Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

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Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Emissions and wall temperatures for lean prevaporized

premixed gas turbine combustor
M. Shehata *
Mechanical Engineering Technology Department, Higher Institute of Technology, Banha University, Benha, Galoblia 4300, Egypt

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 13 February 2008
Received in revised form 8 October 2008
Accepted 9 October 2008
Available online 12 November 2008
Keywords:
Gas turbine
Kerosene
Swirl
Emission
Wall temperature

a b s t r a c t
Experimental studies are carried out for investigating emission and wall temperature for traditional gas
turbine combustor converted to lean premixed prevaporized (LPP) combustor. Vortex chamber, air preheating system, at ame burner and inlet temperature control system are designed. Vortex chamber
was maintained at the main air inlet port for controlling secondary air ow rate and wall temperature.
Kerosene/air mixture temperature at exit from burner and entering combustion chamber was kept constant at 650 K for all runs. Special considerations were given for measuring NOX, UHC, CO, local A/F ratio,
ame temperature, exhaust gases temperature and wall temperature. For swirl and non swirl cases, secondary air ratio and primary zone air/fuel ratio were varied. The different operating parameters affecting
ame temperature through it is affecting on local A/F ratio which is the main parameter for controlling
ame temperature, emissions and walls temperatures. Flat ame burner and vortex chamber are useful
tools for reducing emission and controlling walls temperatures. The inner liner wall temperatures are
more affected by primary zone equivalence ratio while the outer liner wall temperatures are more
affected by secondary air ow rate. Semi empirical correlations for NOX, UHC and CO concentrations,
exhaust gases temperature and maximum inner liner wall temperature are carried out. Good agreement
between the measured and the calculated results are obtained. The present results are useful for further
development of the traditional gas turbine combustor converted to LPP combustor.
Crown Copyright 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Environmental disrepute of the emission exhausted from gas
turbine combustors became a critical issue. Therefore, it is very
important to develop low emission combustors, Yasuhiro et al.
[20]. The attainment of very low emissions from combustion systems are not only of considerable environmental concern but also
became an area of increasing competitiveness between the different systems manufacturers. The attainment of low emissions became the foremost marketing issue. The emissions from gas
turbine exhaust can be related directly to the ame temperature,
residence time, and concentrations histories of the combustion
process. Combustor inlet temperature, combustion pressure, and
primary zone equivalence ratio have been investigated by many
researchers, Bahr et al. [3] and Etheridge [6]. The studies showed
that, CO emission diminished with increased equivalence ratio,
reaching a minimum at an equivalence ratio of 0.8. Beyond this
point any further increase in equivalence ratio CO emission increases. Lefebvre [12] suggested that most of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are attributed to the

* Tel.: +20 0133243055; fax: +20 0133230297.

E-mail address: M3ohamed4@yahoo.com.

incomplete combustion of the hydrocarbon fuel caused by, (1)

Inadequate burning rates in the primary combustion zone, (2)
Inadequate mixing of fuel and air, and (3) Quenching of products
before completion of combustion. For conventional gas turbine
combustor, the main parameter governing emissions is the combustion zone temperature which is in the range of 1000 K at low
power to 2500 K at high power. The studies showed that, too much
CO is formed at temperatures below 1670 K while excessive
amounts of NO were produced at temperatures higher than
1900 K. Only in the fairly narrow band of temperatures between
1670 and 1900 K CO and NO concentrations were below 25 and
15 ppm, respectively as given by Aligner et al. and Sattelmayer
et al. [1,17].
Feitelberg et al. [7] showed that NO emission decreased as the
fuel ow rate and combustor exit temperature decreased. CO and
UHC emissions increased monotonically as the fuel ow rate and
combustor exit temperature decreased. CO and UHC emissions
from lean head end (LHE) combustor were higher than emissions
from the standard combustor. At the base load combustor with exit
temperature of 1005 C and similar pressures, NOX emissions decreased from about 116 PPM for the standard combustor to
63 PPM for LHE combustor with a decrease of about 45%. The percentage reduction in NO emissions was larger at part load conditions. The regression analysis of the data showed that NOX

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2008.10.031

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

447

Nomenclature
Dhub
Dsw
NS
mS
mSmax
mp
mPmax
mFP
Ro
r
PAFR
PAR

swirl inner diameter, m

swirl outer diameter, m
swirl number
mass ow rate of secondary air, g/s
maximum secondary air ow rate, equal (30 g/s)
mass ow rate of primary zone, g/s
maximum primary air ow rate, equal (9 g/s)
mass ow rate of fuel entering primary zone, g/s
maximum combustor radius at different ports
combustor radius at certain position for sampling probe,
m
primary zone air/fuel ratio
primary zone air ratio, (mP/mPmax)

emissions from LHE combustor were proportional to P0.39

Feitelberg et al. [7].
Vesely et al. [19] indicated that, the NOX emissions from modern combustor are nearly 1.6 times below those from the standard
combustor (less than 140 mg/Nm3). At the same time, CO emissions within the 55100% loads of the turbo unit rated power are
below 100 mg/Nm3.
All of the benets of premixing combustion depend on complete mixing of fuel and air. Also, for ame temperature less than
1900 K the amount of NO formed does not increase with increased
residence time Leonard and Siegmaier [13]. This means that, LPP
systems can be designed with long residence time to achieve low
CO and UHC while maintaining low NOX level. According to Leonard and Siegmaier [13] studies, LPP combustor volume is approximately twice of a conventional combustor. Another potential
benet of premixing is the improved gas turbine combustor life because of reduced hot streaking and improved control of combustor
exit temperature proles.
Andrews et al. [2] showed that a two-stage system of pilot and
main burner could be used to extend the range of minimum to
maximum power (turndown) under low NOX emission. The use
of the outer dump expansion recirculation zone for the pilot resulted in excellent turndown, but higher NOX emissions than for
the central pilot fuel injection. This gave a very compact low NOX
combustor with a high turndown and no acoustic problems.
Several researchers have reported that NO concentration is below 10 PPM even with temperature higher than 2000 K. Poeschi
et al. [15] examined the mixing capability of a commercially available static mixer after a series of tests using pressure air-blast.
Air-assist and multipoint injectors had failed to provide the right
degree of homogeneity. Since the mixing conditions of secondary
air inlet are expected to have a signicant effect on emission
characteristics.
The effects of multiple swirler coupled with distributed fuel
injection at atmospheric conditions were studied as a new concept
for reducing NOX emissions, Guoqiang and Ephraim [8]. The swirling ow eld within the combustor is characterized by a central
recirculation zone formed after vortex breakdown. The differences
between the tangential and axial velocity proles, the shape of the
recirculation zones and the turbulence intensity distribution for
the different fuel injector congurations impacted the ame structure, the temperature distribution and the emission characteristics.
Co-swirling conguration was shown to have the lowest NOX emission level compared with the counter-swirling. The differences in
NOX emissions were shown to be closely related to the Damkohler
number or the degree to which the ame resembled well-mixed
combustion.

PZQR
primary zone equivalence ratio
SAR
secondary air ratio, (mS/mSmax)
TExhaust exhaust gases temperature, K
ame temperature, K
Tf
primary zone temperature, K
Tpz
Tinner wall inner liner wall temperature, K
Touter wall outer liner wall temperature, K
primary zone volume, m3
Vc
P
combustor pressure, kPa.
Greek letters
h
vane swirl angle, (45 degree)
U
fuel equivalence ratio

Bowman and Anthony [4] studied temperatures of the cold

(metal) sides of gas turbine combustor where monitored and recorded at 40 locations along the liner and heat shields. The maximum cold side temperature of the heat shields was well under
700 C at all points of operation, while the maximum liner temperature was typically less than 800 C. A combination of enhanced
heat transfer elements and air impingement were used for cooling.
The temperatures were well within the acceptable range for both
the liner and the heat shields.
Tomczak et al. [18] measured combustor wall temperature
using hydrogen and natural gas as alternative fuels. The measured
wall-temperatures were quite similar along the combustor only
near the primary reaction zone the deviations reached relevant differences (up to a maximum of 60 C). All metal temperature values
measured with all of the fuel mixtures were below critical values
for the basket and for the transition piece and do not point out
technological limits for the utilization of hydrogen rich mixtures
as an alternative fuel.
The goal of the present work is to study premixed method as
development tool for reducing emissions and increasing available
thermal load using lean prevaporized premixed keroseneair mixture in traditional gas turbine combustor converted to LPP
combustor.

2. Experimental set-up
Experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1. Main compressed air is
supplied to vortex chamber which has special design for air separation into two lines. The rst one is the high temperature line
where air exits tangentially at temperature range 4050 C. This
air is the primary air which feeds to preheating chamber to rise
its temperature above 650 K. The second is the low temperature
line where air exits from the vortex chamber core at temperature
range 0.05 C and supplied to the secondary air line. The inlet
pressure to vortex chamber is adjusted to give atmospheric pressure at exit from combustion chamber. The pressure losses across
vortex chamber are nearly 4% from the inlet pressure. Full details
for vortex chamber design are found in Huzayyin et al. [10]. The
combustor consists of two co-axial tubular combustion chambers.
The inner liner of combustor is supplied by prevaporized premixing keroseneair mixture and the outer liner is supplied by the
low temperature secondary air. The primary air line consists of a
at ame burner, fuel injector and preheated chamber. Liquid kerosene fuel of chemical composition C10H20 is sprayed into preheated chamber. The fuel vaporizes and strongly mixes with the
hot primary air before entering into the at ame burner which

448

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

Regions

50 mm

Luminous
Zone

Perforated
Plate Holder

Merging
Distance L
200

Thermocouple
Stainless
Steel Balls

5mm
d

1
D=50mm

25

Perforated Plate Details

Perforated Plate

Burner Details

Water Cooled
Vacuum Pump

Isokinetic Sampling Probe

Filter

Swirler

Five Sampling Ports

Gas Analyzers

Burner Mixing and

Preheating
Chamber

Combustor

Fuel
Nozzle

Thermometer
Thermocouples Leads

Thermocouple

Laminar Flow Meter

Electric Heater

To Secondary
Air Line
Vortex Chamber

To Primary
Air Line

Main Air Line

From Compressor

Electric
Heater
Controller

Micromanometers

Fuel Tank

Fuel
System

Fig. 1. Experimental set-up.

provided with a perforated plate as ame holder. The perforated

plate has a diameter of 50 mm and 5 mm thickness. It is provided
with 55 holes of 8 mm center to center distance. Perforated plate
holes diameter is chosen to be 4 mm, Elkotb and Shehata [5]. Air
is heated using two 7 kW electric heaters, one heater is full load
and the second is a part load. The second heater is inserted with
electrical controller and K type thermocouple in one electrical circuit. Keroseneair mixture temperature at exit from burner and
entering combustion chamber is kept constant at 650 K during
all runs. The combustor end is full opened to atmosphere. A 10
vane radial ow swirler with angle of 45 (swirl number
SN = 0.78) is used to impart a high degree of swirl to induce a recirculatory ow in the primary zone during studying swirl effects. The
swirl number is calculated using the following equation, Lefebvre
[11]:

(
)
2 1  Dhub =DSW 3
tanh
SN
3 1  Dhub =DSW 2

The combustion gases are sampled at ve ports located along

the combustor axis by an isokinetic stainless steel water-cooled
sampling probe of 10 mm outer diameter. To dene species concentrations, a digital infrared gas analyzer, Horiba model Max
565 is used for measuring the dry volumetric analysis of UHC (as
propane C3H8), CO, CO2, O2 and local A/F ratio. Also, Beckman gas
analyzer model 951 is used to measure NOX concentrations. The
used analyzer has not the facility for dening NO and NO2 separately. The measured concentrations are corrected to 15% O2. The
analyzers have accuracy of 1%. The pressure drop across laminar

ow meter and calibrated oricemeter are measured using two differential pressure transducers model Setra 239 having differential
pressure range of 012.7 cm water column with accuracy of 1%.
The kerosene ow rate is measured using a fuel volumetric consumption measuring unit model 112116-1-3 with accuracy of
0.1%. A Pt/Pt13%Rh thermocouple is used for ame temperature
measurements. Flame temperatures are corrected for radiation
losses assuming a gas emissivity (g) of 0.21 (typically, a +50 C correction). The wall temperatures are measured at eight locations
along combustor length using selector switches for both inner
and outer liners by calibrated J type thermocouples. Temperature
measurements have been done with accuracy of 0.3% to quantify
the combustor wall temperatures.
3. Results and discussion
NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local A/F ratio at different ve
ports along combustor length for non swirl case are shown in
Fig. 2. The operating conditions are (PAFR = 12, PZQR = 1.223,
SAR = 70% and PAR = 80%) where the maximum secondary air ow
rate is equal 30 g/s and the maximum primary air ow rate is equal
9 g/s. Local A/F ratio prole indicates that the fuel is uniform distribution along the radius up to 50 mm from centerline at port 1 and
port 2. After that, local A/F ratio increases due to mixing of secondary air with combustible gases in inner liner. Flatness of local A/F
ratio prole increases along combustor length due to decrease
the secondary air at port 3. At port 5 local A/F ratio prole is nearly
uniform across combustor radius due to complete combustion and

449

40
0

20 40

60 80

Radius (mm)

80

UHC (PPM)

80

120

100

100
80
60
40
20
0

3
CO %

NOX (PPM)

160

20 40

60 80

60
40
20
0

60 80 0

Radius (mm)

Radius (mm)

Port 1

20 40

Port 3

Port 2

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

20 40 60 80
Radius (mm)

Port 4

Port 5

Fig. 2. NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for non swirl case at SAR = 70%, PAR = 60% and inlet PAFR = 12.

mixing processes. The mixing layer decreases along the combustor

length due to decrease secondary air ow rate. For very lean ame,
emission attributes to large statistical uctuation in local A/F ratio
Niedzwecki et al. [14]. UHC concentration has the same trend as local A/F ratio, where UHC is minimum around centerline and maximum near combustor wall. In contrast, CO concentration is
maximum around combustor center line and minimum near combustor wall. Low value of UHC indicates that, the fuel is rapidly oxidized in the primary zone as a result of the high temperature but
CO disappeared after port 3 due to complete combustion. The presence of CO is caused by inadequate burning rate in the primary
zone combine with quenching of the post ame products near
the liner wall and in the downstream zone. Premixing of fuel and
air reduces CO concentration by accelerating fuel burning rate.
The oxidation of CO proceeds slowly comparing with fuel breakup
reaction. Hence, amount of CO in the exhaust relates to mixing and
quenching in dilution zone at port 3. Near combustor centerline CO
concentration is relatively high due to incomplete oxidation of CO.
At port 1, away from the centerline, in the high temperature region
and high O2 concentration, CO concentration decreases rapidly due
to high oxidation rate of CO to CO2. NOX increases with increased
combustor radius to the maximum value where maximum temperature and high reactions rates located between combustor center line and combustor wall. NOX concentration is minimum near
combustor wall where the minimum temperature and reactions
rates. NOX increases with increased axial distance along combustor
length due to increase residence time and ame temperature. Near
combustor wall NOX concentration decreases with increased axial
distance due to very lean mixture with increased secondary air.
Fig. 3 shows radial composition proles of NOX, CO, UHC and Local air/fuel ratio for swirl case at the same operating conditions as
non swirl case. UHC dissipated at port 1 due to improving mixing
process of burned and unburned gases than for non swirl case.
CO concentration dissipated at r/Ro = 0.37 for swirl case and at r/
Ro = 0.75 for non swirl case. Sufcient mixing is required to transfer CO from the cold region near the wall to the hot central zone.
So, for swirl case CO concentration reduces to negligible value. Local A/F proles at port 5 (for swirl and non swirl cases) give an indication to the extension of mixing process. In mixing region, local A/

100

1.5

80

1.0

60

40

0.5

40

0.0

120

CO %

NOX (PPM)

2.0
160
80

20 40 60 80
Radius (mm)
Port (1)

Port (2)

20
0

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

F ratio has steeper graduation for non swirl case (Fig. 2) than for
swirl case (Fig. 3). At port (5) local A/F for swirl case is nearly
around 40 but for non swirl case is higher than 50. For swirl case,
combustion and mixing processes are nearly completed at port 3
earlier than for non swirl cases, where UHC, CO and mixing layer
dissipated and local A/F ratio are nearly at. For non swirl case,
the visible ame length is longer and extends in inner liner and appears as a long cylindrical luminous core. For non swirl case, the
ame is smooth and appears to be less turbulent than swirl case
which characterizes by great noise and appears more turbulent.
For swirl case, the ame surface is not smooth but broken and uctuated indicating high level of turbulence. The ame has large
diameter but short length than for non swirl case and appears as
luminous bubbles. So, swirler is used to enhance fuel/air mixing,
complete combustion and reduce ame length. For swirl case
NOX concentration is less than for non swirl case due to improve
mixing of burned and unburned gases which decrease ame temperature. NOX prole atness for swirl case is better than for non
swirl case due to uniform ame temperature distribution. The radial distance of maximum NOX concentration along combustor radius for swirl case is greater than for non swirl case due to increase
ame radius.
UHC, CO Concentrations and local A/F ratio proles for swirl and
non swirl cases with secondary air ratio of 10% from maximum are
shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. In Fig. 4 for swirl case, the local
A/F ratios proles are nearly uniform for the different ve ports
along the combustor radius. This gives an indication to successful
effect of swirler and design of fuelair mixing system. The local
A/F ratio affects on ame structure through affecting on local ame
temperature. Also, uniform distribution of local A/F ratio gives an
indication to better mixing of burned and unburned gases. The
mixing region dissipated due to low secondary air ratio. So, UHC
and CO concentrations proles are nearly at along combustor radius except at the rst port. For non swirl case as shown in Fig. 5,
UHC and CO appeared in radial direction up to combustor wall and
along combustor length downstream up to port 5 and also appeared in the exhaust gases with high concentrations. Imperfect
mixing rises local ame temperature in which fuel pockets enveloped in oxygen decient gases at high temperatures. Under these

20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Radius (mm)
Radius (mm)

Port (3)

Port (4)

Port (5)

Fig. 3. NOX, CO concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for swirl case at SAR = 70%, PAR = 60% and inlet PAFR = 12.

2.0
1.5
CO %

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

UHC (PPM)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

1.0
0.5
0.0

20 40

60 80

Radius (mm)

20 40

19
18
17
16
15
0

Radius (mm)

20 40

60 80 0

Radius (mm)
Port 4

Port 3

Port 2

Port 1

60 80

20

20 40

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

NOX (PPM)

450

60 80

Radius (mm)
Port 5

Fig. 4. NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for swirl case at SAR = 10% PAR = 60% and inlet PAFR = 12.

UHC (PPM)

50

80
40

5
4
3

20 40

60 80

Radius (mm)
Port 1

13.0

30

12.5

20
10

0
0

13.5

40

20 40

60 80

Radius (mm)
Port 2

60 80 0

20 40

Radius (mm)

Port 3

Port 4

20 40

12.0
60 80

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

14.0

7
CO %

NOX (PPM)

120

Radius (mm)

Port 5

Fig. 5. NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for non swirl case at SAR = 10% PAR = 60% and inlet PAFR = 12.

20 40

60 80

Radius (mm)
Port 1

20 40

60
50
40
30
20
0

60 80

Radius (mm)
Port 2

70

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 40

60 80 0

Radius (mm)
Port 3

Port 4

20 40

60 80

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

Fig. 7. Fuel ow rate is kept constant to ensure constant energy input to combustor. The secondary air ratio is kept constant at 70%
from the maximum but primary air ratio changed to 90%. CO dissipated after port 1 due to lean mixture. Local A/F ratio prole indicates that the fuel is uniform distribution up to 50Umm from
centerline which is greater than in Figs. 2 and 3. For non swirl case
shown in Fig. 5, local A/F ratios and UHC concentration have higher
levels than in Fig. 2. CO concentration decreases due to high total
air mass ow rate. For swirl case as shown in Fig. 7, UHC concentration completely dissipated before port 1 and CO concentration
dissipated after port (1). From comparison Figs. 2 and 6 the premixing combustor with lean mixture has a short ame length
which reduces combustor length, emission and fuel cost. Near
combustor wall, local A/F ratio for swirl case is greater than for
non swirl case as shown in Figs. 7 and 6 due to improving the mixing process. From comparison Figs. 6 and 7 for swirl case, the rate
of reaction reduces due to cooling effect of secondary air. Near the
combustor exit at port 5, UHC and CO concentrations are lower
than for non swirl case. For lean mixture in the primary zone,
NOX concentration decreases with increased PAFR due to cooling
effect of high secondary air ratio which decreases reactions rates
of different elementary reactions. Comparison NOX, CO and UHC
concentrations with the other researchers as Vesely et al. [19] for
premixed gas turbine combustor for the same inlet temperature

UHC (PPM)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

CO %

NOX (PPM)

conditions, increasing the ow of air into this zone is usually very

benecial to complete combustion. Proles atness of UHC and CO
for non swirl case is less than for swirl cases. At combustor center
line with low secondary air ratio CO concentration is high due to
low temperature around centerline. Near combustor wall, CO concentration is high due to cooling effect. For low secondary air ratio,
local A/F ratio for swirl case is higher than for non swirl case. But
with high secondary air ratio, local A/F ratio for swirl case is less
than for non swirl case. From comparison of Figs. 3 and 4 for swirl
cases and Figs. 2 and 5 for non swirl cases, it can be noticed that,
secondary air is necessary for improving mixing process to reduce
ame length and combustor total residence time which reduces
emissions. NOX concentration decreases with decreased SAR specially when PFAR less than stoichiometric. NOX concentration decreases along combustor radius due to decrease effect of
secondary air on ame temperature. On contrast, NOX concentration increases along combustor length due to increase residence
time. NOX prole atness increases with decreased secondary air
ratio due to using at ame burner. On the other hand, for low secondary air ratio NOX concentration for swirl case are greater than
for non swirl case.
The effect of inlet primary air/fuel ratio (equivalence ratio on
mass base, U = 0.78) on NOX, UHC, CO concentrations and local A/
F ratio for non swirl case are shown in Fig. 6 and for swirl case in

Radius (mm)
Port 5

Fig. 6. NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for non swirl case at SAR = 70% PAR = 90% and inlet PAFR = 18.

451

0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

20 40 60 80
Radius (mm)
Port 1

100
80
60
40
20
0

Port 2

Local Air/Fuel Ratio

140
120
100
80
60
40
20

CO %

NOX (PPM)

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Radius (mm)
Radius (mm)
Port 3

Port 4

Port 5

Fig. 7. NOX, CO, UHC concentrations and local air/fuel ratio along combustor length for swirl case at SAR = 70% PAR = 90% and inlet PAFR = 18.

1800
1600
1400
1200

Swirl Case
SAR= 10 %

1000
800
10

12 14 16 18
Local A/F Ratio

1800
1600
1400

1200
1000
800

SAR= 10 %

800
10

20

1400

Non Swirl

1000

12 14 16 18
Local A/F Ratio

Port (2)

20

1800
1600
1400
1200
SAR=70 %
PAR=90%
800 Non Swirl Case
600
20 30 40 50 60 70
Local A/F Ratio

1000

40 60 80 100
Local A/F Ratio
PORT (1)

20

Port (3)

Swirl Case
SAR=70 %
PAR= 90 %

1600

600

1200

PORT (2)

PORT (3)

Fig. 9. Effect of primary zone equivalence ratio on ame temperature for swirl and
non swirl cases at SAR = 70%, PAR = 90% and inlet PAFR = 18.

1800
Swirl Case

1600

SAR= 70 %

1400
1200
1000
800
600
20

40 60

1400
1200
1000
800
600

80 100

20

Local A/F Ratio

Port (1)

Non Swirl Case

SAR= 70 %

1600

40 60

80 100

Local A/F Ratio

Port (2)

Port (3)

Fig. 8. Effect of secondary air ratio on ame temperature for swirl and non swirl
cases at PAR = 60% and inlet PAFR = 12.

850

1050
1000
950
900

Swirl
Non swirl

TOuter Wall (Max.) (K)

1800

TInner Wall (Max.) (K)

Flame Temperature (K)

Port (1)

2000

1800

Flame Temperature (K)

Flame Temperature (K)

2000

bulence intensity increases and the mixture became leaner, thereby, ame temperature decreases. The ame temperature for swirl
case is higher than for non swirl case due to cooling effect of
burned and unburned gases. The effect of primary zone equivalence ratio on maximum ame temperature is greater than the effect of secondary air ratio. But the effect of secondary air ratio on
average combustor temperature is greater than the effect of primary zone equivalence ratio. So, it can be concluded that, different
operating parameters are affecting ame temperature through its
affects on local A/F ration which is the main driving force for ame
temperature. Also, primary air is necessary for controlling thermal
load out from combustor.
Combustor walls temperatures are measured for swirl and non
swirl cases with different secondary air ratio and different primary
zone equivalence ratios. The thermocouples located at different
eight locations along combustor length for inner liner and outer
liner walls. After that, maximum wall temperature of inner and
outer walls combustors for swirl and non swirl cases versus secondary air ratios are plotted as shown in Fig. 10. Also, effect of primary zone equivalence ratio on inner and outer liner maximum

Flame Temperature (K)

2200

2200

Flame Temperature (K)

Flame Temperature (K)

and kerosene as a fuel but with different burner and fuel system
design, it found that, NOX, CO and UHC concentrations from the
present system are low.
Flame temperature versus local A/F ratio at different ports along
combustor length with different secondary air ratios for swirl and
non swirl cases are shown in Fig. 8. Flame temperature was measured to show the effect of operating conditions on heat liberation
during combustion process. Swirler improves turbulence length
scale and mixing process of burned and unburned gases which increases ame temperature. As secondary air ratio increases the
ame temperature decreases due to secondary air cooling effect.
For lean air/fuel ratio, at the same operating conditions, ame temperature increases as local A/F ratio decreases for swirl and non
swirl cases. Maximum ame temperature location is around combustor centerline for all ports and decreases toward combustor
wall due to cooling effect of secondary air. The maximum ame
temperature occurs at port 1 for all operating conditions. From
measuring ame temperature it can be concluded that, secondary
air is necessary for controlling combustor maximum ame temperature and exit temperature.
Effects of inlet primary zone average equivalence ratio (primary
air ratio) on ame temperature for swirl and non swirl cases are
shown in Fig. 9. As primary zone air mass ow rate increases tur-

800
750
700
650
600

Swirl
Non Swirl

550

850
0 20 40 60 80 100
Secondary Air Ratio (%)

0 20 40 60 80 100
Secondary Air Ratio (%)

Fig. 10. Effect of secondary air ratio on maximum liners walls temperatures for
swirl and non swirl cases at PAR = 60% and PAFR = 12.

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

Swirl
Non Swirl

980
960
940
920
900
880

1.0
1.5
2.0
Primary Zone Equivalence Ratio

TOuter Wall (Max.) (K)

TInner Wall (Max.) (K)

1000

800
780
760
740
720
700
680
660

Swirl
Non Swirl

maximum

Inner liner

1.0
1.5
2.0
Primary Zone Equivalence Ratio

(K)
Non swirl case
Outer liner

Swirl
Non swirl

1250
1200
1150
1100
1.0

Table 1
Range of maximum wall temperatures.

Swirl case

1300

1.2

1.4

1.6

Pimary Zone Equivalence Ratio

Fig. 11. Effect of primary zone equivalence ratio on maximum liners walls
temperatures for swirl and non swirl cases at SAR = 70%.

TWall

on wall temperature due to the change in the ame temperature.

All measured walls temperatures for all runs for keroseneair mixtures kept below the critical value for the combustor material and
there is no technological limit for the utilization of prevaporized
premixed technique as an alternative method. This means that,
the effect of vortex chamber which gives cold secondary air is successfully prevented the over heating of wall material due to preheating process. The effect of vortex chamber is nearly dissipated
after main reaction zone length due to very high ame
temperature.
Exhaust gas mean temperature across the combustor exit is
measured for different primary zone equivalence ratio for swirl
and non swirl cases as shown in Fig. 12 and for different secondary
air ratio as shown in Fig. 13. When varying secondary air ratio,
maximum exhaust gas temperature is nearly 1250 K for swirl case
and is nearly 1150 K for non swirl case. When varying primary
zone equivalence ratio, the maximum exhaust gases temperature
is nearly 1280 K for swirl case and is nearly 1200 K for non swirl
case. All exhaust gases temperatures kept within the allowable
limit and effect of preheating process on turbine blades dissipated
due to the control on ame temperature using secondary air ratio
and primary zone equivalence ratio. For swirl case exhaust gases
temperatures vary linearly with secondary air ratio. For non swirl
case, the exhaust gases temperature is nearly varied as third order
with secondary air ratio. So, effect of SAR on exhaust gases temperature for non swirl case is greater than for swirl case. But the effect
of primary zone equivalence ratio on exhaust gases temperature
for swirl case is higher than for non swirl case. The primary air affects the exhaust gases temperature through its effects on primary
zone ame temperature but effects of the secondary air is through
the mixing between secondary air and products of combustion.
Furthermore NOX, CO and UHC concentrations at different ports
versus ame temperature are shown in Fig. 14 for swirl case and
in Fig. 15 for non swirl case to study the direct effect of ame

TAverae Exhaust (K)

walls temperature are shown in Fig. 11 for swirl and non swirl
cases. Maximum wall temperature for inner and outer combustors
for swirl case is higher than for non swirl case for all secondary air
ratios and also for all primary zone equivalence ratios. The effect of
secondary air ratio on maximum wall temperature for swirl cases
is greater than the effect of primary zone equivalence ratios. But
for non swirl case the effect of secondary air ratio on maximum
wall temperature are less than effect of primary zone equivalence
ratio. The secondary air ratio and primary zone equivalence ratio
are related with the maximum wall temperature by second order
relation for swirl and non swirl cases. The range of maximum wall
temperature for swirl and non swirl cases for both inner and outer
liners are shown in Table 1. Vortex chamber decreased maximum
outer and inner liners walls temperatures and kept them within
the allowable temperature limit for both runs of the secondary
air ratio and the primary zone equivalence ratio. Using vortex
chamber outer liner wall temperature decreased by 7% and inner
liner wall temperature decreased by 4%. As secondary air increases
from minimum to maximum value, the maximum inner liner wall
temperature decreases by 8% for swirl case and by 10% for non
swirl cases. Also, as secondary air increases from minimum to
maximum value the maximum outer liner wall temperature decreases by 10.2% for swirl case and by 15% for non swirl cases.
For inner liner wall temperature, the secondary air ratio and primary zone equivalence ratio have nearly the same effects on the
walls temperature, but the main difference in their effects occurred
on the outer liner wall temperature. For swirl case, there is a gradient in maximum wall temperature along the outer liner length
due to secondary air cooling effect. Also, swirl recirculates the
hot gases in the primary zone adjusted to inner liner wall. So, temperature is maximum at entrance and minimum at combustor end.
For the inner liner, the maximum wall temperature is nearly kept
constant to end of primary zone. After that, wall temperature decreased to a minimum level at combustor exit. For non swirl case,
the maximum wall temperature is compatible with the maximum
ame temperature. Maximum wall temperature occurred at longer
distance than for swirl case. Also, for high secondary air ratio, maximum ame temperature occurred earlier due to decrease ame
length and more heat transfer. The primary zone air ratio affects

Inner liner

Outer liner

First case with variation of SAR

1010920
820740

970860

770570

Second case with variation of PAFR

995895
770710

975890

730660

Fig. 12. Effect of primary zone equivalence ratio on average exhaust temperature at
SAR = 70%.

TAverage Exhaust (K)

452

1300
1250

Swirl
Non Swirl

1200
1150
1100
1050
1000

0 20 40 60 80 100
Secondary Air Ratio %

Fig. 13. Effect of secondary air ratio on average exhaust temperature at PAR = 60%
and inlet PAFR = 12.

453

20

400

15

300

140
100
80

200

60

100

40

10

1200

1600

2000

20

NOX (PPM)

120

CO (PPM)

UHC (PPM)

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

1600
2000
1200
1600
2000 1200
Flame Temperature (K) Flame Temperature (K)

Flame Temperature (K)

Port (2)

Port (1)

Port (3)

Fig. 14. UHC, CO and NOX concentrations versus ame temperature at different ports for swirl case at SAR = 10%, PAR = 60% and PAFR = 12.

30
20
10

80

60

40
20

NOX (PPM)

100
7

40
CO %

UHC (PPM)

50

0
800 1200 1600 2000
Flame Temperature (K)
Port (1)

800 1200 1600 2000

Flame Temperature (K)
Port (2)

800 1200 1600 2000

Flame Temperature (K)
Port (3)

Fig. 15. UHC, CO and NOX concentrations versus ame temperature at different ports for non swirl case at SAR = 10%, PAR = 60% and PAFR = 12.

temperature on different species. For swirl case, CO and UHC concentrations increase with increased ame temperature up to
nearly 1500 K. For temperature range 15001800 K CO and UHC
have maximum values. After that, CO and UHC concentrations decrease with increased ame temperature due to high oxidization
rate of CO and UHC. Also, the burning velocity of CO and UHC increase with increased ame temperature. For swirl case, the maximum burning rate of CO and UHC is nearly at the second port
where maximum turbulence intensity due to swirl effect and the
maximum ame temperature in the primary zone. The maximum
UHC concentration is nearly 18 PPM and the maximum CO concentration is nearly 400 PPM. These values of CO and UHC are low and
can be neglected. For non swirl case, the maximum burning rate of
CO and UHC are nearly at the rst port where maximum fuel concentration and the ame core shifted toward the burner tip due to
absent swirl effect in the primary zone. The maximum CO concentration is nearly 7% as mole fraction and UHC is nearly 45 PPM. CO
and UHC concentrations for swirl case are very low than for non
swirl case due to increase residence time for the ow inside the
combustor resulted from recirculation motion generated by swirler. Also, CH radical group concentration decreases with increased
residence time in the combustor which has direct effect on CO and
UHC concentrations, Rutar and Malte [16]. After primary zone, (at
ports 3, 4 & 5) the rates of CO and UHC dissipation decrease especially CO for non swirl case where the equilibrium condition existed due to long residence time. CO concentration is more
affected by swirl than UHC. CO needs longer residence time for
complete combustion than UHC because UHC is formed as the rst
step of fuel burning and CO after that. The maximum CO and UHC
concentrations are low compared with other researchers for the
same combustor inlet conditions (using swirl and same inlet mixture temperature) Kirk et al. [9] CO concentration is nearly
20000 PPM at exit from gas turbine combustor. NOX concentrations
for both swirl and non swirl cases increase with increased ame
temperature. Increasing rate of NOX formation for swirl case is

higher than for non swirl case. NOX concentration for swirl case
is higher than non swirl case due to increase residence time and
rate of reaction of different elementary reactions. Effect of ame
temperature on NOX concentration for swirl case is greater than
for non swirl case.
Finally, UHC, CO and NOX concentrations can be correlated by
assuming that, UHC and CO emissions are proportional to air mass
ow rate, pressure, mixing rate, residence time and ame temperature. Also, the concentrations of any chemical species produced in
the primary zone are preoperational to PAR. So UHC and CO concentrations are correlated by the following semi empirical
correlations.

UHC or CO

PAR2 m airTpz n DP=P0:5 P0:44

Vc expfCTpz 0:9199 g

PPM

where C is constant equal 0.00577, n = 3.421 for CO and n = 2.4 for

UHC.
NOX concentration is also correlated as function of ame temperature (Tf) as follows:

NOX PPM 2:6104 exp50 3:6T0:455

 Tf =39
f

The calculated values of UHC, CO and NOX concentrations using

semi empirical correlations (2) and (3) are plotted versus the
measured values for non swirl case as shown in Fig. 16. Good
agreement is obtained between the measured and the calculated
results.
Furthermore, an empirical correlation for calculating exhaust
gas temperature versus primary zone equivalence ratio (PZQR) is
obtained from Fig. 12. Also, an empirical correlation for calculating
exhaust gases temperature versus SAR is obtained from Fig. 13.
After that the two equations are matched together to get semi
empirical correlations for calculating the exhaust gases temperature using PZQR and SAR as main parameters affecting the exhaust
gases temperature for swirl and non swirl cases as follows:

50
CO Calculated %

40
30
20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

120
100

80
4

60

40

20

50

0
0

UHC Measured (PPM)

CO Measured (%)

NOX Calculated (PPM)

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

UHC Calculated (PPM)

454

8 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

NOX Measured (PPM)

Fig. 16. Comparison between measured and calculated species at rst port for non swirl case with SAR = 60% and PAFR = 12.

For 0:00 < SAR < 1:0 and 1 < PZQR < 1:6 For swirl case

For 0:00 < SAR < 1:0 and 1 < PZQR < 1:6 For swirl case
TInner wall K 1120 

180SAR

0:17

30PZQR

0:6

PZQR0:8
SAR0:2
For 0:00 < SAR < 1:0 and 1 < PZQR < 1:6 For non swirl case

TInner wall K 1050 

210SAR0:17
PZQR0:8

30PZQR0:6

1.5 1.4
1.3 1.2
1.1
PZQ
1.0
R (
)

Fig. 18. Effect of primary zone equivalence ratio and secondary air ratio on exhaust
gas temperature for LPP gas turbine combustor for non swirl case.

900
930
960
990
1020

1020

SAR0:2

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

(%
)

1200
1100
1000
900
800

SA
R

The calculated exhaust gases temperatures are shown in the

Fig. 17 for swirl case and in Fig. 18 for non swirl case. The maximum exhaust gases temperature is found for zero SAR and stoichiometric PZQR. The minimum exhaust gases temperature is found
at maximum SAR and very rich PZQR. The exhaust gases temperature decreases with increased SAR and PZQR. The exhaust gases
temperature for swirl case is higher than for non swirl case. Also,
good agreement between the experimental results in Figs. 12 and
13 and the calculated results in Figs. 17 and 18 for swirl and non
swirl cases.
Moreover, empirical correlations are obtained for calculating
maximum inner liner wall temperature as function of PZQR and
SAR for swirl and non swirl cases as follows:

1300

990
960
930
900
1.6 1.5

1.4 1.3
1.2
PZQ
R ( 1.1 1.0
)

The calculated inner liner wall temperatures for swirl and nonswirl cases are shown in Figs. 19 and 20. The maximum inner liner

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

SAR

0:0538925

1400

(%

1500

PZQR

0:50675

10:8PZQR1:8

800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500

SA

TExhaust K 1500:8 

480SAR0:5325

19:8PZQR0:7

4
PZQR
SAR1:5
For 0:00 < SAR < 1:0 and 1 < PZQR < 1:6 For non swirl case
1:2450675

T Exhaust (K)

560SAR0:15

TInner Wall (K)

TExhaust K 1830:847 

Fig. 19. Effect of secondary air ratio and primary zone equivalence ratio on
maximum inner wall temperature for LPP gas turbine combustor with swirl case.

1500
1400

1.4

1.3
1.2
1.1
PZQR ()
1.0

SA
R

Fig. 17. Effect of secondary air ratio and primary zone equivalence ratio on exhaust
gases temperature for LPP gas turbine combustor for swirl cases.

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

1.5 1.4

(%

800
1.5

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

(%
)

900

870
840
810
780
1.3 1.2

PZQR ()

1000

900

1.1 1.0

SA

1100

930
TInnerWall

1200

780
810
840
870
900
930

(K )

1300

T Exhaust (K)

800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500

Fig. 20. Effect of secondary air ratio and primary zone equivalence ratio on
maximum inner wall temperature for LPP gas turbine combustor with non swirl
case.

M. Shehata / Fuel 88 (2009) 446455

wall temperature is critical than the maximum outer liner wall

temperature so, the empirical correlation is directed to maximum
inner liner wall temperature only. The maximum inner liner wall
temperature is high in the primary zone where the maximum
ame temperature occurs. The maximum inner liner wall temperature is found for stoichiometric PZQR and zero SAR and minimum
for maximum SAR and very rich condition of PZQR. Also, good
agreement between the experimental results in Figs. 10 and 11
and the calculated results in Figs. 19 and 20 for swirl and non swirl
cases.
4. Conclusions
1. Conversion of the traditional gas turbine combustor to LPP combustor is a useful tool for reducing emissions and increasing
available thermal load.
2. Using at ame burner with a swirler in LPP combustor succeeded to keep NOX concentration less than 120 PPM, CO concentration less than 0.04% and UHC are completely dissipated.
3. LPP gas turbine combustor provided by vortex chamber is useful to limit liner wall temperature specially in main reaction
zone for swirl and non swirl cases.
4. The ame temperature of LPP gas turbine combustor is less than
1900 K and thereby NOX concentrations do not increase with
increased residence time. The combustor wall temperatures
are satisfactory and lower than critical metal temperature
(1000 K) for swirl and none swirl cases.
5. As secondary air increases from 0.0% to 100%, the maximum
inner liner wall temperature decreases by 8% for swirl case
and by 10% for non swirl case. Also, the maximum outer liner
wall temperature decreases by 10.2% for swirl case and by
15% for non swirl case.
6. The experimental results and the semi empirical correlations
for calculating CO, UHC, NOX, exhaust gases temperature and
inner liner wall temperature as a function of different operating
parameters are useful for design and further development of
LPP gas turbine combustor.
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