Coordinates:414357N495649W

RMSTitanic
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

RMSTitanicwasaBritishpassengerlinerthatsankintheNorthAtlanticOceanintheearlymorningof15April1912,
aftercollidingwithanicebergduringhermaidenvoyagefromSouthampton,UK,toNewYorkCity,US.Thesinking
resultedinthedeathsofmorethan1,500passengersandcrew,makingitoneofthedeadliestcommercialpeacetime
maritimedisastersinmodernhistory.TheRMSTitanic,thelargestshipafloatatthetimeitenteredservice,wasthe
secondofthreeOlympicclassoceanlinersoperatedbytheWhiteStarLine,andwasbuiltbytheHarlandandWolff
shipyardinBelfast,withThomasAndrewsashernavalarchitect.Andrewswasamongthosewhodiedinthesinking.On
hermaidenvoyage,shecarried2,224passengersandcrew.
UnderthecommandofEdwardSmith,theship'spassengersincludedsomeofthewealthiestpeopleintheworld,aswell
ashundredsofemigrantsfromGreatBritainandIreland,ScandinaviaandelsewherethroughoutEuropeseekinganew
lifeinNorthAmerica.Ahighpowerradiotelegraphtransmitterwasavailableforsendingpassenger"marconigrams"and
fortheship'soperationaluse.AlthoughTitanichadadvancedsafetyfeaturessuchaswatertightcompartmentsand
remotelyactivatedwatertightdoors,therewerenotenoughlifeboatstoaccommodateallofthoseaboardduetooutdated
maritimesafetyregulations.Titaniconlycarriedenoughlifeboatsfor1,178peopleslightlymorethanhalfofthe
numberonboard,andonethirdhertotalcapacity.
AfterleavingSouthamptonon10April1912,TitaniccalledatCherbourginFranceandQueenstown(nowCobh)in
IrelandbeforeheadingwesttoNewYork.[2]On14April1912,fourdaysintothecrossingandabout375miles(600km)
southofNewfoundland,shehitanicebergat11:40p.m.ship'stime.Thecollisioncausedtheship'shullplatestobuckle
inwardsalongherstarboardsideandopenedfiveofhersixteenwatertightcompartmentstotheseatheshipgradually
filledwithwater.Meanwhile,passengersandsomecrewmemberswereevacuatedinlifeboats,manyofwhichwere
launchedonlypartlyloaded.Adisproportionatenumberofmenwereleftaboardbecauseofa"womenandchildrenfirst"
protocolfollowedbysomeoftheofficersloadingthelifeboats.[3]By2:20a.m.,shebrokeapartandfoundered,withwell
overonethousandpeoplestillaboard.JustundertwohoursafterTitanicfoundered,theCunardlinerRMSCarpathia
arrivedonthesceneofthesinking,whereshebroughtaboardanestimated705survivors.
Thedisasterwasgreetedwithworldwideshockandoutrageatthehugelossoflifeandtheregulatoryandoperational
failuresthathadledtoit.PublicinquiriesinBritainandtheUnitedStatesledtomajorimprovementsinmaritimesafety.
Oneoftheirmostimportantlegacieswastheestablishmentin1914oftheInternationalConventionfortheSafetyofLife
atSea(SOLAS),whichstillgovernsmaritimesafetytoday.Additionally,severalnewwirelessregulationswerepassed
aroundtheworldinanefforttolearnfromthemanymisstepsinwirelesscommunicationswhichcouldhavesaved
manymorepassengers.[4]
ThewreckofTitanicremainsontheseabed,splitintwoandgraduallydisintegratingatadepthof12,415feet(3,784m).
Sinceherdiscoveryin1985,thousandsofartefactshavebeenrecoveredandputondisplayatmuseumsaroundthe
world.Titanichasbecomeoneofthemostfamousshipsinhistoryhermemoryiskeptalivebynumerousworksof
popularculture(e.g.,books,folksongs,films,exhibits,andmemorials).

RMSTitanicdepartingSouthamptonon10April
1912

History

Name:

RMSTitanic

Owner:

WhiteStarLine

Portof
registry:

Liverpool,UK

Route:

SouthamptontoNewYorkCity

Ordered:

17September1908

Builder:

HarlandandWolff,Belfast

Cost:

7.5million(USdollars)

Yardnumber: 401
Laiddown:

31March1909

Launched:

31May1911

Completed:

2April1912

Maiden
voyage:

10April1912

Inservice:

1015April1912

Identification: Radiocallsign"MGY"

Contents
1 Background
2 Dimensionsandlayout
3 Features
3.1 Power
3.2 Technology
3.2.1 Watertightcompartmentsandfunnels
3.2.2 Rudderandsteeringengines
3.2.3 Water,ventilationandheating
3.2.4 Radiocommunications
3.3 Passengerfacilities
3.4 Mailandcargo
3.5 Lifeboats
4 Buildingandpreparingtheship
4.1 Construction,launchandfittingout
4.2 Seatrials
5 Maidenvoyage
5.1 Crew
5.2 Passengers
5.3 Collectingpassengers
5.4 Atlanticcrossing
5.5 Sinking
6 Aftermathofsinking
6.1 ArrivalofCarpathiainNewYork
6.2 Insuranceandaidforsurvivors
6.3 Investigationsintothedisaster
6.3.1 RoleoftheSSCalifornian
6.4 Survivorsandvictims
6.5 Retrievalandburialofthedead
7 Wreck
8 Legacy
8.1 Safety
8.2 Cultural
9 Appendix
10 Titanicreplicas
11 Seealso
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 Externallinks

Fate:

Hitaniceberg11:40p.m.(ship's
time)14April1912onhermaiden
voyageandsank2h40minlater

Status:

Wreck

Generalcharacteristics
Classand
type:

Olympicclassoceanliner

Tonnage:

46,328GRT

Displacement: 52,310tons
Length:

882ft9in(269.1m)

Beam:

92ft0in(28.0m)

Height:

175ft(53.3m)(keeltotopof
funnels)

Draught:

34ft7in(10.5m)

Depth:

64ft6in(19.7m)

Decks:

9(AG)

Installed
power:

24doubleendedandfivesingleended
boilersfeedingtworeciprocating
steamenginesforthewingpropellers,
andalowpressureturbineforthe
centrepropeller[1]output:46,000HP

Propulsion:

Twothreebladewingpropellersand
onefourbladecentrepropeller

Speed:

Cruising:21kn(39km/h24mph).
Max:24kn(44km/h28mph)

Capacity:

Passengers:2,435,crew:892.Total:
3,327(or3,547accordingtoother
sources)

Notes:

Lifeboats:20for1,178people

Background
ThenameTitanicwasderivedfromGreekmythologyandmeantgigantic.BuiltinBelfast,Ireland,intheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandIreland(asitwasthen
known),theRMSTitanicwasthesecondofthethreeOlympicclassoceanlinersthefirstwastheRMSOlympicandthethirdwastheHMHSBritannic.[5]Theywereby
farthelargestvesselsoftheBritishshippingcompanyWhiteStarLine'sfleet,whichcomprised29steamersandtendersin1912.[6]Thethreeshipshadtheirgenesisina
discussioninmid1907betweentheWhiteStarLine'schairman,J.BruceIsmay,andtheAmericanfinancierJ.P.Morgan,whocontrolledtheWhiteStarLine'sparent
corporation,theInternationalMercantileMarineCo.(IMM).
TheWhiteStarLinefacedanincreasingchallengefromitsmainrivalsCunard,whichhadrecentlylaunchedtheLusitaniaandtheMauretaniathefastestpassengerships
theninserviceandtheGermanlinesHamburgAmericaandNorddeutscherLloyd.Ismaypreferredtocompeteonsizeratherthanspeedandproposedtocommissiona
newclassoflinersthatwouldbelargerthananythingthathadgonebeforeaswellasbeingthelastwordincomfortandluxury.[7]Thecompanysoughtanupgradeintheir
fleetprimarilyinresponsetotheCunardgiantsbutalsotoreplacetheiroldestpairofpassengershipsstillinservice,beingtheSSTeutonicof1889andSSMajesticof
1890.TeutonicwasreplacedbyOlympicwhileMajesticwasreplacedbyTitanic.MajesticwouldbebroughtbackintoheroldspotonWhiteStar'sNewYorkserviceafter
Titanic'sloss.[8]
TheshipswereconstructedbytheBelfastshipbuildersHarlandandWolff,whohadalongestablishedrelationshipwiththeWhiteStarLinedatingbackto1867.[9]Harland
andWolffweregivenagreatdealoflatitudeindesigningshipsfortheWhiteStarLinetheusualapproachwasforthelattertosketchoutageneralconceptwhichthe
formerwouldtakeawayandturnintoashipdesign.CostconsiderationswererelativelylowontheagendaandHarlandandWolffwasauthorisedtospendwhatitneeded
ontheships,plusafivepercentprofitmargin.[9]InthecaseoftheOlympicclassships,acostof3millionforthefirsttwoshipswasagreedplus"extrastocontract"and
theusualfivepercentfee.[10]
HarlandandWolffputtheirleadingdesignerstoworkdesigningtheOlympicclassvessels.ThedesignwasoverseenbyLordPirrie,adirectorofbothHarlandandWolff
andtheWhiteStarLinenavalarchitectThomasAndrews,themanagingdirectorofHarlandandWolff'sdesigndepartmentEdwardWilding,Andrews'deputyand
responsibleforcalculatingtheship'sdesign,stabilityandtrimandAlexanderCarlisle,theshipyard'schiefdraughtsmanandgeneralmanager.[11]Carlisle'sresponsibilities
includedthedecorations,equipmentandallgeneralarrangements,includingtheimplementationofanefficientlifeboatdavitdesign.[a]
On29July1908,HarlandandWolffpresentedthedrawingstoJ.BruceIsmayandotherWhiteStarLineexecutives.Ismayapprovedthedesignandsignedthree"lettersof
agreement"twodayslaterauthorisingthestartofconstruction.[14]AtthispointthefirstshipwhichwaslatertobecomeOlympichadnoname,butwasreferredto
simplyas"Number400",asitwasHarlandandWolff'sfourhundredthhull.Titanicwasbasedonarevisedversionofthesamedesignandwasgiventhenumber401.[15]

Dimensionsandlayout
Titanicwas882feet9inches(269.06m)longwithamaximumbreadthof92feet6inches(28.19m).Hertotalheight,measuredfromthebaseofthekeeltothetopofthe
bridge,was104feet(32m).[16]Shemeasured46,328grossregistertonsandwithadraughtof34feet7inches(10.54m),shedisplaced52,310tons.[17]
AllthreeoftheOlympicclassshipshadtendecks(excludingthetopoftheofficers'quarters),eightofwhichwereforpassengeruse.Fromtoptobottom,thedeckswere:
TheBoatDeck,onwhichthelifeboatswerehoused.Itwasfromhereduringtheearlyhoursof15April1912thatTitanic 'slifeboatswereloweredintotheNorth
Atlantic.Thebridgeandwheelhousewereattheforwardend,infrontofthecaptain'sandofficers'quarters.Thebridgestood8feet(2.4m)abovethedeck,extending
outtoeithersidesothattheshipcouldbecontrolledwhiledocking.Thewheelhousestooddirectlybehindandabovethebridge.TheentrancetotheFirstClassGrand
StaircaseandgymnasiumwerelocatedmidshipsalongwiththeraisedroofoftheFirstClasslounge,whileattherearofthedeckweretheroofoftheFirstClass
smokeroomandtherelativelymodestSecondClassentrance.Thewoodcovereddeckwas

smokeroomandtherelativelymodestSecondClassentrance.Thewoodcovereddeckwas
dividedintofoursegregatedpromenades:forofficers,FirstClasspassengers,engineers,and
SecondClasspassengersrespectively.LifeboatslinedthesideofthedeckexceptintheFirstClass
area,wheretherewasagapsothattheviewwouldnotbespoiled.[18][19]
ADeck,alsocalledthePromenadeDeck,extendedalongtheentire546feet(166m)lengthof
thesuperstructure.ItwasreservedexclusivelyforFirstClasspassengersandcontainedFirstClass
cabins,theFirstClasslounge,smokeroom,readingandwritingroomsandPalmCourt.[18]
BDeck,theBridgeDeck,wasthetopweightbearingdeckandtheuppermostlevelofthehull.
Titanicin1912
MoreFirstClasspassengeraccommodationwaslocatedherewithsixpalatialstaterooms(cabins)
featuringtheirownprivatepromenades.OnTitanic,theALaCarteRestaurantandtheCaf
ParisienprovidedluxurydiningfacilitiestoFirstClasspassengers.Bothwererunbysubcontractedchefsandtheirstaffallwerelostinthedisaster.TheSecond
Classsmokingroomandentrancehallwerebothlocatedonthisdeck.TheraisedforecastleoftheshipwasforwardoftheBridgeDeck,accommodatingNumber1
hatch(themainhatchthroughtothecargoholds),numerouspiecesofmachineryandtheanchorhousings.[b]AftoftheBridgeDeckwastheraisedPoopDeck,106
feet(32m)long,usedasapromenadebyThirdClasspassengers.ItwaswheremanyofTitanic 'spassengersandcrewmadetheirlaststandastheshipsank.The
forecastleandPoopDeckwereseparatedfromtheBridgeDeckbywelldecks.[20][21]
CDeck,theShelterDeck,wasthehighestdecktorununinterruptedfromstemtostern.ItincludedbothwelldeckstheaftoneservedaspartoftheThirdClass
promenade.CrewcabinswerehousedbelowtheforecastleandThirdClasspublicroomswerehousedbelowthePoopDeck.InbetweenwerethemajorityofFirst
ClasscabinsandtheSecondClasslibrary.[20][22]
DDeck,theSaloonDeck,wasdominatedbythreelargepublicroomstheFirstClassReceptionRoom,theFirstClassDiningSaloonandtheSecondClassDining
Saloon.AnopenspacewasprovidedforThirdClasspassengers.First,SecondandThirdClasspassengershadcabinsonthisdeck,withberthsforfiremenlocatedin
thebow.Itwasthehighestlevelreachedbytheship'swatertightbulkheads(thoughonlybyeightofthefifteenbulkheads).[20][23]
EDeck,theUpperDeck,waspredominantlyusedforpassengeraccommodationforallthreeclassesplusberthsforcooks,seamen,stewardsandtrimmers.Alongits
lengthranalongpassagewaynicknamedScotlandRoad,inreferencetoafamousstreetinLiverpool.ScotlandRoadwasusedbyThirdClasspassengersandcrew
members.[20][24]
FDeck,theMiddleDeck,wasthelastcompletedeckandmainlyaccommodatedSecondandThirdClasspassengersandseveraldepartmentsofthecrew.TheThird
Classdiningsaloonwaslocatedhere,asweretheswimmingpoolandTurkishbath.[20][24]
GDeck,theLowerDeck,wasthelowestcompletedeckthatcarriedpassengers,andhadthelowestportholes,justabovethewaterline.Thesquashcourtwaslocated
herealongwiththetravellingpostofficewheremailclerkssortedlettersandparcelssothattheywouldbereadyfordeliverywhentheshipdocked.Foodwasalso
storedhere.Thedeckwasinterruptedatseveralpointsbyorlop(partial)decksovertheboiler,engineandturbinerooms.[20][25]
TheOrlopDecksandtheTankTopwereonthelowestleveloftheship,belowthewaterline.Theorlopdeckswereusedascargospaces,whiletheTankTopthe
innerbottomoftheship'shullprovidedtheplatformonwhichtheship'sboilers,engines,turbinesandelectricalgeneratorswerehoused.Thisareaoftheshipwas
occupiedbytheengineandboilerrooms,areaswhichpassengerswouldnotbepermittedtosee.Theywereconnectedwithhigherlevelsoftheshipbyflightsof
stairstwinspiralstairwaysnearthebowprovidedaccessuptoDDeck.[20][25]

Features
Power
Titanicwasequippedwiththreemainenginestworeciprocatingfourcylinder,tripleexpansionsteamenginesandonecentrallyplacedlowpressureParsonsturbine
eachdrivingapropeller.Thetworeciprocatingengineshadacombinedoutputof30,000hpandafurther16,000hpwascontributedbytheturbine.[16]TheWhiteStarLine
hadusedthesamecombinationofenginesonanearlierliner,theSSLaurentic,whereithadbeenagreatsuccess.[27]Itprovidedagoodcombinationofperformanceand

speedreciprocatingenginesbythemselveswerenotpowerfulenoughtopropelanOlympicclasslineratthedesiredspeeds,whileturbines
weresufficientlypowerfulbutcauseduncomfortablevibrations,aproblemthataffectedtheallturbineCunardlinersLusitaniaand
Mauretania.[28]Bycombiningreciprocatingengineswithaturbine,fuelusagecouldbereducedandmotivepowerincreased,whileusing
thesameamountofsteam.[29]
Thetworeciprocatingengineswereeach63feet(19m)longandweighed720tons,withtheirbedplatescontributingafurther195tons.[28]
Theywerepoweredbysteamproducedin29boilers,24ofwhichweredoubleendedand5singleended,whichcontainedatotalof159
furnaces.[30]Theboilerswere15feet9inches(4.80m)indiameterand20feet(6.1m)long,eachweighing91.5tonsandcapableof
holding48.5tonsofwater.[31]
Theywereheatedbyburningcoal,6,611tonsofwhichcouldbecarriedinTitanic 'sbunkerswithafurther1,092tonsinHold3.The
furnacesrequiredover600tonsofcoaladaytobeshovelledintothembyhand,requiringtheservicesof176firemenworkingaroundthe
clock.[32]100tonsofashadayhadtobedisposedofbyejectingitintothesea.[33]Theworkwasrelentless,dirtyanddangerous,and
althoughfiremenwerepaidrelativelygenerously[32]therewasahighsuiciderateamongthosewhoworkedinthatcapacity.[34]

Rudderwithcentralandport
wingpropellers[c]forscale
notethemanatbottomofthe
photo

Exhauststeamleavingthereciprocatingengineswasfedintotheturbine,whichwassituatedaft.Fromthereitpassedintoacondenser,to
increasetheefficiencyoftheturbineandsothatthesteamcouldbecondensedbackintowaterandreused.[35]Theengineswereattached
directlytolongshaftswhichdrovethepropellers.Therewerethree,oneforeachenginetheouter(orwing)propellerswerethelargest,eachcarryingthreebladesof
manganesebronzealloywithatotaldiameterof23.5feet(7.2m).[31]Themiddlepropellerwasslightlysmallerat17feet(5.2m)indiameter,[36]andcouldbestoppedbut
notreversed.
Titanic 'selectricalplantwascapableofproducingmorepowerthananaveragecitypowerstationofthetime.[37]Immediatelyaftoftheturbineenginewerefour400kW
steamdrivenelectricgenerators,usedtoprovideelectricalpowertotheship,plustwo30kWauxiliarygeneratorsforemergencyuse.[38]Theirlocationinthesternofthe
shipmeantthattheyremainedoperationaluntilthelastfewminutesbeforetheshipsank.[39]

Technology
Watertightcompartmentsandfunnels
TheinteriorsoftheOlympicclassshipsweresubdividedintosixteenprimarycompartmentsdividedbyfifteenbulkheadswhichextendedwellabovethewaterline.Eleven
verticallyclosingwatertightdoorscouldsealoffthecompartmentsintheeventofanemergency.[40]Theships'exposeddeckingwasmadeofpineandteak,whileinterior
ceilingswerecoveredinpaintedgranulatedcorktocombatcondensation.[41]Standingabovethedeckswerefourfunnels,eachpaintedbuffwithblacktops,(thoughonly
threewerefunctionalthelastonewasadummy,installedforaestheticpurposesandalsoforkitchenventilation)andtwomasts,each155feet(47m)high,which
supportedderricksforworkingcargo.
Rudderandsteeringengines
Titanic 'srudderwaslargeenoughat78feet8inches(23.98m)highand15feet3inches(4.65m)long,weighingover100tonsthatitrequiredsteeringenginestomove
it.Twosteampoweredsteeringengineswereinstalledthoughonlyonewasusedatanyonetime,withtheotheronekeptinreserve.Theywereconnectedtotheshorttiller
throughstiffsprings,toisolatethesteeringenginesfromanyshocksinheavyseasorduringfastchangesofdirection.[42]Asalastresort,thetillercouldbemovedbyropes

connectedtotwosteamcapstans.[43]Thecapstanswerealsousedtoraiseandlowertheship'sfiveanchors(oneport,onestarboard,oneinthecentrelineandtwokedging
anchors).[43]
Water,ventilationandheating
Theshipwasequippedwithherownwaterworks,capableofheatingandpumpingwatertoallpartsofthevesselviaacomplexnetworkofpipesandvalves.Themain
watersupplywastakenaboardwhileTitanicwasinport,butinanemergencytheshipcouldalsodistilfreshwaterfromseawater,thoughthiswasnotastraightforward
processasthedistillationplantquicklybecamecloggedbysaltdeposits.Anetworkofinsulatedductsconveyedwarmair,drivenbyelectricfans,aroundtheship,andFirst
Classcabinswerefittedwithadditionalelectricheaters.[37]
Radiocommunications
Titanic'sradiotelegraphequipment(thenknownaswirelesstelegraphy)wasleasedtotheWhiteStarLinebytheMarconi
InternationalMarineCommunicationCompany,whichalsosuppliedtwoofitsemployees,JackPhillipsandHaroldBride,as
operators.Theservicemaintaineda24hourschedule,primarilysendingandreceivingpassengertelegrams,butalsohandling
navigationmessagesincludingweatherreportsandicewarnings.[44][45]
TheradioroomwaslocatedontheBoatDeck,intheOfficers'quarters.Asoundproofed"SilentRoom",nexttotheoperating
room,housedloudequipment,includingthetransmitterandamotorgeneratorusedforproducingalternatingcurrents.The
operator'slivingquarterswereadjacenttotheworkingoffice.Theshipwasequippedwitha5kilowattrotarysparkgap
transmitter,operatingundertheradiocallsignMGY,andcommunicationwasconductedinMorsecode.Thistransmitterwas
oneofthefirstMarconiinstallationstousearotarysparkgap,whichgaveTitanicadistinctivemusicaltonethatcouldbe
readilydistinguishedfromothersignals.Thetransmitterwasoneofthemostpowerfulintheworld,witharangeofupto1,000
miles(1,609km).AnelevatedTantennathatspannedthelengthoftheshipwasusedfortransmittingandreceiving.Thenormal
operatingfrequencywas500kHz(600mwavelength),howevertheequipmentcouldalsooperateonthe"short"wavelengthof
1000kHz(300mwavelength)thatwasemployedbysmallervesselswithshorterantennas.[46]

Marconicompanyreceivingequipmentfor
a5kilowattoceanlinerstation.

Passengerfacilities
ThepassengerfacilitiesaboardTitanicaimedtomeetthehigheststandardsofluxury.AccordingtoTitanic'sgeneralarrangementplans,theshipcouldaccommodate833
FirstClassPassengers,614inSecondClassand1,006inThirdClass,foratotalpassengercapacityof2,453.Inaddition,hercapacityforcrewmembersexceeded900,as
mostdocumentsofheroriginalconfigurationhavestatedthatherfullcarryingcapacityforbothpassengersandcrewwasapproximately3,547.Herinteriordesignwasa
departurefromthatofotherpassengerliners,whichhadtypicallybeendecoratedintheratherheavystyleofamanorhouseoranEnglishcountryhouse.[47]
TitanicwaslaidoutinamuchlighterstylesimilartothatofcontemporaryhighclasshotelstheRitzHotelwasareferencepointwithFirstClasscabinsfinishedinthe
Empirestyle.[47]Avarietyofotherdecorativestyles,rangingfromtheRenaissancetoVictorian,wereusedtodecoratecabinsandpublicroomsinFirstandSecondClass
areasoftheship.Theaimwastoconveyanimpressionthatthepassengerswereinafloatinghotelratherthanashipasonepassengerrecalled,onenteringtheship's
interiorapassengerwould"atoncelosethefeelingthatweareonboardship,andseeminsteadtobeenteringthehallofsomegreathouseonshore".[48]

Passengerscoulduseanonboardtelephonesystem,alendinglibraryandalargebarbershop.[49]TheFirstClasssectionhadaswimmingpool,agymnasium,asquash
court,aTurkishbath,anelectricbathandaVerandahCafe.[48]FirstClasscommonroomswereadornedwithornatewoodpanelling,expensivefurnitureandother
decorations,whiletheThirdClassgeneralroomhadpinepanellingandsturdyteakfurniture.[50]TheCafParisienwaslocatedonasunlitverandafittedwithtrellis
decorationsandofferedthebestFrenchhautecuisineforFirstClasspassengers.[51]
ThirdClass(alsocommonlyreferredtoasSteerage)accommodationsaboardTitanicwerenotasluxuriousasFirstClass,butevensowerebetterthanonmanyotherships
ofthetime.TheyreflectedtheimprovedstandardswhichtheWhiteStarLinehadadoptedfortransAtlanticimmigrantandlowerclasstravel.OnmostotherNorthAtlantic
passengershipsatthetime,ThirdClassaccommodationsconsistedoflittlemorethanopendormitoriesintheforwardendofthevessels,inwhichhundredsofpeoplewere
confined,oftenwithoutadequatefoodortoiletfacilities.
TheWhiteStarLinehadlongsincebrokenthatmould.AsseenaboardTitanic,allWhiteStarLinepassengershipsdividedtheirThirdClassaccommodationsintotwo
sections,alwaysatoppositeendsofthevesselfromoneanother.Theestablishedarrangementwasthatsinglemenwerequarteredintheforwardareas,whilesinglewomen,
marriedcouplesandfamilieswerequarteredaft.Inaddition,whileothershipsprovidedonlyopenberthsleepingarrangements,WhiteStarLinevesselsprovidedtheirThird
Classpassengerswithprivate,smallbutcomfortablecabinscapableofaccommodatingtwo,four,six,eightandtenpassengers.
ThirdClassaccommodationsalsoincludedtheirowndiningrooms,aswellaspublicgatheringareasincludingadequateopendeckspace,whichaboardTitanicincludedthe
ForecastleDeckforward,thePoopDeckaft,bothwelldecksandalargeopenspaceonDDeckwhichcouldbeusedasasocialhall.Thiswassupplementedbytheaddition
ofasmokingroomformenandareadingroomforwomen,andalthoughtheywerenotasglamorousindesignasspacesseeninupperclassaccommodations,theywere
stillfaraboveaveragefortheperiod.
Leisurefacilitieswereprovidedforallthreeclassestopassthetime.Aswellasmakinguseoftheindooramenitiessuchasthelibrary,smokingrooms,andgymnasium,it
wasalsocustomaryforpassengerstosocialiseontheopendeck,promenadingorrelaxinginhireddeckchairsorwoodenbenches.Apassengerlistwaspublishedbeforethe
sailingtoinformthepublicwhichmembersofthegreatandgoodwereonboard,anditwasnotuncommonforambitiousmotherstousethelisttoidentifyrichbachelorsto
whomtheycouldintroducetheirmarriageabledaughtersduringthevoyage.[52]
OneofTitanic 'smostdistinctivefeatureswasherFirstClassstaircase,knownastheGrandStaircaseorGrandStairway.Thisdescendedthroughsevendecksoftheship,
fromtheBoatDecktoEdeckintheelegantstyledepictedinphotographsandmovies,andthenasamorefunctionalandlesselegantstaircasefromtheredowntoF
deck.[53]Itwascappedwithadomeofwroughtironandglassthatadmittednaturallight.Eachlandingoffthestaircasegaveaccesstoornateentrancehallslitbygold
platedlightfixtures.[54]
Attheuppermostlandingwasalargecarvedwoodenpanelcontainingaclock,withfiguresof"HonourandGloryCrowningTime"flankingtheclockface.[53]TheGrand
StaircasewasdestroyedinTitanic 'ssinkingandisnowjustavoidintheshipwhichmodernexplorershaveusedtoaccessthelowerdecks.[55]DuringthefilmingofJames
Cameron'sTitanicin1997,hisreplicaoftheGrandStaircasewasrippedfromitsfoundationsbytheforceoftheinrushingwaterontheset.Ithasbeensuggestedthatduring
therealevent,theentireGrandStaircasewasejectedupwardsthroughthedome.[56]

ThegymnasiumontheBoatDeck,whichwas
equippedwiththelatestexercisemachines

ThefamousGrandStaircase,whichconnected
BoatDeckandEDeck

TheALaCarterestaurantonBDeck,runasa
concessionbyItalianbornchefGaspareGatti

Mailandcargo
AlthoughTitanicwasprimarilyapassengerliner,shealsocarriedasubstantialamountofcargo.HerdesignationasaRoyalMailShip
(RMS)indicatedthatshecarriedmailundercontractwiththeRoyalMail(andalsofortheUnitedStatesPostOfficeDepartment).Forthe
storageofletters,parcelsandspecie(bullion,coinsandothervaluables)26,800cubicfeet(760m3)ofspaceinherholdswasallocated.The
SeaPostOfficeonGDeckwasmannedbyfivepostalclerks,threeAmericansandtwoBritons,whoworkedthirteenhoursaday,sevendays
aweeksortingupto60,000itemsdaily.[58]
Theship'spassengersbroughtwiththemahugeamountofbaggageanother19,455cubicfeet(550.9m3)wastakenupbyfirstandsecond
classbaggage.Inaddition,therewasaconsiderablequantityofregularcargo,rangingfromfurnituretofoodstuffsandevenmotorcars.[58]
Despitelatermyths,thecargoonTitanic 'smaidenvoyagewasfairlymundanetherewasnogold,exoticmineralsordiamonds,andoneof
themorefamousitemslostintheshipwreck,ajewelledcopyoftheRubaiyatofOmarKhayyam,wasvaluedatonly405(36,162
today).[59]AccordingtotheclaimsforcompensationfiledwithCommissionerGilchrist,followingtheconclusionoftheSenateInquiry,the
singlemosthighlyvalueditemofluggageorcargowasalargeneoclassicaloilpaintingentitledLaCircassienneauBainbyFrenchartist
MerryJosephBlondel.Thepaintingsowner,firstclasspassengerMauritzHkanBjrnstrmSteffansson,filedaclaimfor$100,000($2.4
millionequivalentin2014)incompensationforthelossoftheartwork.[57]
Titanicwasequippedwitheightelectriccranes,fourelectricwinchesandthreesteamwinchestoliftcargoandbaggageinandoutofthe
hold.Itisestimatedthattheshipusedsome415tonsofcoalwhilstinSouthampton,simplygeneratingsteamtooperatethecargowinches
andprovideheatandlight.[60]

LaCircassienneauBainthe
mosthighlyvalueditemof
cargolostontheTitanic. [d]

Lifeboats
Titaniccarriedatotalof20lifeboats:14standardwoodenHarlandandWolfflifeboatswithacapacityof65peopleeachandfourEnglehardt"collapsible"(woodenbottom,
collapsiblecanvassides)lifeboats(identifiedasAtoD)withacapacityof47peopleeach.Inaddition,shehadtwoemergencycutterswithacapacityof40people
each.[61][e]OlympicherselfdidnotevencarrythefourcollapsiblesADduringthe191112season.Allofthelifeboatswerestowedsecurelyontheboatdeckand,except
forcollapsiblelifeboatsAandB,connectedtodavitsbyropes.Thoseonthestarboardsidewereoddnumbered115frombowtostern,whilethoseontheportsidewere
evennumbered216frombowtostern.[62]

Thetwocutterswerekeptswungout,hangingfromthedavits,readyforimmediateuse,whilecollapsiblelifeboatsCandD
werestowedontheboatdeck(connectedtodavits)immediatelyinboardofboats1and2respectively.AandBwerestoredon
theroofoftheofficers'quarters,oneithersideofnumber1funnel.Therewerenodavitstolowerthemandtheirweightwould
makethemdifficulttolaunchbyhand.[62]Eachboatcarried(amongotherthings)food,water,blankets,andasparelifebelt.
Lifelineropesontheboats'sidesenabledthemtosaveadditionalpeoplefromthewaterifnecessary.
Titanichad16setsofdavits,eachabletohandle4lifeboats.ThisgaveTitanictheabilitytocarryupto64woodenlifeboats[63]
whichwouldhavebeenenoughfor4,000peopleconsiderablymorethanheractualcapacity.However,theWhiteStarLine
decidedthatonly16woodenlifeboatsandfourcollapsibleswouldbecarried,whichcouldaccommodate1,178people,only
onethirdofTitanic'stotalcapacity.Atthetime,theBoardofTrade'sregulationsrequiredBritishvesselsover10,000tonsto
onlycarry16lifeboatswithacapacityof990occupants.[61]

Acollapsiblelifeboatwithcanvassides

Therefore,theWhiteStarLineactuallyprovidedmorelifeboataccommodationthanwaslegallyrequired.[64][f]Atthetime,lifeboatswereintendedtoferrysurvivorsfroma
sinkingshiptoarescuingshipnotkeepafloatthewholepopulationorpowerthemtoshore.HadtheSSCalifornianrespondedtoTitanic'sdistresscalls,thelifeboatsmay
havebeenadequatetoferrythepassengerstosafetyasplanned.[66]

Buildingandpreparingtheship
Construction,launchandfittingout
ThesheersizeofTitanicandhersistershipsposedamajorengineeringchallengeforHarlandandWolffnoshipbuilderhadever
beforeattemptedtoconstructvesselsthissize.TheshipswereconstructedonQueen'sIsland,nowknownastheTitanicQuarter,in
BelfastHarbour.HarlandandWolffhadtodemolishthreeexistingslipwaysandbuildtwonewones,thelargesteverconstructedup
tothattime,toaccommodatebothships.[10]TheirconstructionwasfacilitatedbyanenormousgantrybuiltbySirWilliamArrol&
Co.,aScottishfirmresponsibleforthebuildingoftheForthBridgeandLondon'sTowerBridge.TheArrolGantrystood228feet
(69m)high,was270feet(82m)wideand840feet(260m)long,andweighedmorethan6,000tons.Itaccommodatedanumberof
mobilecranes.Aseparatefloatingcrane,capableoflifting200tons,wasbroughtinfromGermany.[67]

TitanicDisasterGenuineFootage

TheconstructionofOlympicandTitanictookplacevirtuallyinparallel,withOlympic 'shulllaiddownfirston16December1908
(19111912)
[15]
andTitanic 'son31March1909. Bothshipstookabout26monthstobuildandfollowedmuchthesameconstructionprocess.
Theyweredesignedessentiallyasanenormousfloatingboxgirder,withthekeelactingasabackboneandtheframesofthehullformingtheribs.Atthebaseoftheships,a
doublebottom5feet3inches(1.60m)deepsupported300frames,eachbetween24inches(61cm)and36inches(91cm)apartandmeasuringuptoabout66feet(20m)
long.Theyterminatedatthebridgedeck(BDeck)andwerecoveredwithsteelplateswhichformedtheouterskinoftheships.[68]
The2,000hullplatesweresinglepiecesofrolledsteelplate,mostlyupto6feet(1.8m)wideand30feet(9.1m)longandweighingbetween2.5and3tons.[69]Their
thicknessvariedfrom1inch(2.5cm)to1.5inches(3.8cm).[40]Theplateswerelaidinaclinkered(overlapping)fashionfromthekeeltothebilge.Abovethatpointthey
werelaidinthe"inandout"fashion,wherestrakeplatingwasappliedinbands(the"instrakes")withthegapscoveredbythe"outstrakes",overlappingontheedges.
Commercialoxyfuelandelectricarcweldingmethods,ubiquitousinfabricationtoday,werestillintheirinfancylikemostotherironandsteelstructuresoftheera,the
hullwasheldtogetherwithoverthreemillionironandsteelrivets,whichbythemselvesweighedover1,200tons.Theywerefittedusinghydraulicmachinesorwere
hammeredinbyhand.[70]Inthe1990ssomematerialscientistsconcluded[71]thatthesteelplateusedfortheshipwassubjecttobeingespeciallybrittlewhencold,andthat

thisbrittlenessexacerbatedtheimpactdamageandhastenedthesinking.Itisbelievedthat,bythestandardsofthetime,thesteelplate'squalitywasgood,notfaulty,but
thatitwasinferiortowhatwouldbeusedforshipbuildingpurposesinlaterdecades,owingtoadvancesinthemetallurgyofsteelmaking.[71]Asfortherivets,considerable
emphasishasalsobeenplacedontheirqualityandstrength.[72][73][74][75][76]
OneofthelastitemstobefittedonTitanicbeforetheshipslaunchwashertwosideanchorsandonecentreanchor.Theanchorsthemselveswereachallengetomakewith
thecentreanchorbeingthelargesteverforgedbyhandandweighingnearlysixteentons.TwentyClydesdaledraughthorseswereneededtohaulthecentreanchorby
wagonfromtheNoahHingley&SonsLtdforgeshopinNetherton,nearDudley,UnitedKingdomtotheDudleyrailwaystationtwomilesaway.Fromthereitwasshipped
byrailtoFleetwoodinLancashirebeforebeingloadedaboardashipandsenttoBelfast.[77]
Theworkofconstructingtheshipswasdifficultanddangerous.Forthe15,000menwhoworkedatHarlandandWolffatthetime,[78]safetyprecautionswererudimentary
atbestalotoftheworkwasdangerousandwascarriedoutwithoutanysafetyequipmentlikehardhatsorhandguardsonmachinery.Asaresult,deathsandinjurieswere
tobeexpected.DuringTitanic 'sconstruction,246injurieswererecorded,28ofthem"severe",suchasarmsseveredbymachinesorlegscrushedunderfallingpiecesof
steel.Sixpeoplediedontheshipherselfwhileshewasbeingconstructedandfittedout,andanothertwodiedintheshipyardworkshopsandsheds.[79]Justbeforethe
launchaworkerwaskilledwhenapieceofwoodfellonhim.[80]
Titanicwaslaunchedat12:15p.m.on31May1911inthepresenceofLordPirrie,J.PierpointMorgan,J.BruceIsmayand100,000onlookers.[81]22tonsofsoapand
tallowwerespreadontheslipwaytolubricatetheship'spassageintotheRiverLagan.[80]InkeepingwiththeWhiteStarLine'straditionalpolicy,theshipwasnotformally
namedorchristenedwithchampagne.[81]Theshipwastowedtoafittingoutberthwhere,overthecourseofthenextyear,herengines,funnelsandsuperstructurewere
installedandherinteriorwasfittedout.[82]
DespiteTitanicbeingvirtuallysimilartotheclass'sleadshipOlympic,afewchangesweremadetodistinguishbothships.ThemostnoticeableofthesewasthatTitanic
(andthethirdvesselinclassBritannic)hadasteelscreenwithslidingwindowsinstalledalongtheforwardhalfoftheADeckpromenade.Thiswasinstalledasalast
minutechangeatthepersonalrequestofBruceIsmay,andwasintendedtoprovideadditionalsheltertofirstclasspassengers.[83]ThesechangesmadeTitanicslightly
heavierthanhersister,andthusshecouldclaimtobethelargestshipafloat.TheworktooklongerthanexpectedduetodesignchangesrequestedbyIsmayandatemporary
pauseinworkoccasionedbytheneedtorepairOlympic,whichhadbeeninacollisioninSeptember1911.HadTitanicbeenfinishedearlier,shemightwellhavemissedher
collisionwithaniceberg.[80]

Constructioningantry,190911

Launch,1911(unfinished
superstructure)

Fittingout,191112

Seatrials
Titanic 'sseatrialsbeganat6a.m.onTuesday,2April1912,justtwodaysafterherfittingoutwasfinishedandeightdays
beforeshewasduetoleaveSouthamptononhermaidenvoyage.[84]Thetrialsweredelayedforadayduetobadweather,butby
Mondaymorningitwasclearandfair.[85]Aboardwere78stokers,greasersandfiremen,and41membersofcrew.Nodomestic
staffappeartohavebeenaboard.RepresentativesofvariouscompaniestravelledonTitanic'sseatrials,ThomasAndrewsand
EdwardWildingofHarlandandWolffandHaroldA.SandersonofIMM.BruceIsmayandLordPirrieweretooilltoattend.
JackPhillipsandHaroldBrideservedasradiooperators,andperformedfinetuningoftheMarconiequipment.Francis
Carruthers,asurveyorfromtheBoardofTrade,wasalsopresenttoseethateverythingworked,andthattheshipwasfittocarry
passengers.[86]
Theseatrialsconsistedofanumberoftestsofherhandlingcharacteristics,carriedoutfirstinBelfastLoughandtheninthe
openwatersoftheIrishSea.Overthecourseofabouttwelvehours,Titanicwasdrivenatdifferentspeeds,herturningability
wastestedanda"crashstop"wasperformedinwhichtheengineswerereversedfullaheadtofullastern,bringinghertoastop
in850yd(777m)or3minutesand15seconds.[87]Theshipcoveredadistanceofabout80nauticalmiles(92mi150km),
averaging18knots(21mph33km/h)andreachingamaximumspeedofjustunder21knots(24mph39km/h).[88]

RMSTitanicleavingBelfastforhersea
trialson2April1912

OnreturningtoBelfastatabout7p.m.,thesurveyorsignedan"AgreementandAccountofVoyagesandCrew",validfortwelvemonths,whichdeclaredtheshipseaworthy.
Anhourlater,TitanicleftBelfastagainasitturnedout,forthelasttimetoheadtoSouthampton,avoyageofabout570nauticalmiles(660mi1,060km).Aftera
journeylastingabout28hoursshearrivedaboutmidnighton4Aprilandwastowedtotheport'sBerth44,readyforthearrivalofherpassengersandtheremainderofher
crew.[89]

Maidenvoyage
BothOlympicandTitanicregisteredLiverpoolastheirhomeport.TheofficesoftheWhiteStarLineaswellasCunardwereinLiverpool,andupuntiltheintroductionof
theOlympic,mostBritishoceanlinersforbothCunardandWhiteStar,suchasLusitaniaandMauretania,sailedoutofLiverpoolfollowedbyaportofcallinIreland.
However,theOlympicclasslinersweretosailoutoftheportofSouthamptononEngland'ssoutherncoast.SouthamptonhadmanyadvantagesoverLiverpool,thefirst
beingitscloserproximitytoLondon.[90]
Inaddition,Southampton,beingonEngland'ssoutherncoast,allowedshipstoeasilycrosstheEnglishChannelandmakeaportofcallinnorthernFrance,usuallyat
Cherbourg.ThisallowedBritishshipstopickupclientelefromcontinentalEuropebeforerecrossingthechannelandpickinguppassengersinsouthernIreland.The
SouthamptonCherbourgNewYorkrunwouldbecomesopopularthatmostBritishoceanlinersbeganusingtheportafterWorldWarI.OutofrespectforLiverpool,ships
continuedtoberegisteredthereuntiltheearly1960s.QueenElizabeth2wasoneofthefirstshipsregisteredinSouthamptonwhenintroducedintoservicebyCunardin
1969.[90]
Titanic 'smaidenvoyagewasintendedtobethefirstofmanycrossAtlanticjourneysbetweenSouthamptoninEngland,CherbourginFrance,QueenstowninIrelandand
NewYorkintheUnitedStates,returningviaPlymouthinEnglandontheeastboundleg.Indeed,herentirescheduleofvoyagesthroughtoDecember1912stillexists.[91]
TheWhiteStarLineintendedtooperatethreeshipsonthatroute:Titanic,OlympicandthesmallerRMSOceanic.[92]

EachwouldsailonceeverythreeweeksfromSouthamptonandNewYorkusuallyleavingatnooneachWednesdayfromSouthamptonandeachSaturdayfromNewYork,
thusenablingtheWhiteStarLinetoofferweeklysailingsineachdirection.SpecialtrainswerescheduledfromLondonandParistoconveypassengerstoSouthamptonand
Cherbourgrespectively.[92]ThedeepwaterdockatSouthampton,thenknownasthe"WhiteStarDock ",hadbeenspeciallyconstructedtoaccommodatethenewOlympic
classliners,andhadopenedin1911.[93]

EdwardSmith,captainofTitanic,in
1911

TitanicatSouthamptondocks,priorto
departure

DisplayadforTitanic 'sfirstbutnever
madesailingfromNewYorkon20
April1912

Crew
Titanichadaround885crewmembersonboardforhermaidenvoyage.[94]Likeothervesselsofhertime,shedidnothaveapermanentcrew,andthevastmajorityofcrew
memberswerecasualworkerswhoonlycameaboardtheshipafewhoursbeforeshesailedfromSouthampton.[95]Theprocessofsigninguprecruitshadbegunon
23MarchandsomehadbeensenttoBelfast,wheretheyservedasaskeletoncrewduringTitanic 'sseatrialsandpassagetoEnglandatthestartofApril.[96]
CaptainEdwardJohnSmith,themostsenioroftheWhiteStarLine'scaptains,wastransferredfromOlympictotakecommandofTitanic.[97]HenryTingleWildealsocame
acrossfromOlympictotakethepostofChiefMate.Titanic 'spreviouslydesignatedChiefMateandFirstOfficer,WilliamMcMasterMurdochandCharlesLightoller,were
bumpeddowntotheranksofFirstandSecondOfficerrespectively.TheoriginalSecondOfficer,DavidBlair,wasdroppedaltogether.[98][g]TheThirdOfficerwasHerbert
PitmanMBE,theonlydeckofficerwhowasnotamemberoftheRoyalNavalReserve.Pitmanwasthesecondtolastsurvivingofficer.
Titanic 'screwweredividedintothreeprincipaldepartments:Deck,with66crewEngine,with325andVictualling(pronouncedvitalling),with494.[99]Thevast
majorityofthecrewwerethusnotseamen,butwereeitherengineers,firemen,orstokers,responsibleforlookingaftertheengines,orstewardsandgalleystaff,responsible
forthepassengers.[100]Ofthese,over97%weremalejust23ofthecrewwerefemale,mainlystewardesses.[101]Therestrepresentedagreatvarietyofprofessions
bakers,chefs,butchers,fishmongers,dishwashers,stewards,gymnasiuminstructors,laundrymen,waiters,bedmakers,cleaners,andevenaprinter,[101]whoproduceda
dailynewspaperforpassengerscalledtheAtlanticDailyBulletinwiththelatestnewsreceivedbytheship'swirelessoperators.[44][h]

MostofthecrewsignedoninSouthamptonon6April[15]inall,699ofthecrewcamefromthere,and40percentwerenativesofthetown.[101]Afewspecialiststaffwere
selfemployedorweresubcontractors.Theseincludedthefivepostalclerks,whoworkedfortheRoyalMailandtheUnitedStatesPostOfficeDepartment,thestaffofthe
FirstClassALaCarteRestaurantandtheCafParisien,theradiooperators(whowereemployedbyMarconi)andtheeightmusicians,whowereemployedbyanagency
andtravelledassecondclasspassengers.[103]Crewpayvariedgreatly,fromCaptainSmith's105amonth(equivalentto9,375today)tothe310s(313today)that
stewardessesearned.Thelowerpaidvictuallingstaffcould,however,supplementtheirwagessubstantiallythroughtipsfrompassengers.[102]

Passengers
Titanic 'spassengersnumberedapproximately1,317people:324inFirstClass,284inSecondClass,and709inThirdClass.Ofthese,869
(66%)weremaleand447(34%)female.Therewere107childrenaboard,thelargestnumberofwhichwereinThirdClass.[104]Theshipwas
considerablyundercapacityonhermaidenvoyage,asshecouldaccommodate2,566passengers1,034FirstClass,510SecondClass,and
1,022ThirdClass.[105]
Usually,ahighprestigevessellikeTitaniccouldexpecttobefullybookedonitsmaidenvoyage.However,anationalcoalstrikeintheUK
hadcausedconsiderabledisruptiontoshippingschedulesinthespringof1912,causingmanycrossingstobecancelled.Manywouldbe
passengerschosetopostponetheirtravelplansuntilthestrikewasover.ThestrikehadfinishedafewdaysbeforeTitanicsailedhowever,
thatwastoolatetohavemuchofaneffect.Titanicwasabletosailonthescheduleddateonlybecausecoalwastransferredfromother
vesselswhichweretiedupatSouthampton,suchasSSCityofNewYorkandRMSOceanic,aswellascoalOlympichadbroughtbackfrom
apreviousvoyagetoNewYork,whichhadbeenstoredattheWhiteStarDock.[83]
JohnJacobAstorIVin1909.

SomeofthemostprominentpeopleofthedaybookedapassageaboardTitanic,travellinginFirstClass.AmongthemweretheAmerican
Hewasthewealthiestperson
millionaireJohnJacobAstorIVandhiswifeMadeleineForceAstor,industrialistBenjaminGuggenheim,Macy'sownerIsidorStrausand
aboardTitanic.
hiswifeIda,DenvermillionairessMargaret"Molly"Brown,[i]SirCosmoDuffGordonandhiswife,couturireLucy(LadyDuffGordon),
cricketerandbusinessmanJohnBorlandThayerwithhiswifeMarianandsonJack,theCountessofRothes,authorandsocialiteHelen
ChurchillCandee,journalistandsocialreformerWilliamThomasStead,authorJacquesFutrellewithhiswifeMay,andsilentfilmactressDorothyGibson,among
others.[106]Titanic 'sownerJ.P.Morganwasscheduledtotravelonthemaidenvoyagebutcancelledatthelastminute.[107]AlsoaboardtheshipweretheWhiteStarLine's
managingdirectorJ.BruceIsmayandTitanic 'sdesignerThomasAndrews,whowasonboardtoobserveanyproblemsandassessthegeneralperformanceofthenew
ship.[108]

Theexactnumberofpeopleaboardisnotknown,asnotallofthosewhohadbookedticketsmadeittotheshipabout50peoplecancelledforvariousreasons,[109]andnot
allofthosewhoboardedstayedaboardfortheentirejourney.[110]Faresvarieddependingonclassandseason.ThirdClassfaresfromLondon,Southampton,orQueenstown
cost75s(equivalentto647today)whilethecheapestFirstClassfarescost23(2,054today).[92]ThemostexpensiveFirstClasssuitesweretohavecostupto870in
highseason(77,682today).[105]

Collectingpassengers
OnWednesday10April1912Titanic 'smaidenvoyagebegan.Followingtheembarkationofthecrewthepassengersbeganarrivingfrom9:30a.m.,whentheLondonand
SouthWesternRailway'sboattrainfromLondonWaterloostationreachedSouthamptonTerminusrailwaystationonthequayside,alongsideTitanic 'sberth.[111]Thelarge
numberofThirdClasspassengersmeanttheywerethefirsttoboard,withFirstandSecondClasspassengersfollowinguptoanhourbeforedeparture.Stewardsshowed
themtotheircabins,andFirstClasspassengerswerepersonallygreetedbyCaptainSmithonboarding.[112]ThirdClasspassengerswereinspectedforailmentsandphysical

impairmentsthatmightleadtotheirbeingrefusedentrytotheUnitedStatesaprospecttheWhiteStarLinewishedtoavoid,asitwouldhavetocarryanyonewhofailed
theexaminationbackacrosstheAtlantic.[109]922passengerswererecordedashavingembarkedTitanicatSouthampton.Additionalpassengerswerepickedupat
CherbourgandQueenstown.[83]
Themaidenvoyagebeganontime,atnoon.AnaccidentwasnarrowlyavertedonlyafewminuteslaterasTitanicpassedthemooredlinersSSCityofNewYorkand
Oceanic.Herhugedisplacementcausedbothofthesmallershipstobeliftedbyabulgeofwaterandthendropintoatrough.NewYork 'smooringcablescouldnottakethe
suddenstrainandsnapped,swingingheraroundsternfirsttowardsTitanic.Anearbytugboat,Vulcan,cametotherescuebytakingNewYorkundertow,andCaptainSmith
orderedTitanic 'senginestobeput"fullastern".[113]Thetwoshipsavoidedacollisionbyamatterofabout4feet(1.2m).TheincidentdelayedTitanic 'sdepartureforabout
anhour,whilethedriftingNewYorkwasbroughtundercontrol.[114]
AftermakingitsafelythroughthecomplextidesandchannelsofSouthamptonWaterandtheSolent,TitanicheadedoutintotheEnglishChannel.Sheheadedforthe
FrenchportofCherbourg,ajourneyof77nauticalmiles(89mi143km).[115]Theweatherwaswindy,veryfinebutcoldandovercast.[116]BecauseCherbourglacked
dockingfacilitiesforashipthesizeofTitanic,tendershadtobeusedtotransferpassengersfromshoretoship.TheWhiteStarLineoperatedtwoatCherbourg,theSS
TrafficandtheSSNomadic.BothhadbeendesignedspecificallyastendersfortheOlympicclasslinersandwerelaunchedshortlyafterTitanic.[117](Nomadicistodaythe
onlyWhiteStarLineshipstillafloat.)FourhoursafterTitanicleftSouthampton,shearrivedatCherbourgandwasmetbythetenders.274morepassengersboarded
Titanic,and24leftaboardthetenderstobeconveyedtoshore.Theprocesswascompletedwithinonly90minutesandat8p.m.Titanicweighedanchorandleftfor
Queenstown[118]withtheweathercontinuingcoldandwindy.[116]
At11:30a.m.onThursday11April,TitanicarrivedatCorkHarbouronthesouthcoastofIreland.Itwasapartlycloudybutrelativelywarmday,withabriskwind.[116]
Again,thedockfacilitieswerenotsuitableforashipofTitanic'ssize,andtenderswereusedtobringpassengersaboard.OnehundredthirteenThirdClassandseven
SecondClasspassengerscameaboard,whilesevenpassengersleft.AmongthedepartureswasFatherFrancisBrowne,aJesuittrainee,whowasakeenphotographerand
tookmanyphotographsaboardTitanic,includingthelasteverknownphotographoftheship.Adecidedlyunofficialdeparturewasthatofacrewmember,stokerJohn
Coffey,aQueenstownnativewhosneakedofftheshipbyhidingundermailbagsbeingtransportedtoshore.[119]Titanicweighedanchorforthelasttimeat1:30p.m.and
departedonherwestwardjourneyacrosstheAtlantic.[119]

Titanic(right)afterthenearcollisionwithNewYork
(left,withOceanic)

Atlanticcrossing

TitanicinCorkharbour,11April1912

TherouteofTitanic 'smaidenvoyage,withthe
coordinatesofhersinking

TitanicwasplannedtoarrivetoNewYorkPier54[120]onthemorningof17April.[121]AfterleavingQueenstownTitanicfollowedtheIrishcoastasfarasFastnetRock,[122]
adistanceofsome55nauticalmiles(63mi102km).Fromthereshetravelled1,620nauticalmiles(1,860mi3,000km)alongaGreatCirclerouteacrosstheNorth
Atlantictoreachaspotintheoceanknownas"thecorner"southeastofNewfoundland,wherewestboundsteamerscarriedoutachangeofcourse.Titanicsailedonlyafew
hourspastthecorneronarhumblinelegof1,023nauticalmiles(1,177mi1,895km)toNantucketShoalsLightwhenshemadeherfatalcontactwithaniceberg.[123]The
finallegofthejourneywouldhavebeen193nauticalmiles(222mi357km)toAmbroseLightandfinallytoNewYorkHarbor.[124]
ThefirstthreedaysofthevoyagefromQueenstownpassedwithoutincident.From11Apriltolocalapparentnoonthenextday,Titaniccovered484nauticalmiles(557mi
896km)thefollowingday,519nauticalmiles(597mi961km)andbynoononthefinaldayofhervoyage,546nauticalmiles(628mi1,011km).Fromthenuntilthe
timeofhersinkingshetravelledanother258nauticalmiles(297mi478km),averagingabout21knots(24mph39km/h).[125]
TheweatherclearedassheleftIrelandundercloudyskieswithaheadwind.TemperaturesremainedfairlymildonSaturday13April,butthefollowingdayTitaniccrosseda
coldweatherfrontwithstrongwindsandwavesofupto8feet(2.4m).Thesedieddownasthedayprogresseduntil,bytheeveningofSunday14April,itbecameclear,
calmandverycold.[126]
TitanicreceivedaseriesofwarningsfromothershipsofdriftingiceintheareaoftheGrandBanksofNewfoundland.[127]Nonethelesstheshipcontinuedtosteamatfull
speed,whichwasstandardpracticeatthetime.[128]Althoughtheshipwasnottryingtosetaspeedrecord,[129]timekeepingwasapriority,andunderprevailingmaritime
practices,shipswereoftenoperatedatclosetofullspeed,withicewarningsseenasadvisoriesandrelianceplaceduponlookoutsandthewatchonthebridge.[128]Itwas
generallybelievedthaticeposedlittledangertolargevessels.Closecallswithicewerenotuncommon,andevenheadoncollisionshadnotbeendisastrous.In1907SS
KronprinzWilhelm,aGermanliner,hadrammedanicebergbutstillhadbeenabletocompletehervoyage,andCaptainSmithhimselfhaddeclaredin1907thathe"could
notimagineanyconditionwhichwouldcauseashiptofounder.Modernshipbuildinghasgonebeyondthat."[130][j]

Sinking
At11:40p.m.(ship'stime)on14April,lookoutFrederickFleetspottedanicebergimmediatelyaheadofTitanicandalertedthebridge.[133]FirstOfficerWilliamMurdoch
orderedtheshiptobesteeredaroundtheobstacleandtheenginestobeputinreverse,[134]butitwastoolatethestarboardsideofTitanicstrucktheiceberg,creatinga
seriesofholesbelowthewaterline.[k]Fiveoftheship'swatertightcompartmentswerebreached.Itsoonbecameclearthattheshipwasdoomed,asshecouldnotsurvive
morethanfourcompartments'beingflooded.Titanicbegansinkingbowfirst,withwaterspillingfromcompartmenttocompartmentasherangleinthewaterbecame
steeper.[136]
ThoseaboardTitanicwereillpreparedforsuchanemergency.Inaccordancewithacceptedpracticesofthetime,whereshipswereseenaslargelyunsinkableandlifeboats
wereintendedtotransferpassengerstonearbyrescuevessels,[137][l]Titaniconlyhadenoughlifeboatstocarryabouthalfofthoseonboardiftheshiphadcarriedherfull
complementofabout3,339passengersandcrew,onlyaboutathirdcouldhavebeenaccommodatedinthelifeboats.[139]Thecrewhadnotbeentrainedadequatelyin
carryingoutanevacuation.Theofficersdidnotknowhowmanytheycouldsafelyputaboardthelifeboatsandlaunchedmanyofthembarelyhalffull.[140]Thirdclass
passengerswerelargelylefttofendforthemselves,causingmanyofthemtobecometrappedbelowdecksastheshipfilledwithwater.[141]The"womenandchildrenfirst"
protocolwasgenerallyfollowedwhenloadingthelifeboats,[141]andmostofthemalepassengersandcrewwereleftaboard.
At2:20a.m.,twohoursand40minutesafterTitanicstrucktheiceberg,herrateofsinkingsuddenlyincreasedasherforwarddeckdippedunderwater,andtheseapouredin
throughopenhatchesandgrates.[142]Asherunsupportedsternroseoutofthewater,exposingthepropellers,theshipbegantobreakintwobetweenthethirdandfourth
funnels,duetotheimmensestrainonthekeel.[143]Withthebowunderwater,andairtrappedinthestern,thesternremainedafloatandbuoyantforafewminuteslonger,
risingtoanearlyverticalanglewithhundredsofpeoplestillclingingtoit,[144]beforeplungingintothemurkydepths.Formanyyearsitwasgenerallybelievedtheship

sankinonepiecehowever,whenthewreckwaslocatedmanyyearslater,itwasdiscoveredthattheshiphadfullybrokenintwo.Allremainingpassengersandcrewwere
immersedintolethallycoldwaterwithatemperatureof28F(2C).[m]Almostallofthoseinthewaterdiedofcardiacarrestorotherbodilyreactionstofreezingwater,
within1530minutes.[147]Only13ofthemwerehelpedintothelifeboats,thoughthesehadroomforalmost500morepeople.[148]
Distresssignalsweresentbywireless,rockets,andlamp,butnoneoftheshipsthatrespondedwasnearenoughtoreachTitanicbeforeshesank.[149]Anearbyship,theSS
Californian,whichwasthelasttohavebeenincontactwithherbeforethecollision,sawTitanic'sflaresbutfailedtoassist.[150]Around4a.m.,RMSCarpathiaarrivedon
thesceneinresponsetoTitanic 'searlierdistresscalls.[151]
About710peoplesurvivedthedisasterandwereconveyedbyCarpathiatoNewYork,Titanic 'soriginaldestination,while1,500peoplelosttheirlives.[94]Carpathia's
captaindescribedtheplaceasanicefieldthathadincluded20largebergsmeasuringupto200feet(61m)highandnumeroussmallerbergs,aswellasicefloesanddebris
fromTitanicpassengersdescribedbeinginthemiddleofavastwhiteplainofice,studdedwithicebergs.[152]

Thesinking,accordingtoJ.Thayer,
sketchedonboardCarpathia,basedonhis
description

Theicebergthoughttohavebeenhitby
Titanic,photographedonthemorningof15
April1912.

"UntergangderTitanic",asconceivedby
WillyStwer,1912

Aftermathofsinking
ArrivalofCarpathiainNewYork
CarpathiatookthreedaystoreachNewYorkafterleavingthesceneofthedisaster.Herjourneywasslowedbypackice,fog,thunderstormsandroughseas.[153]Shewas,
however,abletopassnewstotheoutsideworldbywirelessaboutwhathadhappened.Theinitialreportswereconfused,leadingtheAmericanpresstoreporterroneously
on15AprilthatTitanicwasbeingtowedtoportbytheSSVirginian.[154]
Laterthatday,confirmationcamethroughthatTitanichadbeenlostandthatmostofherpassengersandcrewhaddied.[155]Thenewsattractedcrowdsofpeopletothe
WhiteStarLine'sofficesinLondon,NewYork,Montreal,[156]Southampton,[157]LiverpoolandBelfast.IthithardestinSouthampton,whosepeoplesufferedthegreatest
lossesfromthesinking.[158]4outofevery5crewmemberscamefromthistown.[159][n]

Carpathiadockedat9:30p.m.on18AprilatNewYork'sPier54andwasgreetedbysome40,000peoplewaitingatthequaysideinheavy
rain.[162]ImmediatereliefintheformofclothingandtransportationtoshelterswasprovidedbytheWomen'sReliefCommittee,the
TravelersAidSocietyofNewYork,andtheCouncilofJewishWomen,amongotherorganisations.[163]ManyofTitanic 'ssurviving
passengersdidnotlingerinNewYorkbutheadedonwardsimmediatelytorelatives'homes.Someofthewealthiersurvivorschartered
privatetrainstotakethemhome,andthePennsylvaniaRailroadlaidonaspecialtrainfreeofchargetotakesurvivorstoPhiladelphia.
Titanic 's214survivingcrewmembersweretakentotheRedStarLine'ssteamerSSLapland,wheretheywereaccommodatedinpassenger
cabins.[164]
CarpathiawashurriedlyrestockedwithfoodandprovisionsbeforeresumingherjourneytoFiume,AustriaHungary.Hercrewweregivena
bonusofamonth'swagesbyCunardasarewardfortheiractions,andsomeofTitanic 'spassengersjoinedtogethertogivetheman
additionalbonusofnearly900(80,361today),dividedamongthecrewmembers.[165]
Theship'sarrivalinNewYorkledtoafrenzyofpressinterest,withnewspaperscompetingtobethefirsttoreportthesurvivors'stories.
SomereportersbribedtheirwayaboardthepilotboatNewYork,whichguidedCarpathiaintoharbour,andoneevenmanagedtogetonto
Carpathiabeforeshedocked.[166]Crowdsgatheredoutsidenewspaperofficestoseethelatestreportsbeingpostedinthewindowsoron
billboards.[167]Ittookanotherfourdaysforacompletelistofcasualtiestobecompiledandreleased,addingtotheagonyofrelativeswaiting
fornewsofthosewhohadbeenaboardTitanic.[o]

ArrivalofTitanic 'ssurvivorsatNew
York(artistconcept)[p]

Cartoondemandingbettersafetyfrom
shippingcompanies,1912

LondonnewsboyNedParfett
withnewsofthedisaster.

Carpathia'scaptainArthurRostron
awardedbyMargaretBrown,1912

Insuranceandaidforsurvivors
InJanuary1912,thehullsandequipmentofTitanicandOlympichadbeeninsuredthroughLloyd'sofLondon.Thetotalcoveragewas1,000,000(89,289,575today)per
ship.Thepolicywastobe"freefromallaverage"under150,000,meaningthattheinsurerswouldonlypayfordamageinexcessofthatsum.Thepremium,negotiatedby
brokersWillisFaber&Company(nowWillisGroup),was15s(75p)per100,or7,500(669,672today)forthetermofoneyear.Lloyd'spaidtheWhiteStarLinethe
fullsumowedtothemwithin30days.[169]

Manycharitiesweresetuptohelpthevictimsandtheirfamilies,manyofwhomlosttheirsolebreadwinner,or,inthecaseofmanyThirdClasssurvivors,everythingthey
owned.On29ApriloperastarsEnricoCarusoandMaryGardenandmembersoftheMetropolitanOperaraised$12,000($292,682.93in2014)[170]inbenefitsforvictims
ofthedisasterbygivingspecialconcertsinwhichversionsof"Autumn"and"NearerMyGodToThee"werepartoftheprogram.[171]InBritain,relieffundswere
organisedforthefamiliesofTitanic 'slostcrewmembers,raisingnearly450,000(40,180,309today).Onesuchfundwasstillinoperationaslateasthe1960s.[172]

Investigationsintothedisaster
EvenbeforethesurvivorsarrivedinNewYork,investigationswerebeingplannedtodiscoverwhathadhappened,andwhatcouldbedonetopreventarecurrence.Inquiries
wereheldinboththeUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,theformermorerobustlycriticaloftraditionsandpractices,andscathingofthefailuresinvolved,andthelatter
broadlymoretechnicalandexpertoriented.[173]
TheUSSenate'sinquiryintothedisasterwasinitiatedon19April,adayafterCarpathiaarrivedinNewYork.[174]Thechairman,SenatorWilliamAldenSmith,wantedto
gatheraccountsfrompassengersandcrewwhiletheeventswerestillfreshintheirminds.SmithalsoneededtosubpoenaallsurvivingBritishpassengersandcrewwhile
theywerestillonAmericansoil,whichpreventedthemfromreturningtotheUKbeforetheAmericaninquirywascompletedon25May.[175]TheBritishpresscondemned
Smithasanopportunist,insensitivelyforcinganinquiryasameansofgainingpoliticalprestigeandseizing"hismomenttostandontheworldstage".Smith,however,
alreadyhadareputationasacampaignerforsafetyonUSrailroads,andwantedtoinvestigateanypossiblemalpracticesbyrailroadtycoonJ.P.Morgan,Titanic 'sultimate
owner.[176]
TheBritishBoardofTrade'sinquiryintothedisasterwasheadedbyLordMersey,andtookplacebetween2Mayand3July.BeingrunbytheBoardofTradewhohad
previouslyapprovedtheship,itwasseenbysomeashavinglittleinterestinitsownorWhiteStar'sconductbeingfoundnegligent.[177]
EachinquirytooktestimonyfrombothpassengersandcrewofTitanic,crewmembersofLeylandLine'sCalifornian,CaptainArthurRostronofCarpathiaandother
experts.[178]TheBritishinquiryalsotookfargreaterexperttestimony,makingitthelongestandmostdetailedcourtofinquiryinBritishhistoryuptothattime.[179]Thetwo
inquiriesreachedbroadlysimilarconclusionstheregulationsonthenumberoflifeboatsthatshipshadtocarrywereoutofdateandinadequate,[180]CaptainSmithhad
failedtotakeproperheedoficewarnings,[181]thelifeboatshadnotbeenproperlyfilledorcrewed,andthecollisionwasthedirectresultofsteamingintoadangerousarea
attoohighaspeed.[180]
Neitherinquiry'sfindingslistednegligencebyIMMortheWhiteStarLineasafactor.TheUSinquiryconcludedthatsincethoseinvolvedhadfollowedstandardpractice
thedisasterwasanactofGod.[182]TheBritishinquiryconcludedthatSmithhadfollowedlongstandingpracticethathadnotpreviouslybeenshowntobeunsafe,[183]
notingthatBritishshipsalonehadcarried3.5millionpassengersoverthepreviousdecadewiththelossofjust10lives,[184]andconcludedthatSmithhaddone"onlythat
whichotherskilledmenwouldhavedoneinthesameposition".TheBritishinquiryalsowarnedthat"whatwasamistakeinthecaseoftheTitanicwouldwithoutdoubtbe
negligenceinanysimilarcaseinthefuture".[183]
Therecommendationsincludedstrongsuggestionsformajorchangesinmaritimeregulationstoimplementnewsafetymeasures,suchasensuringthatmorelifeboatswere
provided,thatlifeboatdrillswereproperlycarriedoutandthatwirelessequipmentonpassengershipswasmannedaroundtheclock.[185]AnInternationalIcePatrolwasset
uptomonitorthepresenceoficebergsintheNorthAtlantic,andmaritimesafetyregulationswereharmonisedinternationallythroughtheInternationalConventionforthe
SafetyofLifeatSeabothmeasuresarestillinforcetoday.[186]
RoleoftheSSCalifornian

OneofthemostcontroversialissuesexaminedbytheinquirieswastheroleplayedbySSCalifornian,whichhadbeenonlya
fewmilesfromTitanicbuthadnotpickedupherdistresscallsorrespondedtohersignalrockets.Californianhadwarned
TitanicbyradioofthepackicethatwasthereasonCalifornianhadstoppedforthenight,butwasrebukedbyTitanic 'ssenior
wirelessoperator,JackPhillips.[187]
TestimonybeforetheBritishinquiryrevealedthatat10:10p.m.,Californianobservedthelightsofashiptothesouthitwas
lateragreedbetweenCaptainStanleyLordandThirdOfficerC.V.Groves(whohadrelievedLordofdutyat11:10p.m.)that
thiswasapassengerliner.[187]At11:50p.m.,theofficerhadwatchedthatship'slightsflashout,asifshehadshutdownor
turnedsharply,andthattheportlightwasnowvisible.[187]Morselightsignalstotheship,uponLord'sorder,weremade
between11:30p.m.and1:00a.m.,butwerenotacknowledged.[188]IfTitanicwereasfarfromtheCalifornianasLordclaimed,
thenheknew,orshouldhaveknown,thatMorsesignalswouldnotbevisible.Areasonableandprudentcourseofactionwould
havebeentoawakenthewirelessoperatorandtoinstructhimtoattempttocontactTitanicbythatmethod.HadLorddoneso,it
ispossiblethathecouldhavereachedTitanicintimetosaveadditionallives.[66]

TheSSCalifornian,whichhadtriedto
warnTitanicofthedangerfrompackice

CaptainLordhadgonetothechartroomat11:00p.m.tospendthenight[189]however,SecondOfficerHerbertStone,nowonduty,notifiedLordat1:10a.m.thattheship
hadfiredfiverockets.Lordwantedtoknowiftheywerecompanysignals,thatis,colouredflaresusedforidentification.Stonesaidthathedidnotknowandthatthe
rocketswereallwhite.CaptainLordinstructedthecrewtocontinuetosignaltheothervesselwiththeMorselamp,andwentbacktosleep.Threemorerocketswere
observedat1:50a.m.andStonenotedthattheshiplookedstrangeinthewater,asifshewerelisting.At2:15a.m.,Lordwasnotifiedthattheshipcouldnolongerbeseen.
Lordaskedagainifthelightshadhadanycoloursinthem,andhewasinformedthattheywereallwhite.[190]
Californianeventuallyresponded.Ataround5:30a.m.,ChiefOfficerGeorgeStewartawakenedwirelessoperatorCyrilFurmstoneEvans,informedhimthatrocketshad
beenseenduringthenight,andaskedthathetrytocommunicatewithanyship.HegotnewsofTitanic 'sloss,CaptainLordwasnotified,andtheshipsetouttorender
assistance.ShearrivedwellafterCarpathiahadalreadypickedupallthesurvivors.[191]
TheinquiriesfoundthattheshipseenbyCalifornianwasinfactTitanicandthatitwouldhavebeenpossibleforCaliforniantocometoherrescuetherefore,CaptainLord
hadactedimproperlyinfailingtodoso.[192][q]

Survivorsandvictims
Thenumberofcasualtiesofthesinkingisunclear,duetoanumberoffactors.Theseincludeconfusionoverthepassengerlist,whichincludedsomenamesofpeoplewho
cancelledtheirtripatthelastminute,andthefactthatseveralpassengerstravelledunderaliasesforvariousreasonsandwerethereforedoublecountedonthecasualty
lists.[194]Thedeathtollhasbeenputatbetween1,490and1,635people.[195]ThetablesbelowusefiguresfromtheBritishBoardofTradereportonthedisaster.[94]
FewerthanathirdofthoseaboardTitanicsurvivedthedisaster.Somesurvivorsdiedshortlyafterwardsinjuriesandtheeffectsofexposurecausedthedeathsofseveralof
thosebroughtaboardCarpathia.[196]ThefiguresshowstarkdifferencesinthesurvivalratesofthedifferentclassesaboardTitanic.Althoughonly3percentoffirstclass
womenwerelost,54percentofthoseinthirdclassdied.Similarly,fiveofsixfirstclassandallsecondclasschildrensurvived,but52ofthe79inthirdclassperished.The
differencesbygenderwereevenbigger:nearlyallfemalecrewmembers,firstandsecondclasspassengersweresaved.MenfromtheFirstClassdiedatahigherratethan
womenfromtheThirdClass.[197]
Thelastlivingsurvivor,MillvinaDeanfromEngland,whoatonlynineweeksoldwastheyoungestpassengeronboard,diedaged97on31May2009.[198]Aspecial
survivorwascrewmemberVioletJessopwhosurvivedthesinkingsofbothTitanicandBritannicandwasaboardOlympicwhenshewasrammedin1911.[199]

Age/gender

Class/crew
FirstClass

Children

Women

Numbersaved

Numberlost

Percentagesaved

Percentagelost

83%

17%

SecondClass

24

24

100%

0%

ThirdClass

79

27

52

34%

66%

FirstClass

144

140

97%

3%

93

80

13

86%

14%

165

76

89

46%

54%

23

20

87%

13%

FirstClass

175

57

118

33%

67%

SecondClass

168

14

154

8%

92%

ThirdClass

462

75

387

16%

84%

Crew

885

192

693

22%

78%

2224

710

1514

32%

68%

SecondClass
ThirdClass
Crew

Men

Numberaboard

Total

Retrievalandburialofthedead
Oncethemassivelossoflifebecameknown,WhiteStarLinecharteredthecableshipCSMackayBennettfromHalifax,Nova
Scotia,Canada,toretrievebodies.[200]ThreeotherCanadianshipsfollowedinthesearch:thecableshipMinia,[201]lighthouse
supplyshipMontmagnyandsealingvesselAlgerine.[202]Eachshipleftwithembalmingsupplies,undertakers,andclergy.Ofthe
333victimsthatwereeventuallyrecovered,328wereretrievedbytheCanadianshipsandfivemorebypassingNorthAtlantic
steamships.[203][r]
Thefirstshiptoreachthesiteofthesinking,theCSMackayBennett,foundsomanybodiesthattheembalmingsuppliesaboard
werequicklyexhausted.Healthregulationsrequiredthatonlyembalmedbodiescouldbereturnedtoport.[205]CaptainLarnder
oftheMackayBennettandundertakersaboarddecidedtopreserveonlythebodiesoffirstclasspassengers,justifyingtheir
decisionbytheneedtovisuallyidentifywealthymentoresolveanydisputesoverlargeestates.Asaresult,manythirdclass
passengersandcrewwereburiedatsea.Larnderidentifiedmanyofthoseburiedatseaascrewmembersbytheirclothing,and
statedthatasamariner,hehimselfwouldbecontentedtobeburiedatsea.[206]

MarkersofTitanicvictims,Fairview
Cemetery,Halifax,NovaScotia

BodiesrecoveredwerepreservedfortransporttoHalifax,theclosestcitytothesinkingwithdirectrailandsteamshipconnections.TheHalifaxcoroner,JohnHenry
Barnstead,developedadetailedsystemtoidentifybodiesandsafeguardpersonalpossessions.RelativesfromacrossNorthAmericacametoidentifyandclaimbodies.A
largetemporarymorguewassetupinthecurlingrinkoftheMayflowerCurlingClubandundertakerswerecalledinfromallacrosseasternCanadatoassist.[206]Some
bodieswereshippedtobeburiedintheirhometownsacrossNorthAmericaandEurope.Abouttwothirdsofthebodieswereidentified.Unidentifiedvictimswereburied
withsimplenumbersbasedontheorderinwhichtheirbodieswerediscovered.Themajorityofrecoveredvictims,150bodies,wereburiedinthreeHalifaxcemeteries,the
largestbeingFairviewLawnCemeteryfollowedbythenearbyMountOlivetandBarondeHirschcemeteries.[207]

InmidMay1912,RMSOceanicrecoveredthreebodiesover200miles(320km)fromthesiteofthesinkingwhowereamongtheoriginaloccupantsofCollapsibleA.
WhenFifthOfficerHaroldLoweandsixcrewmenreturnedtothewrecksitesometimeafterthesinkinginalifeboattopickupsurvivors,theyrescuedadozenmalesand
onefemalefromCollapsibleA,butleftthedeadbodiesofthreeofitsoccupants.[s]AftertheirretrievalfromCollapsibleAbyOceanic,thebodieswereburiedatsea.[208]
ThelastTitanicbodyrecoveredwasstewardJamesMcGrady,BodyNo.330,foundbythecharteredNewfoundlandsealingvesselAlgerineonMay22andburiedat
FairviewLawnCemeteryinHalifaxonJune12.[209]
Only333bodiesofTitanicvictimswererecovered,oneinfiveoftheover1500victims.Somebodiessankwiththeshipwhilecurrentsquicklydispersedbodiesand
wreckageacrosshundredsofmilesmakingthemdifficulttorecover.ByJuneoneofthelastsearchshipsreportedthatlifejacketssupportingbodieswerecomingapartand
releasingbodiestosink.[210]

Wreck
Titanicwaslongthoughttohavesunkinonepieceand,overtheyears,manyschemeswereputforwardforraisingthewreck.
Nonecametofruition.[211]Thefundamentalproblemwasthesheerdifficultyoffindingandreachingawreckthatliesover
12,000feet(3,700m)belowthesurface,inalocationwherethewaterpressureisover6,500poundspersquareinch.[212]A
numberofexpeditionsweremountedtofindTitanicbutitwasnotuntil1September1985thataFrancoAmericanexpedition
ledbyRobertBallardsucceeded.[213][214]
TheteamdiscoveredthatTitanichadinfactsplitapart,probablynearoratthesurface,beforesinkingtotheseabed.The
separatedbowandsternsectionslieaboutathirdofamile(0.6km)apartinacanyononthecontinentalshelfoffthecoastof
Newfoundland.Theyarelocated13.2miles(21.2km)fromtheinaccuratecoordinatesgivenbyTitanic 'sradiooperatorsonthe
nightofhersinking,[215]andapproximately715miles(1,151km)fromHalifaxand1,250miles(2,012km)fromNewYork.

ThebowofthewreckedRMSTitanic,
photographedinJune2004

Bothsectionshittheseabedatconsiderablespeed,causingthebowtocrumpleandthesterntocollapseentirely.Thebowisby
farthemoreintactsectionandstillcontainssomesurprisinglyintactinteriors.Incontrast,thesterniscompletelywreckedits
deckshavepancakeddownontopofeachotherandmuchofthehullplatingwastornoffandliesscatteredacrosstheseafloor.Themuchgreaterlevelofdamagetothe
sternisprobablyduetostructuraldamageincurredduringthesinking.Thusweakened,theremainderofthesternwasflattenedbytheimpactwiththeseabed.[216]
Thetwosectionsaresurroundedbyadebrisfieldmeasuringapproximately5by3miles(8.0km4.8km).[217]Itcontainshundredsofthousandsofitems,suchaspiecesof
theship,furniture,dinnerwareandpersonalitems,whichfellfromtheshipasshesankorwereejectedwhenthebowandsternimpactedontheseafloor.[218]Thedebris
fieldwasalsothelastrestingplaceofanumberofTitanic 'svictims.Mostofthebodiesandclotheswereconsumedbyseacreaturesandbacteria,leavingpairsofshoesand
bootswhichhaveprovedtobeinedibleastheonlysignthatbodiesoncelaythere.[219]
Sinceitsdiscovery,thewreckofTitanichasbeenrevisitednumeroustimesbyexplorers,scientists,filmmakers,touristsandsalvagers,whohaverecoveredthousandsof
itemsfromthedebrisfieldforconservationandpublicdisplay.Theship'sconditionhasdeterioratedsignificantlyinrecentyears,partlyduetoaccidentaldamagecausedby
submersiblesbutmainlybecauseofanacceleratingrateofgrowthofironeatingbacteriaonthehull.[220]Ithasbeenestimatedthatwithinthenext50yearsthehulland
structureofTitanicwillcollapseentirely,eventuallyleavingonlythemoredurableinteriorfittingsoftheshipintermingledwithapileofrustontheseafloor.[221]

ManyartefactsfromTitanichavebeenrecoveredfromtheseabedbyRMSTitanicInc.,whichexhibitsthemintouringexhibitionsaroundtheworldandinapermanent
exhibitionattheLuxorLasVegashotelandcasinoinLasVegas,Nevada.[222]Anumberofothermuseumsexhibitartefactseitherdonatedbysurvivorsorretrievedfromthe
floatingbodiesofvictimsofthedisaster.[223]
On16April2012,adayafterthe100thanniversaryofthesinking,photoswerereleasedshowingpossiblehumanremainsrestingontheoceanfloor.Thephotos,takenby
RobertBallardduringanexpeditionledbyNOAAin2004,showabootandacoatclosetoTitanic'ssternwhichexpertscalled"compellingevidence"thatitisthespot
wheresomebodycametorest,andthathumanremainscouldbeburiedinthesedimentbeneaththem.[224]ThewreckoftheTitanicfallsunderthescopeofthe2001
UNESCOConventionontheProtectionoftheUnderwaterCulturalHeritage.ThismeansthatallStatespartytotheconventionwillprohibitthepillaging,commercial
exploitation,saleanddispersionofthewreckanditsartefacts.Becauseofthelocationofthewreckininternationalwatersandthelackofanyexclusivejurisdictionoverthe
wreckagearea,theconventionprovidesastatecooperationsystem,bywhichStatesinformeachotherofanypotentialactivityconcerningancientshipwrecksites,likethe
Titanic,andcooperatetopreventunscientificorunethicalinterventions.[225][226][227]

Legacy
Safety
Afterthedisaster,recommendationsweremadebyboththeBritishandAmericanBoardsofInquirystatingthatshipsshould
carryenoughlifeboatsforallaboard,mandatedlifeboatdrillswouldbeimplemented,lifeboatinspectionswouldbeconducted,
etc.ManyoftheserecommendationswereincorporatedintotheInternationalConventionfortheSafetyofLifeatSeapassedin
1914.[228]Theconventionhasbeenupdatedbyperiodicamendments,withacompletelynewversionadoptedin1974.[229]
Signatoriestotheconventionfollowedupwithnationallegislationtoimplementthenewstandards.ForexampleinBritain,new
"RulesforLifeSavingAppliances"werepassedbytheBoardofTradeonMay8,1914andthenappliedatameetingofBritish
steamshipcompaniesinLiverpoolinJune1914.[230]
Further,theUnitedStatesgovernmentpassedtheRadioActof1912.Thisact,alongwiththeInternationalConventionforthe
SafetyofLifeatSea,statedthatradiocommunicationsonpassengershipswouldbeoperated24hoursaday,alongwitha
Anicepatrolaircraftinspectinganiceberg
secondarypowersupply,soasnottomissdistresscalls.Also,theRadioActof1912requiredshipstomaintaincontactwith
vesselsintheirvicinityaswellascoastalonshoreradiostations.[231]Inaddition,itwasagreedintheInternationalConvention
fortheSafetyofLifeatSeathatthefiringofredrocketsfromashipmustbeinterpretedasasignofneedforhelp.OncetheRadioActof1912waspasseditwasagreed
thatrocketsatseawouldbeinterpretedasdistresssignalsonly,thusremovinganypossiblemisinterpretationfromotherships.[231]
Finally,thedisasterledtotheformationandinternationalfundingoftheInternationalIcePatrol,anagencyoftheUnitedStatesCoastGuardthattothepresentday
monitorsandreportsonthelocationofNorthAtlanticOceanicebergsthatcouldposeathreattotransatlanticseatraffic.CoastGuardaircraftconducttheprimary
reconnaissance.Inaddition,informationiscollectedfromshipsoperatinginorpassingthroughtheicearea.ExceptfortheyearsofthetwoWorldWars,theInternational
IcePatrolhasworkedeachseasonsince1913.Duringtheperiodtherehasnotbeenasinglereportedlossoflifeorpropertyduetocollisionwithaniceberginthepatrol
area.[232]In1912,theBoardofTradecharteredthebarqueScotiatoactasaweathershipintheGrandBanksofNewfoundland,keepingalookoutforicebergs.AMarconi
wirelesswasinstalledtoenablehertocommunicatewithstationsonthecoastofLabradorandNewfoundland.[233][234]

Cultural

Titanichasgonedowninhistoryastheshipthatwascalledunsinkable.[t]Formorethan100years,shehasbeentheinspiration
offictionandnonfiction.Sheiscommemoratedbymonumentsforthedeadandbymuseumsexhibitingartefactsfromthe
wreck.Justafterthesinkingmemorialpostcardssoldinhugenumbers[235]togetherwithmemorabiliarangingfromtincandy
boxestoplates,whiskeyjiggers,[236]andevenblackmourningteddybears.[237]Severalsurvivorswrotebooksabouttheir
experiences[238]butitwasnotuntil1955thefirsthistoricallyaccuratebookANighttoRememberwaspublished.[239]
Thefirstfilmaboutthedisaster,SavedfromtheTitanic,wasreleasedonly29daysaftertheshipsankandhadanactualsurvivor
asitsstarthesilentfilmactressDorothyGibson.[240]TheBritishfilmANighttoRemember(1958)isstillwidelyregardedas
themosthistoricallyaccuratemovieportrayalofthesinking.[241]ThemostfinanciallysuccessfulbyfarhasbeenJames
Cameron'sTitanic(1997),whichbecamethehighestgrossingfilminhistoryuptothattime,[242]aswellasthewinnerof11
Oscarsatthe70thAcademyAwards,includingBestPictureandBestDirectorforCameron.[243]

TitanicBelfast,2012

TheTitanicdisasterwascommemoratedthroughavarietyofmemorialsandmonumentstothevictims,erectedinseveralEnglishspeakingcountriesandinparticularin
citiesthathadsufferednotablelosses.TheseincludedSouthampton,LiverpoolandBelfastintheUnitedKingdomNewYorkandWashington,D.C.intheUnitedStates
andCobh(formerlyQueenstown)inIreland.[244]AnumberofmuseumsaroundtheworldhavedisplaysonTitanic.InNorthernIreland,theshipiscommemoratedbythe
TitanicBelfastvisitorattraction,openedon31March2012,thatstandsonthesiteoftheshipyardwhereTitanicwasbuilt.[245]
RMSTitanicInc.,whichisauthorisedtosalvagethewrecksite,hasapermanentTitanicexhibitionattheLuxorLasVegashotelandcasinoinNevadawhichfeaturesa22
tonslaboftheship'shull.Italsorunsanexhibitionwhichtravelsaroundtheworld.[246]InNovaScotia,Halifax'sMaritimeMuseumoftheAtlanticdisplaysitemsthatwere
recoveredfromtheseaafewdaysafterthedisaster.Theyincludepiecesofwoodworksuchaspanellingfromtheship'sFirstClassLoungeandanoriginaldeckchair,[247]as
wellasobjectsremovedfromthevictims.[248]In2012thecentenarywasmarkedbyplays,radioprogrammes,parades,exhibitionsandspecialtripstothesiteofthesinking
togetherwithcommemorativestampsandcoins.[158][249][250][251][252]
Inafrequentlycommentedonliterarycoincidence,MorganRobertsonauthoredanovelcalledFutilityin1898aboutafictionalBritishpassengerlinerwiththeplotbearing
anumberofsimilaritiestotheTitanicdisaster.InthenoveltheshipistheSSTitan,afourstackedliner,thelargestintheworldandconsideredunsinkable.Butlikethe
Titanic,shesinksonhermaidenvoyageafterhittinganiceberganddoesnothaveenoughlifeboats.[253]

Appendix
DiagramsofRMSTitanic

DiagramofRMSTitanicshowingthearrangementofthebulkheadsinred.Compartmentsintheengineeringareaatthebottomoftheshiparenotedinblue.Namesofdecks
arelistedtotheright(startingattoponBoatdeck,goingfromAthroughFandendingonLowerdeckatthewaterline).Areasofdamagemadebytheicebergareshownin
green.Thescale'ssmallestunitis10feet(3.0m)anditstotallengthis400feet(120m).

AcutawaydiagramofTitanic 'smidshipsection.
S:Sundeck.A:Upperpromenadedeck.B:Promenadedeck,glassenclosed.C:Saloondeck.E:Maindeck.F:Middledeck.G:Lowerdeck:cargo,coalbunkers,boilers,
engines.(a)Welindavitswithlifeboats,(b)Bilge,(c)Doublebottom

ComparisonofTitanicinsizetomodernmeansoftransportandaperson

TimelineofRMSTitanic

17September1908:Shipordered.[254]
31May1911:Shiplaunched.[255]
1April1912:Trialscompleted.[256]
10April,noon:Maidenvoyagestarts.LeavesSouthamptondock,narrowlyescapingcollisionwithAmericanlinerNewYork.[256]
10April,19:00:StopsatCherbourgforpassengers.[256]
10April,21:00:LeavesCherbourgforQueenstown.[256]
11April,12:30:StopsatQueenstownforpassengersandmail.[256]
11April,14:00:LeavesQueenstownforNewYork.[256]
14April,23:40:Collisionwithiceberg(Latitude4146N,Longitude5014W).[257][u]
15April,00:45:Firstboat,No.7,lowered.[258][u]
15April,02:05:Lastboat,CollapsibleD,lowered.[258][u]
15April,02:20:Foundering.[258][u]
15April,03:3008:50:Rescueofsurvivors.[258][u]
19April25May:USinquiry.[175]
2May3July:Britishinquiry.[260]
1September1985:Discoveryofwreck.[213]

Titanicreplicas
TherehavebeenseveralproposalsandstudiesforaprojecttobuildareplicashipbasedontheTitanic.AprojectbySouthAfricanbusinessmanSarelGauswasabandoned
in2006,andaprojectbyAustralianbusinessmanClivePalmerwasannouncedin2012,knownastheTitanicII.Inlate2014itwasannouncedthattheprojecthasbeen
abandonedduetolowfunding.
AChinesefirmnamed"SevenStar"commencedaprojectinJanuary2014tobuildareplicaoftheTitanicforuseaspartofawaterfrontthemepark.Theshipwilltakeon
passengersandthen,withoutactuallyleavingport,itwillsimulatebeingstruckbyanicebergandsinking.Theprojecthasbeencriticizedasbeingin"poortaste".[261]
TheRMSOlympicwasthesistershipoftheTitanic.Theinteriordecorationofthediningsalonandthegrandstaircasewerein
identicalstyleandcreatedbythesamecraftsmen.LargepartsoftheinterioroftheOlympicwerelatersoldandarenowintheWhite
SwanHotel,Alnwick,whichgivesanimpressionofhowtheinterioroftheTitaniclookedlike.

Seealso
InternationalMaritimeOrganization
Listsofshipwrecks
RMSTitanicalternativetheoriesalternativeexplanationsforthefateoftheTitanic(ratherthanithittinganiceberg)
Futility,ortheWreckoftheTitan
AudiotapeinterviewbyLyleBebenseeofthelastmalesurvivorofthesinkingoftheTitanic,BillMuller.
0:00

Notes

MENU

DiningroomoftheOlympicwhich
wasalmostidenticaltothatofthe
Titanic,todayintheWhiteSwan
Hotel,Alnwick

a.Carlislewouldleavetheprojectin1910,beforetheshipswerelaunched,whenhebecameashareholderinWelinDavit&EngineeringCompanyLtd,thefirmmakingtheship's
davits.[12]WildingwassackedfollowingtheTitanicdisaster,havingapparentlybeenblamedbyPirrie,unfairly,fortheship'sloss.[13]
b.Itwaskeptofflimitstopassengersthefamous"flying"sceneattheship'sbowfromthe1997filmTitanicwouldnothavebeenpermittedinreallife.
c.ThisphotoisprobablyofTitanic 'ssistership,Olympic.[26]
d.CopyafterMerryJosephBlondeloftheneoclassicaloilpainting[57]
e.Measurementoflifeboats:12:25'2"longby7'2"wideby3'2"deep326.6cubicfeet(9.25m3)316:30'longby9'1"wideby4'deep655.2cubicfeet(18.55m3)andAD:27'5"
longby8'wideby3'deep376.6cubicfeet(10.66m3)
f.Since1894,whenthelargestpassengershipunderconsiderationwastheCunardLine's13,000tonLucania,theBoardofTradehadmadenoprovisiontoincreasetheexistingscale
regardingthenumberofrequiredlifeboatsforlargerships,suchasthe46,000tonTitanic.SirAlfredChalmers,nauticaladvisertotheBoardofTradefrom1896to1911,hadconsidered
thematterofadjustingthescale"fromtimetotime",butbecausehenotonlyassumedthatexperiencedsailorswouldneedtobecarried"uselessly"aboardshiponlytolowerandmanthe
extralifeboats,butalsoanticipatedthedifficultyingettingawayagreaternumberthan16boatsinanyemergency,he"didnotconsideritnecessarytoincrease[thescale]".[65]
g.Heexpresseddeepdisappointmentaboutthedecisionbeforethevoyage,butwaspresumablygreatlyrelievedafterwards.[98]
h.Titanicalsohadaship'scat,Jenny,whogavebirthtoalitterofkittensshortlybeforetheship'smaidenvoyageallperishedinthesinking.[102]
i.Knownafterwardasthe"UnsinkableMollyBrown"duetohereffortsinhelpingotherpassengerswhiletheshipsank
j.CaptainEdwardSmithhadbeenincommandofTitanic 'ssisterOlympicwhenshein1911collidedwithawarship.Eventhoughthatshipwasdesignedtosinkothersbyrammingthem,
itsufferedgreaterdamagethanOlympic,therebystrengtheningtheimageoftheclassbeingunsinkable.[131][132]
k.Theofficialenquiryfoundthatdamageextendedabout300feet,butbothEdwardWilding'stestimonyandmodernultrasoundsurveysofthewrecksuggestthetotalareawasperhapsa
fewnarrowopeningstotallingperhapsnomorethan12to13squarefeet(1.1to1.2m2).[135][72]
l.AnincidentconfirmedthisphilosophywhileTitanicwasunderconstruction:theWhiteStarlinerRepublicwasinvolvedinacollisionandsank.Eventhoughshedidnothaveenough
lifeboatsforallpassengers,theywereallsavedbecausetheshipwasabletostayafloatlongenoughforthemtobeferriedtoshipscomingtoassist.[138]
m.Lifeexpectancyinsuchtemperaturesisoftenunder15minutesevenforpeoplewhoareyoungandfit.Thevictimswouldhavediedfrombodilyreactionstofreezingwaterratherthan
hypothermia(lossofcoretemperature).Immersedintofreezingseas,around20%ofvictimsdiewithintwominutesfromcoldshock(uncontrolledrapidbreathingandgaspingcausing
waterinhalation,massiveincreaseinbloodpressure,cardiacstrainleadingtocardiacarrest,andpanic),another50%diewithin1530minutesfromcoldincapacitation(inabilitytouse
orcontrollimbsandhandsforswimmingorgripping,asthebody'protectively'shutsdownperipheralmusclestoprotectitscore),[145]andexhaustionandunconsciousnesscause
drowning,claimingtherestwithinasimilartime.[146]
n.TheSalvationArmynewspaper,TheWarCry,reportedthat"nonebutaheartofstonewouldbeunmovedinthepresenceofsuchanguish.Nightanddaythatcrowdofpale,anxious
faceshadbeenwaitingpatientlyforthenewsthatdidnotcome.Nearlyeveryoneinthecrowdhadlostarelative."[160]Itwasnotuntil17Aprilthatthefirstincompletelistsofsurvivors
camethrough,delayedbypoorcommunications.[161]
o.On23April,theDailyMailreported:"Lateintheafternoonhopediedout.Thewaitingcrowdsthinned,andsilentmenandwomensoughttheirhomes.Inthehumblerhomesof
Southamptonthereisscarcelyafamilywhohasnotlostarelativeorfriend.Childrenreturningfromschoolappreciatedsomethingoftragedy,andwoefullittlefaceswereturnedtothe
darkened,fatherlesshomes."[168]
p.Accordingtoaneyewitnessreport,there"weremanypatheticscenes"whenTitanic 'ssurvivorsdisembarkedatNewYork
q.Lordprotestedhisinnocencetotheendofhislife,andmanyresearchershaveassertedthattheknownpositionsofTitanicandCalifornianmakeitimpossiblethattheformerwasthe
infamous"mysteryship",atopicwhichhas"generated...millionsofwordsand...hoursofheateddebates"andcontinuestodoso.[193]
r.Mostofthebodieswerenumbered,however,thefivepassengersburiedatseabyCarpathiawentunnumbered.[204]
s.ThomasBeattie,afirstclasspassenger,andtwocrewmembers,afiremanandaseaman.
t.AnexampleisDanielButler'sbookaboutRMSTitanic,titledUnsinkable
u.Ship'stimeatthetimeofthecollision,Titanic 'sclocksweresetto2hours2minutesaheadofEasternTimeZoneand2hours58minutesbehindGreenwichMeanTime.[259]

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NY:OrchardBooks.ISBN9780439899956.
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andtheReality.Wellingborough,UK:PatrickStephens.ISBN9780007321643.
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W.W.Norton&Company.ISBN9780393036978.
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Somerset:PatrickStephens.ISBN9781852605759.

Gill,Anton(2010).Titanic:therealstoryoftheconstructionoftheworld'smost
famousship.Channel4Books.ISBN9781905026715.
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Halpern,Samuel.ReportintotheLossoftheSSTitanic:ACentennialReappraisal.
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Heyer,Paul(2012).TitanicCentury:Media,Myth,andtheMakingofaCulturalIcon.
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562829186.
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totheEpicFilm.Secaucus,NewJersey:BirchLanePress.ISBN9781559724838.
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Journalsandnewsarticles:
Broad,WilliamJ.(8April1997)."TopplingTheories,ScientistsFind6Slits,NotBig
Gash,SankTitanic".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved5November2011.
Broad,WilliamJ.(15April2008)."InWeakRivets,aPossibleKeytoTitanic's
Doom".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved13March2012.
Canfield,Clarke(8March2012)."FullTitanicsitemappedfor1sttime".The
AssociatedPress.Retrieved9March2012.
Felkins,KatherineLeighly,HPJankovic,A(1998),"TheRoyalMailShipTitanic:
DidaMetallurgicalFailureCauseaNighttoRemember?",JOM(Minerals,Metals&
MaterialsSociety)50(1):1218,doi:10.1007/s1183799800627
Ryan,PaulR.(Winter19851986)."TheTitanicTale".Oceanus(WoodsHole,MA:
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"NewTitanicBelfastcomplexopens".BBCNews.31March2012.Retrieved9April
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Investigations:
"ReportontheLossofthe"Titanic."(s.s.)".BritishWreckCommissioner'sInquiry,
FinalReport(WatertightCompartments).30July1912.Retrieved14April2012.
Mersey,Lord(1999)[1912].TheLossoftheTitanic,1912.TheStationeryOffice.
ISBN9780117024038.

Externallinks
RMSTitanic,Inc(http://www.premierexhibitions.com/corporate/all/rmstitanicinc),exclusivestewardofRMSTitanic
TitanicHistoricalSociety(http://www.titanichistoricalsociety.org/)
RMSTitanic(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Topic/Maritime/Ships/Ocean_Liners/Titanic/)atDMOZ
RMSTitanic(https://www.facebook.com/people/rmstitanic/19513402036)onFacebook
CollectionofMarconigramradiomessagesrelatedtotheTitanic

Wikiquotehasquotations
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(http://www.marconicalling.com/museum/html/indexes/titanicmessagelist.html)
Titanic(http://www.theguardian.com//uk/thetitanic)collectednewsandcommentaryatTheGuardian
NewYorkTimescoverageoftheTitanic(http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/t/titanic/index.html?
ref=topics)
RMSTitanic:100YearsLaterAnOnlineNewspaperExhibition(http://www.lva.virginia.gov/exhibits/titanic/)atLibraryof
Virginia
TitanicFootageandSurvivorsInterviews(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_xKDRmhp6lQ)YouTube
TitanicDisasterGenuineFootage19111912(http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=74776)BritishPathe
ReferencestotheTitanicinEuropeanHistoricNewspapers(http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/newspapers/search?
query=titanic)
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