Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
undergraduates
E. J. Galvez, Charles H. Holbrow, M. J. Pysher, J. W. Martin, N. Courtemanche, L. Heilig, and J. Spencer
Citation: American Journal of Physics 73, 127 (2005); doi: 10.1119/1.1796811
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.1796811
View Table of Contents: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/ajp/73/2?ver=pdfcov
Published by the American Association of Physics Teachers
Articles you may be interested in
Quantum correlation of path-entangled two-photon states in waveguide arrays with defects
AIP Advances 4, 047117 (2014); 10.1063/1.4871401
Fizeaus aether-drag experiment in the undergraduate laboratory
Am. J. Phys. 80, 497 (2012); 10.1119/1.3690117
Low-cost coincidence-counting electronics for undergraduate quantum optics
Am. J. Phys. 77, 667 (2009); 10.1119/1.3116803
Photolithographic fabrication of diffraction and interference slit patterns for the undergraduate laboratory
Am. J. Phys. 72, 1328 (2004); 10.1119/1.1775240
Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory
Am. J. Phys. 72, 1210 (2004); 10.1119/1.1737397
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
I. INTRODUCTION
Advances in laboratory techniques for doing experiments
with single photons have stimulated studies of the fundamentals of quantum mechanics that underlie such interesting applications as quantum cryptography and quantum computing.1 In particular, the ability to produce pairs of correlated photons allows us to bring beautiful laboratory demonstrations of quantum superposition to an undergraduate setting where simplicity and affordability are primary
concerns.2
In this article we describe five table-top experiments that
involve the interference of photons detected by a counting
apparatus. The experiments involve photons passing through
an interferometer, where alternative paths can be made distinguishable or indistinguishable. These experiments can
provide the basis for an undergraduate laboratory on the fundamentals of quantum mechanics as proposed in Ref. 3.
They go beyond transforming interferometer fringes into
counter clicks and challenge classical intuition with results
that are unquestionably nonclassical. By incorporating these
experiments into undergraduate quantum mechanics instruction, we hope to encourage students to discuss and consider
the consequences of quantum mechanical superposition such
as entanglement and nonlocality.
The experiments have the attractive feature that their results can be analyzed and understood by undergraduates. We
try to explain them in ways that we believe will be useful
and accessible to them. Our explanations assume that they
are acquainted with the basic ideas of interference and wave
packets and that they have learned, or can quickly learn, to
use the complex exponential representation of plane waves
what Feynman ingeniously described as clock numbers. 4
The first of the five experiments demonstrates that a photon interferes with itself when it can reach a detector by
either of two indistinguishable paths. We observe this effect
by changing the phase of one of the paths without making
the paths distinguishable. We also show what happens to the
interference pattern when, using filters and other optical elements, we modify the extent to which the two paths are
indistinguishable. In the second experiment we pass an entangled pair of photons through an interferometer and observe and analyze the unusual interference properties of this
biphoton. In the third experiment, we create photons in po-
p i s ,
2a
k p k i k s ,
2b
127
Am. J. Phys. 73 2, February 2005
http://aapt.org/ajp
2005 American Association of Physics Teachers
127
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
1
1
1
,
p i s
2c
128
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
128
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
at the interferometers output and look for coincidences between photons emerging from separate outputs of this beam
splitter.
It is very important to keep the avalanche photodiodes
from receiving ambient light, because they can be destroyed
by excess photons. To avoid doing the experiments in complete darkness, we put the detector pair of each setup inside
a light-tight box made of an aluminum frame and black
poster-board walls. The down-conversion photons enter the
detector boxes through windows covered by red filters. The
protective boxes allowed us to illuminate the work area with
low-level illumination from blue LEDs. Each avalanche photodiode had a short focal length lens 40100 mm to focus
the light onto the small active area of the avalanche photodiode 0.175 mm diameter. A narrow-band filter 10 nm, 1
nm, or 0.1 nm prevented the avalanche photodiodes from
being overwhelmed by photons that were not in the wavelength region of interest. The filters also served to determine
the bandwidth of the detected light, as described in Sec. III.
D. The electronics
We used NIM electronics nuclear instrument modules to
perform coincidence detection of the TTL pulses from the
avalanche photodiodes. The minimum electronics required
are counters and coincidence modules. Because the signal
and idler photons traveled different distances to reach the
detectors, we used a time-to-amplitude converter TAC, a
single channel analyzer SCA, and a multichannel scaler to
register coincident events. Manipulating the beams so that
both photons travel the same distance would reduce the
amount of electronics required,2 but it would have unacceptably increased the constraints on our optical layout.
We used a combined TAC/SCA unit Canberra model
2145, which had both TAC and SCA outputs. The pulses
from the signal detector passed through an extra three meters
of cable deliberately inserted to produce a 15 ns delay between the pulses produced by the detection of the signal and
idler photons. The idler and the signal pulses were sent to the
start and stop inputs of the TAC/SCA, respectively. The TAC
output was sent to the multichannel scaler for pulse-height
analysis. The output of the multichannel scaler consisted of a
histogram of the number of pairs of pulses as a function of
the time delay between them. We used three counters, two to
register the singles counts from each detector and one to
record the SCA output, that is, the coincidences. After a year
of operation, we automated the data acquisition using
Labview9 and shortened the data acquisition time from hours
to minutes.
E. First steps
Our experimental setups were designed to take into account that the down-conversion beams are too weak to be
seen. Down-conversion efficiencies at the wavelength of interest are typically about 1010. Therefore, it is necessary to
prealign the optical components and detectors, and, of
course, any interferometer. Prealignment requires a very methodical approach: calculating the positions of the detectors,
setting up irises, and tracing the expected path of the downconverted beam with the beam from a HeNe laser. The other
requirement is flexibility: the crystal is mounted on a rotation
stage that permits fine tuning of the phase-matching angle,
and the lens in front of each avalanche photodiode is ar-
129
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
129
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
4a
rr * tt * 2e i( 1 2 ) e i( 1 2 )
4b
2RT 1cos ,
4c
i2
t a r b ).
6a
6b
The interference pattern arises from the probability of detecting a photon in state a,
P a s 2 2RT 1cos .
where N s and N i are the singles counts at the signal and the
idler detectors respectively, and T is the width of the coin-
130
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
130
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
comes zero, that is, interference disappears when the experiment is capable of distinguishing which path a photon takes
in passing through the apparatus. Our data give V0.85
0.05. 16
Note the strength of the evidence that the interference is
occurring one photon at a time. For one thing, it is very
improbable that at any given instant there is more than one
photon in the apparatus. If we take into consideration the
effect of the optics, filters, and detector, we estimate the detection efficiency to be det0.10. With the length of the
arms of the interferometer at 21.5 cm, and for a maximum recorded counts of the signal singles (N s
87500 s1 ), the average number of photons in the interferometer at any given time is never more than N s / detc
6104 . Moreover, we record only those photons detected
in coincidence with their down-conversion partner photon,
an even smaller number. These results drive home to students
that the interference pattern arises from the interference of
each individual photon with itself.17
C. One-photon interference: Entanglement,
distinguishability, and coherence
Fig. 3. Coincidence counts as a function of the voltage on the piezoelectric
stack used to change the interferometer path-length difference . The data
in a and b correspond to 0 and 144 m, respectively. For the
circles both detectors had 10 nm bandpass filters in front of them. The
squares in b correspond to having a 10 nm filter in front of the signal
detector and a 0.1 nm filter in front of the idler detector.
10
,
N maxN min P max P min
11
where N max and N min are the maximum and minimum counts
in the interference oscillation. As Eq. 11 indicates, the visibility can be defined equivalently in terms of the maximum
and minimum probabilities P max and P min .
The visibility provides a measure of the completeness of
the interference; V1 represents full interference when
0. When is increased, the visibility of the interference
fringes decreases. As explained in the following, V be-
131
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
131
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
1
&
k0 k s k0 k i k0 k s k0 k i ),
12
dk s
dk i k s ,k i k s k i k s k i k 0 ,
13
132
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
132
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
Fig. 4. Data for the interference of two collinear photons going through the
Michelson interferometer. The coincidence data correspond to the cases
when the path-length difference was approximately 0 squares, 47 m
circles, and 210 m triangles. The crosses () are the data collected by
a single detector when 37 m.
We did two-photon experiments with a Michelson interferometer used as described in Refs. 21 and 22. As shown in
Fig. 1b, photons from the 402.4 nm pump laser entered a
down-converter crystal oriented to emit a collinear pair of
equal-wavelength photons. The crystal sat between two
crossed polarizers. The first polarizer ensured that pump photons entered the crystal horizontally polarized, and the second polarizer ensured that only vertically polarized downconversion photons entered the interferometer. The entangled
pair of down-conversion photons passed through the Michelson interferometer and then to a beam splitter, each output
of which was viewed by an avalanche photodiode detector.
We recorded only the events that produced coincidences between the two detectors.
Our data are shown in Fig. 4. They are coincidences plotted as a function of , which was extracted from the fits to
the data, as described earlier. The data were taken with three
different interferometer settings: 0 squares, as verified
with white-light fringes, 47 m circles, and
210 m triangles. Both detectors had 10 nm filters in
front of them. As is particularly apparent in the data of solid
circles, the resulting interference patterns are the sum of two
oscillations, one with a frequency twice that of the other.
Fig. 5. Four possible paths for two collinear photons in a Michelson interferometer. The labeled components are nonpolarizing 50-50 beam splitter
B, mirror M, and mirror moved by a piezoelectric stack Mp. The output
ports are labeled a and b.
133
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
133
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
14a
2R T 12 cos k 4
2 2
14b
15a
4R 2 T 2 12 cos cos2
15b
4R T 1cos .
15c
2 2
The result of Eq. 15c predicts fringes that are narrower than
the single-photon interference fringes. In this respect these
quantum multiple-path interferences are analogous to multiplebeam wave interference: the more interfering paths or
beams, the narrower the fringes.24 The curve passing
through the squares in Fig. 4 shows that Eq. 15c provides
an excellent fit to our data for the case when 0.
We can arrive at the same theoretical interpretation using
the state vector formalism. We start with a symmetrized
wavefunction like Eq. 12, and replace the input wavefunctions by coherent superpositions of the wavefunctions for
going through each arm, as done in Sec. III A for the case of
the single photon. The photon leaving the interferometer
away from the source is in state a, and the photon returning
to the source is in state b. The state vectors then become
k0 k s,ire i(k 0 k) 1 t a s,ir b s,i)te i(k 0 k) 2 r a s,i
t b s,i).
16
20a
2R 2 T 2 1cos 2 2R 2 T 2
20b
1
4R 2 T 2 1 cos 2 .
2
20c
Equation 20c predicts both the reduction in the magnitude of the amplitude and the doubling of the fringe frequency shown by the triangles in Fig. 4. For comparison note
that the single-photon fringes the crosses in Fig. 4 obtained
by one of the detectors when 37 m clearly have a
frequency which is half that of the two-photon fringes.
We fit our data with a version of Eq. 14b parameterized
to describe the visibilities of different parts of the overall
pattern:
N c N 0 2V 0 4V CD cos V AB cos 2 ,
21
17
where , , , and are complex functions of the interferometer lengths and wavenumbers. Because we detect the
case when both photons leave the interferometer in state a,
the probability that both photons go through the interferometer is
P 2 a s a i 2 * ,
where
18
134
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
134
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
Eq. 14b are distributed uniformly over an interval k centered on k 0 . We then build the amplitudes by integrating the
relevant terms.
We replace 2 cos2(k) in Eq. 14b by (1cos 2k) and
integrate over the uniform distribution of k to find
P 2 2R 2 T 2 1
4
1
k
1
k
k/2
k/2
k/2
k/2
1cos 2k dk
sin x
,
x
23
V. POLARIZATION AND INTERFERENCE
and might be familiar to students who have analyzed singleslit diffraction. For x0, sinc(0)1, and as x increases,
sinc(x) oscillates with diminishing amplitude around the x
axis. Its first zero occurs when x , that is, sinc( )0.
The result is that with a uniform distribution of wave numbers, Eq. 14b predicts that
P 2 2R 2 T 2 2sinc k 4sinc k/2
cos cos 2 .
24
25
26
for the extinction axis. Because the polarizer transmits photons in the T state and absorbs photons in the E state,
the transmission probability of a photon in state is
P T 2 .
27
As we have noted, the type-I down conversion of our experiments generates two vertically polarized photons, that is,
in the state V. In an experiment where the down-conversion
beams went directly to the detectors, we placed two polarizers, labeled 1 and 2, on the path of the signal beam as shown
in the insert to Fig. 6. We set polarizer 1 with its transmission
axis vertical that is, 1 /2), and varied the angle 2 of the
second polarizer. The circles in Fig. 6a show that the variation of the coincidences as a function of 2 is well described
by
P T 2 V 2 sin2 2 .
28
29
135
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
135
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
P 21 cos2 2 3 /4 .
30
0.01 at these wavelengths. If we correct for this attenuation, the ratio of the two amplitudes is 0.470.10, consistent
with the predicted 1/2.
We have introduced this experiment with /4) in our
first-year introductory physics class. The experiment illustrates some of the basic ideas of quantum mechanics discussed in this course.30 Because there was only one setup,
students took turns doing the experiments. The results were
explained using the concepts of the distinguishability of
paths.
31
T /4 T /4 H e i 1 T /4 V e i 2 ,
Fig. 7. Data from the quantum eraser experiment when the interferometer
paths are indistinguishable squares, distinguishable circles, and when the
distinguishing information is erased by placing a polarizer after the interferometer triangles.
34
The triangles in Fig. 7 show the data obtained with a polarizer oriented at /4 after the interferometer. A fit to the
data gives N 0 648 (20 s) 1 and V0.820.12, showing
that the polarizer erased the distinguishing information. The
inserted polarizer inherently attenuated the light by 0.46
136
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
136
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
emerge from one output and half from the other, and the
detector at one output should detect electromagnetic energy
in coincidence with the detector at the other.
If the field is quantized, however, there should be no coincidences. If the field quantum, the photon, exists and is
indivisible, and if there is only one in the system, the detection of a photon at one output means no photon will be
detected at the other. In the absence of background radiation,
we should never detect electromagnetic radiation at one detector in coincidence with the other.
With our apparatus we could have performed a version of
the 1986 experiment by Grangier, Roger, and Aspect,32
which shows conclusively that photons never divide at a
beam splitter. Greenstein and Zajonc31 have given a particularly clear and well written analysis of the results of Ref. 32.
Recently, Beck and colleagues have used down-conversion
to do a similar experiment in an undergraduate setting.33
We did not test photon behavior at a beam splitter as thoroughly as in Refs. 32 or 33. Instead, we did an experiment
that could be set up quickly from the existing configuration
for the interference measurements and give results in a few
minutes of data taking. Our approach was to add a third
beam splitter at the output of the interferometer, with a lensfilter-detector set located at each of its output ports, as shown
in the insert in Fig. 8. The signal photons could then either
transmit to detector S A , reflect to detector S B , or potentially
split and be detected by both. For every signal photon passing through the beam splitter that is, via transmission or
reflection, the probability of detecting it is P A P B pbs ,
where pbs is the detection efficiency past the beam splitter.
For our apparatus we estimated pbs(915.8 nm)0.18
0.02, the product of the transmission efficiency through
the lens and filter (0.510.02) and the quantum efficiency of
the detector (0.360.02). 6 The probability for two simulta2
neous detections at detectors A and B is P AB pbs
pbsP A pbsP B . Thus, if every photon that contributes to
the interference pattern splits at the third beam splitter, the
triple coincidences between the idler, S A and S B should be
about 18% of the coincidences between the idler and S A or
SB .
We used a second TAC/SCA and another coincidence cir-
137
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
137
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
Vendor
Model
Each
No.
Comment
402.3 nm, 18 mW
beta-barium-borate,
775 mm
prism mount and rotation
stage
avalanche photodiode
10 nm filter for 2 p
XY translation
module
computer card
4 counter PC card
2 4
Diode laser
Crystal
Power Technology
Cleveland Crystals
1Q2C18/5911
$6400
$1000
1
1
Crystal mounting
Thorlabs
PR01KMPM
$370
Detectors
Filters
Lens mount
TAC/SCA
Multichannel scaler
Counter
Optical breadboard
EG&G/Pacer
Andover
Thorlabs
Canberra
Canberra
National Instruments
Thorlabs
SPCM-AQR-13
CW/L
LM1XY
2145
ASA-100
PCI6601BNC2121
T2448A
$4100
$600
$140
$1840
$3500
$700
$1150
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
hardware, where the optics are very close to the optical table,
to be less versatile but simpler, less expensive, and more
stable against vibrations.
We did not have prior experience with these types of experiments, and the cost of the essential components listed in
Table I is intended for those with similar inexperience. The
total cost of this essential equipment is about $25,000. Table
I does not include the standard mounting hardware or the
optical hardware to steer the laser onto the down-conversion
crystal, which may add about $1,000 to the total price. The
price of the blue diode laser that we list is for a module that
includes current and temperature control and beam-shaping
optics. The price of the bare laser diode is much lower
$10002000.2
The essential equipment items for the experiments that we
discussed are listed in Table II. The total cost of these elements is about $6000. It does not include the mounting hardware and apparatus for steering the down-conversion beams
in and out of the interferometer 4 mirrors plus mounting
hardware. If we include all of them, the cost is about $9000.
A picture of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 9. As stated, the
estimated cost is for plug and play parts, provided all is
put together carefully. The cost can be lowered by customizing the electronics and hardware parts. We also tried several
hardware arrangements. Most experiments were done with
optics mounted in convenient magnetic mounts, linked by
rods in the interferometers. We found pedestal mounting
B1
B2
B3
Vendor
Model
Each
No.
Comment
Melles Griot
New Focus
Thorlabs
Thorlabs
Thorlabs
Andover
Melles Griot
Melles Griot
Edmund
Trek
National Instruments
03BSC027
9411
KS1
AE0505D8
MT1
CW/L
02WRQ0023
02WRQ0003
A46088
P0516A-1
PCI6703
BNC2121
$120
$310
$80
$130
$250
$850
$690
$590
$250
$700
$1400
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
near-IR, nonpolarizing
Beam-splitter mount
high-stability mounts
for changing
piezo mount goes on top
1 nm filter for 2 p
half wave
quarter wave
Near-IR polarizer
0150 V to drive piezo
PC card, connector box
and Labview software
138
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
138
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
Fig. 9. Photograph of the layout for the biphoton experiments. The hardware
is mounted on pedestal mounts, and the entire layout fits on a 2 4 optical
breadboard. The path of the light beams is traced in white.
solid line in Fig. 10 represents the ordinary index of refraction, where the polarization of the light is perpendicular to
the optic axis OA of the crystal. If the polarization is in the
same plane as OA, the index of refraction, also known as the
extraordinary index of refraction, depends on the angle m
formed between the propagation direction kp and OA. The
lower solid line in Fig. 10 corresponds to the case where
e ( m /2), with
n e n
n e m cos2 m /n 2o sin2 m /n 2e 1/2.
B4
n A
B
D 2
2
C
1/2
B5
Fig. 10. Index of refraction curves for a beta-barium-borate crystal with its
optic axis aligned perpendicular top and parallel bottom to the input
polarization. The dashed middle curve corresponds to the phase-matching
condition that allows down-conversion for the setup of Fig. 1b.
139
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
139
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39
23
Due to the better alignment and simpler optical arrangement that we can
obtain in the experiment with collinear photons, the coincidence yield is
much higher than in the experiments with the noncollinear photons.
24
Notice that the result is just the square of the result for one-photon interference. In other words, the interference pattern of the biphoton is the
product of the interference patterns of single photons.
25
We detect coincidences at the interferometer output by placing a beam
splitter there with reflectance R and transmittance T and then detecting
coincidences between photons leaving each output. This arrangement allows us to detect only 2R T of the photon pairs leaving the interferometer.
26
R. A. Campos, B. E. A. Saleh, and M. A. Teich, Fourth-order interference
of joint single-photon wavepackets in lossless optical systems, Phys. Rev.
A 42, 4127 4137 1990.
27
Roy J. Glauber, Diracs famous dictum on interference: One photon or
two?, Am. J. Phys. 63, 12L 1990. We thank H. Leff for bringing this
reference to our attention.
28
P. D. D. Schwindt, P. G. Kwiat, and B.-G. Englert, Quantitative wave-
particle duality and nonerasing quantum erasure, Phys. Rev. A 60, 4285
4290 1999.
29
M. B. Schneider and I. A. LaPuma, A simple experiment for discussion
of quantum interference and which-way measurement, Am. J. Phys. 70,
266 271 2002.
30
C. H. Holbrow, J. N. Lloyd, and J. C. Amato, Modern Introductory Physics
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999.
31
G. Greenstein and A. G. Zajonc, The Quantum Challenge Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, 1987.
32
P. Grangier, G. Roger, and A. Aspect, Experimental evidence for a photon anticorrelation effect on a beam splitter: A new light on single-photon
interferences, Europhys. Lett. 1, 173179 1986.
33
J. J. Thorn, M. S. Neel, V. W. Donato, G. S. Bergreen, R. E. Davies, and
M. Beck, Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate
laboratory, Am. J. Phys. 72, 12101219 2004.
34
K. Kato, Second harmonic generation of 2048 -BaB2 O4 , IEEE J.
Quantum Electron. QE-22, 10131014 1986.
NEWTONS BEQUEST
So gravity was not mechanical, not occult, not a hypothesis. He had provided it by mathematics. It is enough, he said, that gravity really exists and acts according to the laws that we have
set forth and is sufficient to explain all the motions of the heavenly bodies and of our sea. It could
not be denied, even if its essence could not be understood.
He had declared at the outset that his mission was to discover the forces of nature. He deduced
forces from celestial bodies motion, as observed and recorded. He made a great claimthe
System of the Worldand yet declared his program incomplete. In fact, incompleteness was its
greatest virtue. He bequeathed to science, that institution in its throes of birth, a research program,
practical and open-ended. There was work to do, predictions to be computed and then verified.
James Gleick, Isaac Newton Vintage Books, 2003, pp. 139140.
140
Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 2, February 2005
Galvez et al.
140
This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AAPT content is subject to the terms at: http://scitation.aip.org/termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:
168.176.55.14 On: Wed, 08 Apr 2015 20:56:39