This map of Ancient Greece shows the Greek mainland at the center, parts of southern Italy

& Sicily, where the Doric order was commonly used & parts of Asia minor (Turkey), where
the Ionic order was usually employed.
About 1500 years before the Greek civilization, a civilization flourished on the island of
Crete Known as the Minoan (2700 1600 BC) after the legendary king Minos & later the
Mycenaean (1600 1100 BC) after their capital city of Mycenae.

The palace at Knossos was built gradually from 1700 to 1400 BC. The palace is laid
around a central court & entered from the north through a portico. On the left side of the
court is the throne room & other areas used by the King. Beyond it is the long gallery that
gives access to many linear rooms. To the right side of the court is located the Queens
megaron. Totally the palace had 1300 rooms & a theatre covering an area of 6 acres.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE

FACTORS INFLUENCING GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Geographical : Greece has a broken coast line with about 3000 islands, which made the
Greeks into a sea-faring people. The colonization of neighboring lands such as the
Dorian colonies of Sicily & the Ionian colonies of Asia minor resulted in the spread of
Greek civilization. The mountains of the country separated the inhabitants into various
groups that led to the evolution of city states like Athens, Troy, Delphi etc.
Geological : The chief mineral wealth of Greece was her marble, the most beautiful of
all building materials that facilitates exactness of line & refinement of detail. The
Greeks even coated coarse limestone with a layer of marble stucco to achieve the effect
of fine grained marble.
Climatic : The Greek climate is a salubrious Mediterranean type of climate that
encouraged outdoor activity. Consequently most public ceremonies took place in the
open air, which resulted in building types such as the Greek theatre. The sunny climate
with sudden showers necessitated the porticoes & colonnades that are typical of Greece
Religious : The Greek religion was mainly a worship of natural phenomena with each
city having its own deity. Zeus was the chief god, Apollo was his son, Athena was the
goddess of wisdom & prosperity, Aphrodite for love and Nike, the goddess of victory.
Social : Classical Greece was peopled by Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians & Corinthians. The
people of the various greek states were bound by their religion, their love of music,
drama, fine arts & their passion for sports & games.
Historical : The rule of Pericles (444 429 BC) marks the climax of Athenian prosperity.
After the Peloponnesian war the Spartans established their supremacy. Then king Philip
of Macedonia unified Greece & his son Alexander the great established the greek
empire after conquering Persia , Egypt, Bacteria & North India. The city of Alexandria
was also founded by him.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARECTER
Greeks by their innate artistic sense profoundly influenced the development of
European art & hence Greece is regarded as the source of literary & artistic inspiration.
1. Early period (2700 700 BC) : Minoan & Mycenaean architecture is rough & massive in
character with the walls exhibiting 3 kinds of masonry Cyclopean masonry consists of
large blocks of stone piled one on another with small pieces of interstices, bound by
clay mortar Ex. Knossos. Rectangular masonry comprising of rectangular stone blocks
in regular courses, with the joints not always vertical. Ex. Mycenae. Polygonal masonry
with many sided blocks accurately fitted together. Ex. Acropolis wall at Athens.
2. Classical period (700 BC 346 BC) : Greek architecture is of the columnar & trabeated
style where the construction system is self evident. Unity of effect in greek temples was
achieved by a single colonnade surrounding the naos. Columns became more graceful
& moldings were refined. Columns were erected by inserting metal dowels at the centre
of circular blocks of stone & metal cramps were inserted in masonry walls. It was
mainly temples that were built during this period. Many refinements to correct optical
illusions were practiced. They developed the Doric , Ionic & Corinthian orders. Color &
gilding was freely applied to details & sculptures. Ex. Parthenon, the Propylae etc.
3. Hellenistic period (346 BC 146 AD) : During this time the secular architecture
developed with the building of Theatres, Agoras, Stadia etc. & the interaction with other
cultures made possible by Alexanders conquest affected greek art considerably. The
Doric order was commonly employed during the Hellenic period & later on the Ionic
order evolved. However, during the Hellenistic period the Corinthian order was used
frequently & the taller version of the Ionic order. Ex. Erechtheion, theatre Epidauros &
Tower of Winds.

ORDERS IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE

Cornice
Frieze

What is an Order ? An Order in architecture refers to

the column, its capital & the part supported by it
Entablature
known as the entablature. In each order, these parts
Architrave
are in a specific proportion to each other & display
characteristic shapes, forms, treatment & molding.
Capital
Evolution of the Doric order

Shaft
Column

The Doric order evolved from the hut that was built with circular logs for posts with square
planks on top to fix them to the purlins & rafters with rectangular sections that formed the
framework for the roof. It had a shaft & capital that comprised of the column which
supported the Entablature comprising of the Architrave , Frieze & cornice. The triangular
part at the top of the composition is known as the pediment.

 The Doric column stands without a base, directly on the stylobate (Plinth), which usually
comprises of 3 steps. The radius at the base of the column is taken as the basic module
for proportioning. The ht. of the column inclusive of the capital is about 4 to 6.5 times
the base diameter. The circular shaft which reduces at the top to about - 2/3 of the
base diameter, is divided into 20 shallow flutings divided by sharp arrises. The shaft
rises up to the hypotrechelion formed of 3 grooves, above which is the continuation of
the shaft called the trachelion or the neck. Above this is the Doric capital comprising of
the square abacus, the curved echinus & the annulets (3 to 5 fillets) that terminate the
flutings of the column.

DORIC ORDER
Cornice (Cymatium & corona)
Metope
Triglyph - one above the center of
each column & one above each inter
columniation

Architrave (beam)
Annulets

Abacus
Echinus
Hypotrechelion

Arrises
Flutings
Doric entablature is 1/4th the height of the
entire order & consists of the Architrave, the
Frieze & the cornice. Triglyphs with 3 upright
channels alternating with squarish Metopes
with relief sculpture comprise of the frieze.
Mutules with guttae
Tenia (horizontal molding)
Regulae (flat strip)
Guttae (drops)

Comparison of Doric order

The 3 examples given above belong
to the earlier period & the 3 below
are of the later period.
In the earlier temples the echinus
flares out ,4 annulets & 3
hypotrachelion grooves are common.
However in the later day temples, the
echinus is more vertical with 5
annulets & one hypotrechelion.
The columns also have become more
slender during the later period & tend
to have more flutings.
It is astonishing to note that in the
Greek architecture, which was built
about 2500 yrs ago, such a rigorous
system of proportions were adopted.
Moreover the attention given to even
small detailing such as the various
parts of the order, moldings &
grooves is fascinating.
THESION, ATHENS

PARTHENON

APOLLO, DELOS

Comparative plan of Greek Temples.

Greek temples have a walled enclosure
known as the Naos with an entrance
foyer known as the Pronaos & a
storage chamber at the rear called the
opisthodomos. They are classified into
various style depending upon the
number of columns in the faade. Thus a
temple having 2 columns is known as
Distyle, 4 columns as tetra style & 8
columns as octastyle etc.
Similarly if there are one row of columns
surrounding the naos it is called
peripteral & if there are 2 rows of
columns it is known as dipteral & if there
are attached half columns it is pseudo
peripteral.
Hence the Parthenon is peripteral
octastyle, the Olypeion is dipteral
octastyle & Zeus olympus is pseudo
peripteral septastyle. Greeks also built
circular temples.

IONIC ORDER
Volute capital

cushion
Egg & dart molding

24 to 40 flutes

Volutes

Bead molding

Upper Torus
Scotia

The volutes are connected by an egg &dart molding,

below which is a bead molding. The echinus below the
abacus is very shallow & comprises entirely of moldings

Lower Torus
Ionic columns including the capital & base have a height of about 9 times the base
diameter. The molded base consists of an upper & lower torus divided by a scotia. The
distinctive Volute or scroll capital must be derived from nature. The capital consists of a
pair of volutes or spirals, about 2/3 the base dia in height, on the front & back of the
column connected at the sides by the cushion.

IONIC ORDER
Dentils

Cornice
Architrave

The Ionic entablature is about 1/5 of the total height of

the order & consists of an architrave formed like 3
superimposed beams, a frieze ornamented by square
projections called dentils & continuous band of relief
sculpture and the cornice with no mutules, but with the
corona & cymatium.
In the capitals of angle columns it was necessary to
show the volutes on 2 adjacent faces & hence they
joined the adjacent volutes at an angle of 45 degrees,
as shown in the diagram above.

Abacus
Spirals
Stalks
Acanthus leaves

The Corinthian column, with the base & shaft resembling

the Ionic is has a height of 10 times the base diameter.
The distinctive feature is the capital, which is taller than
the others & is usually about 11/8th diameter high.
The capital is supposed to have originated by observing a
flower basket covered with a tile, left over the grave of the
husband of a Corinthian maiden, surrounded by acanthus
leaves.
The typical Corinthian capital is in the form of an inverted
bell, with the lower part surrounded by 2 tiers of eight
acanthus leaves. Between the leaves of the upper row rise
8 stalks from which emerge the spirals that support the
angles of the abacus & the central flower shaped
ornament. Each face of the molded abacus is curved
outward to a point at the angles.
The entablature is similar to the Ionic, rising to 1/5th the
height of the entire order, but has more moldings.

CORINTHIAN ORDER

 Most Greek temples were built on a raised plateau which was considered as the sacred
temenos. This picture shows the view of the Acropolis at Athens, with the most famous
temple of Parthenon at the top. Other important structures include the Erechtheion, the
Propylae, the temple of Nike etc. All the structures are of marble & are world famous
for their proportions, geometry, fine sculptures & optical refinements to correct illusions

 This plan of the Acropolis shows the entrance structure called the Propylae on the west,
the main Parthenon temple in the middle & the Erechtheion in the north side. Other
structures include the theatres, the temple of Victory (Nike) and the Stoa.

 The Parthenon was built from 454 to 438 BC, during the reign of King Pericles & is
dedicated to the Goddess Athena Parthenos or the Virgin Athena. Ictinus & Callicrates
were the architects, while Phideas was the master sculptor. This temple is considered
as a fine example of the Doric style & is renowned for its fine carvings known as the
panathenaic frieze, the enormous statue of Athena in gold & ivory & the practice of
architectural refinements to correct optical illusions.

 The temple is Peripteral Octastyle in plan with 17 columns in its flanks, standing on a
stylobate of 3 steps. At the plinth, it measures 101- 4 x 228- 2 with a ratio 0f 4:9.
The main doorway on the east led to the Naos, about 63 x 100, having 2 rows of 10
Doric columns supporting passageways on three sides with a 2 floor height space in the
middle. On the back side was the Parthenon, used as a treasury & entered through a
door in the Opisthodomos, with 4 ionic columns supporting the roof. Both chambers
were enclosed by a 4 thick wall. The Pronaos & Opisthodomos each measuring 60 x
12, had 6 Doric columns & were fitted with metal grilles to serve as ante chambers.
In the Naos stood the statue of Athena & the entire temple was surrounded by an
ambulatory 9wide in the sides and 11 wide in the front & rear.

The view above is the Elevation & the 2 views on the

side are of the flank & a close up of the front faade.

The prominent external features are the peristyle fluted columns which are 32 in the
sides & 16 in the front & rear. They rise to about 34- 3 ht & are 5.5 times the base
diameter. Most of the columns have 6- 2 base diameter and taper to 4- 10 at the top.
The axis of all the columns are slightly tilted inwards towards the top to prevent the
optical illusion of falling outward. They also exhibit a concave profile known as the
Entasis, which is another refinement to correct the illusion of looking thin in the middle.

 The entablature is 11 high and has the usual divisions of the Architrave, Frieze &
Cornice. The architrave was ornamented with bronze shields & inscriptions of Alexander
the great. The frieze comprises of the usual tryglyphs & metopes, which about 4 5
square carried fine relief sculpture of the achievements of the athenians.
The pediments which have an inclination of 13.5 degrees are terminated at the roof &
each end by an ornamentation known as the Acroterion. The tympana of the pediment
was filled with finest sculpture of Phideas.

The picture above shows the reconstructed view of the interior

of the Naos, while the one on top right is a view of a model.
The picture on the right is recreation of the statue of Virgin
Athena at Nashville, USA.
The Ivory & gold statue is about 42 high with the winged
victory on one hand & shield on the other. The model tries
recapture the details of the temple such as the sculptures in
the tympana & frieze.

 The peristyle was enriched with marble beams which were painted. The celebrated
Panathenaic frieze was carved as a horizontal band on the exterior of the naos wall. It is
3- 4 high & is sculpted in such a way as to be seen in the light reflected by the white
marble pavement below. It represents the procession taken once in 4 years to this
temple. Most of this frieze is in the London museum & the picture above is a painting.

 The sculptured metopes on the eastern facade represent the contest between the gods
& giants, those on the west represent the fight between the Greeks & Amazons etc. All
the sculptures were painted with brilliant colors. The Parthenon is considered to be a
miracle of architecture with gleaming marble, marvelous sculpture & glowing color. It
remains as Greece's greatest historic monument & her most precious heritage.

THE ERECHTHEION

The Erechtheion was constructed from 420 393 BC by Mnesicles, who was the
architect & contains 3 shrines within its walls. It has no side colonnades & hence is
called Apteral in style. The temple is considered to be very sacred as it contains the
olive wood statue of Athena, the salt well of Poseidon & the tomb of Erechtheus.

View from NW

Plan

Caryatid porch

WEST ELEVATION

The Erechtheion is irregular in plan owing to the sloping site & contains the shrine of
Athena in the eastern portion with the main entrance through the Ionic hexastyle
portico, seen in the earlier picture. Behind this is the shrine of Erechtheion & Poseidon,
which is accessed from the northern Ionic tetrastyle portico. The western naos was
added later & entered through the passage connecting the northern portico & the
southern Caryatid porch. The northern portico is 10 lower than the eastern portico.

North portico

Caryatid porch

This elevation shows the north portico at 10 below the Eastern

The walls in the center have been removed to show the eastern
portico in this section. It also shows the lower level comprising of
water Tanks

Looking east

The northern portico is a very ornate example of the Ionic order. The Ionic order of the
eastern portico is not so ornamental. The main building is crowned with an entablature
of 5 ht. having the usual divisions of the architrave, frieze & cornice. The frieze of all
the porticoes was done in black marble to which the relief sculptures in white marble
were attached with metal cramps. The sky line was emphasized by the acroterion
ornament of the pediments & the antifixae to the marble roofing slabs. The doorways of
the temple are remarkable for their brackets, architrave & cornice.
The Erechtheion is a fine example of asymmetrical architectural composition having
various levels, which gives it different views from all around.

The Caryatid portico on the south is the

finest example of sculpture of classical
Greece, where 6 draped female figures
or caryatids are spaced like the
columns of the north portico.
They stand on a solid marble wall,
about 8 high & have a height of 7- 9.
They also support an unusual
entablature, on which rests the marble
roof. All the figures face south : the 3
on the west lean on the right & the 3 on
the east lean on the left leg.

Hexastyle Doric portico

Temple of Nike Apteros

Pinacotheca

6 Ionic columns

THE PROPYLAE

The Propylae is an entrance portal, constructed at the acropolis by Mnesicles, during the
reign of Pericles. The front & rear hexastyle porticoes are at different levels & give access
to a covered hall with a wide central passage. This passage is flanked by 3 pairs of Ionic
columns, that leads to a wall with 5 doorways of different heights. The projecting wings
have 3 Doric columns shorter than the central ones. The northern wing provided with
windows was used as a pinacotheca or picture gallery. The temple of Nike is on the south.

OPTICAL CORRECTIONS (REFINEMENTS) IN GREEK TEMPLES

The vertical axis of the columns were inclined inwards,

by 2.65 inches to prevent the appearance of falling
outward that occurs in perspective.
Similarly, the stylobate, entablature & pediment were
made convex with the center raised by 2.6 inches with
respect to the ends to correct the sagging appearance.

OPTICAL CORRECTIONS (REFINEMENTS) IN GREEK TEMPLES

Optical corrections made to the lettering
in the inscriptions of temples, to make
all of them look the same size.

The change in appearance

of the end columns seen
against the sky background
& the other columns seen
against the background of
the Naos wall

The shaft of the column had a convex profile known as the entasis to
correct the appearance of looking thicker in the middle.

diazoma

Theater Epidauros
rows of seats

stage
Plan, View & Aerial view of Epidauros
Orchestral pit

The theater, best preserved of all, has a diameter of 373 & is scooped out of a hillside. It has a
circular orchestral platform 66 in diameter, with 2 banks of seats separated by a diazoma or
cross aisle. 32 rows of seats form the lower bank & 20 rows are there in the upper bank. There are
24 flights of step which act as aisles, giving access to all parts of the gallery. The seating is of
marble slabs, the orchestral pit is paved with a harder stone & there is an colonnaded stage. The
theater is marveled for its exceptional acoustics, since the 15000 spectators can perfectly hear the
unun-amplified speech. Researchers have now established (2007) that it is due to the marble gallery
absorbing the low frequency sound, such as the murmur of the crowd & the hard stone pavement
reflecting the high frequency sound from the stage and the orchestral platform.

Plan of the Agora

Views of Stoa

Agora model

The Agora was an open air meeting place, the Greek equivalent of the town square. It
was enclosed by Stoa or colonnades giving access to public buildings all around such as
temples, basilica, stadia etc. the Stoa was a colonnaded corridor that connected public
buildings & also gave shelter to pilgrims.