of factors

including seafloor morphology, mass wasting, substratum rock type and age, subsidence
history and ocean bottom current patterns. Mining these deposits is made difficult by the
complex topography and structure of the deep seafloor and the variable distribution of the
crusts on the seamounts. The development of this potential resource ultimately depends on
the distribution of the crusts as well as on the small-scale topography, grade, and tonnage. In
either case, the requirements for deep-sea mining are rigorous. As yet, there has been no
commercial mining of deep-sea nodules or cobalt rich manganese crusts. The basic problem
is that deep-sea mining is not cost competitive with mining minerals on land. ( Glasby et al.,
2013)
The first attempt to exploit deep-sea manganese nodules ended in failure as a result of the
collapse of world metal prices, the onerous provisions imposed by the United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, and the overoptimistic assumptions about the viability of
nodule mining. Attention then focused on cobalt-rich manganese crusts from seamounts.
Since the mid-1980s, a number of new players have committed themselves to long-term
programs to establish the viability of mining deep-sea manganese nodules. However, these
programs required heavy subsidy by host governments which has not been forthcoming. At
present, there are some tentative plans, but none that are fully approved, to mine manganese
nodules commercially. There are also formidable engineering problems of working with large
mining systems at depths of 4,500 m on the deep sea floor which are a major obstacle to
deep-sea mining on a year-round basis. (Glasby et al., 2013)
Despite the great deal of investment in deep-sea mining over more than 40 years, there
has still been no successful attempt to mine the deep-sea nodules on a commercial scale. One
of the major problems is that the nodules cannot be brought to the surface with the necessary
amounts of recoverable nickel, cobalt and zinc to warrant the initial high investment
necessary for this operation. It, therefore, appears that in the short term, deep-sea manganese
and cobalt rich manganese crusts will not be mined on a commercial scale in the foreseeable
future. (Glasby et al., 2013)
Mining of deep sea mineral deposits have several technological challenges in terms of
extreme operating conditions such as high operating depth (3-6 km), distance from shore
(>1000km) , high pressure (300 500 bars), low temperature (0-10 degree celcius), as well as
physical forces like currents, waves and others. Mining of either 1.5 million tonnes or 3
million tonnes in 300 (approx.) working days in a year, translates to 5000 to 10,000 tonnes of
29

ore / day (equivalent to 210-420 t/hr or 3.5-7 t/min) that the mining system will not only be
collecting from the seafloor, but will also require lift mechanism to bring them to the surface
through more than 5 km of water column, as well as handling equipment on the mining
platform. Also for these operations, continuous power supply and adequate storage space for
nodules will be required on the platform, as the mining sites lie several thousand kilometers
(2000-6000 km) away from possible landing sites for these ores, involving 5-15 days of
travel time (at 10 knots speed) for the transport vessels besides loading/unloading time (for
ores, spares, fuel, manpower and provisions) during each visit to the mining platform.
(Sharma, 2011; Sharma, 2015)
Although, development of mining technology is in different stages, with a number of
crawlers and lifting mechanisms being tested by the contractors , the real challenge lies in up
scaling and integrating different subsystems and making them work on a sustained basis
continuously for 300 days/year under extreme conditions, such as meteorological factors
(rainfall, winds, cyclones), hydrographic conditions (high pressure, low temperature,
currents, lack of natural light); coupled with seafloor environment (undulating topography,
variable sediment thickness and compactness, and heterogeneous distribution of deposits).
The miner should be a self propelled active device, with acoustic sensors to be able to detect
promising areas and to avoid unfavourable areas, in order to save on power consumption
and time, and be cost effective. (Sharma, 2011)

6.0 CURRENT STATUS OF DEEP SEA MINING

Recent reports of Fe-Mn deposits from the Christmas island region and Afanasiy-Nikitin
seamounts of the Indian Ocean as well as the Marshall island area of the Pacific Ocean and
the granting of licences to private companies for exploration of seafloor massive sulphides off
Papua New Guinea and New Zealand reaffirms the continuing interest of scientists and
mining companies in exploring and exploiting the deep sea mineral deposits. There appears to
be a systematic plan of graduating from relatively shallower deposits, such as the crusts and
sulphides (1000-2500 m) to deeper ferromanganese nodules (4000-6000 m). (Sharma, 2011)

In early 2011, Nautilus Minerals was granted a 20-year lease by the government of Papua
New Guinea to mine at the Solwara Site 1 in the Manus Basin which will involve removing
30

ores (and organisms) to a depth of 2030 m on the seafloor. The company expects to begin
open-cut mining there within the next few years covering an area equivalent to about 10
football fields (13,165m2). In recent years, the most promising mining areas have been the
Central and Eastern Manus Basin around Papua New Guinea and the crater of Conical
Seamount to the east. These locations have shown promising amounts of gold in the sulphide
deposits (with average contents of 26 ppm). The relatively shallow water depth of 1050 m,
along with the close proximity to a gold processing plant makes for an excellent mining site.
Certainly, the technology for seabed mining has matured and deposits of copper, zinc, silver,
and gold rich ores have been identified at deep-sea vents in areas of moderate seas located
close to onshore mining infrastructure. (Glasby et al., 2013)
At least two mining companies (Bluewater Metals of Sydney, Australia, and Nautilus
Minerals, Brisbane, Australia) are pushing ahead with mining exploration in the territorial
waters of island nations in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Both companies undertook
exploration expeditions late in 2010, Nautilus Minerals in the waters of Papua New Guinea
and Bluewater Metals in waters of the Solomon Islands. In July 2011, the International
Seabed Authority (ISA), which has jurisdiction over mineral resources in international waters
reviewed the first lease applications for exploration at mid-ocean ridges. At Seventeenth
Session in Kingston, Jamaica, from 1122 July 2011, the International Seabed Council
approved four applications for exploratory contracts in deep seabed area. In all, four entities,
Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. (NORI), sponsored by Nauru; Tonga Offshore Mining Limited
(TOML), sponsored by Tonga; China Ocean Minerals Resources Research and Development
Association (COMRA), and the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment of the
Russian Federation have been accepted. The Russian Federation also submitted an
application to the ISA in January 2011 for approval of a plan to explore for polymetallic
sulphides in the Area on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Mineral exploitation will not therefore be
limited to territorial waters. (Glasby et al., 2013)
The SMS deposits that will likely be amongst the first to be mined occur in the Manus
Basin, north of Papua New Guinea. Investigations have identified a mineralised ore body at a
site called Solwara 1 consisting of a mound 2 km in diameter rising 200 m above the
seafloor. The ore consists of 870,000-1,300,000 tonnes, containing 6.8-7.5 percentage weight
copper and 4.8-7.2 g tonne-1 of gold. Other deposits currently being explored for mining
potential include those in the New Zealands Exclusive Economic Zone (NZ EEZ) along the
31

Kermadec arceback-arc system, where deposits exist at exploitable depths of 150-200 m in

the Bay of Plenty, 870-930 m at Clark Seamount and as deep as 1150-1800 m at Brothers
Seamount. Deposits at Brothers Seamount are also rich in base and precious metals with high
concentrations of copper, zinc, iron and gold (up to 15.3 percent weight, 18.8 percent weight,
19.1 percent weight and 91 g tonne-1 respectively). (Boschen et al., 2013)
6.1 Current Status of India in Deep Sea Mining
According to the Scientists at the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
(NCAOR), Goa, the country has been granted 10,000 sq km near Rodriguez Triple Junction
for seabed exploration of polymetallic sulphides. The license to conduct exploration for 15
years was granted in 2014 by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). The first level of
exploration has been completed and a large amount of data has been collected including
videos and photographs. National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai, and
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa, will jointly take up the
second level of exploration. Polymetallic sulphide commonly hold copper, iron and lead,
besides gold and silver in lesser quantities. ROSUB 6000, a work class underwater remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) with a depth rating of 6,000 meters developed at National Institute of
Ocean Technology (NIOT) will be deployed for capturing videos with its high resolution
cameras from a distance of about 1.5 meters, as the black smokers vent (similar to the one
shown in Fig. 3.2) eject hot fluid that have high temperature of 350 to 375 degrees Celsius.
(http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-goes-deep-sea-to-minegold/articleshow/47874191.cms, 2015)
According to the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), in the Indian Ocean, the
polymetallic nodules are strewn across 10-18 million sq km of ocean floor. About 380 million
tonnes of nodules are present in the licensed exploration area of 150,000 sq km. These
include 92.60 million tonnes of manganese. Minerals like cobalt, nickel and copper are
present in the concentrations of 0.56, 4.70 and 4.30 million tonnes. National Institute of
Ocean Technology (NIOT) is developing technologies for extracting these minerals from
deep sea and has set up processing plants at the cost of US $135 million.
(http://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/mining-at-deep-sea-46049, 2014)
.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS
32

Although SMS mining is still at the prospecting and exploratory phase, exploitation of
SMS deposits will probably occur in the next few years in the Western Pacific. Globally,
numerous deposits have been identified from a suite of hydrothermal environments and
depths, with a range in deposit size and mineral content. SMS deposits can either be
hydrothermally active or inactive, although the distinction between these is not always clear.
As well as commercially viable ore, deposits are also host to complex biological
communities. (Sharma, 2015)
Inspite of all experiments conducted and calculations based on still limited data for the
possible future mining activities, many questions remain unanswered, due to the limited
scope of these studies. Some of the questions are :
a) What will be a likely mining system or systems in the next 20 years that can be a basis of
environmental tests? It is difficult to specify commercial-scale now but should assume
itself, because commercial system size and type are likely different depending upon the use of
nodule elements and can vary with metal market situation.
b) How do we generalize the test parameters from the tow-sled collector and miner/collector
vehicle?
c) How much room do we leave in environment test planning for unidentified deep sea
questions?
d) How do we integrate the test data of bottom disturbance with other effects in more
environmental friendly mining system design and operations? (Sharma, 2015)
More recent studies on deep-sea minerals with respect to global economy suggest that in
the 21st century, deep-sea polymetallic resources will be increasingly important in meeting
the deficit of metals such as Mn, Ni, Cu, Co, and others. In financial terms, nickel being the
most important component, deep-sea mining can best be compared with nickel mining on
land. It has also been pointed out that as there are no known large deposits of nickel sulphides
and the industrialisation of large developing countries will increase the demand, the oxide
ores such as polymetallic nodules are the future source of nickel. Due to the continuing
efforts of the state funded Contractors, the growing interest of private entrepreneurs and
development of new technologies, it seems that deep-sea mining has the potential of
becoming a reality in future. Estimates show that metal resources from the already identified
areas could last for several decades and exploration of new areas could provide resources that
would last for centuries. Also, a single mine-site would yield metals worth billions of dollars,

33

the returns of which could be much higher due to enhanced metal prices at the time of
mining. (Sharma, 2011)
In summary, deep-sea manganese nodules and Co-rich manganese crusts remain an
important potential resource of selected elements for the late 21st century. Whether it will
ever be possible to mine deep-sea manganese nodules on a competitive basis at the proposed
rates of recovery without upsetting the ecological balance of the deep-oceans is another
matter. (Glasby et al., 2013)

34

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