Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 16
Ideal Fermi Gas
16.1
Introduction
Particles with 12 -integer angular momentum obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle
(PEP) a restriction that no more than one such identical particle can occupy the
same quantum state. Alternatively, PEP states that any single particle 12 -integer
spin quantum state can have an occupation number of only 0 or 1. This restriction
was announced by W. Pauli in 1924, for which, in 1945, he received the Nobel Prize
in Physics. The exclusion principle was later generalized independently by P.
Dirac and E. Fermi who integrated it into quantum mechanics. As a consequence
1
2 -integer spin particles are called Fermi-Dirac particles or fermions. PEP applies to
electrons, protons, neutrons, neutrinos, quarks and their antiparticles as well as
composite fermions, such as He3 atoms. Thermodynamic properties of metals and
semiconductors are dominated by electron behavior. Metals exhibit the uniquely
fermionic low temperature heat capacity CV T while some Fermi-Dirac systems
undergo a transition to a distinctive superconducting state with signature properties
of magnetic flux exclusion (no interior B field) and zero electrical resistivity.
1
16.2
The eigen-energies and eigenfunctions of any ideal (non-interacting) gas are constructed from the eigenvalue problem
hop Es = Es Es
(16.1)
with Es the single particle eigen-energies and Es the corresponding single particle
eigenstates. hop is the single particle hamiltonian operator for the ith particle1
hop (i) =
2
h
2 + V (i) .
2m i
(16.2)
We must first solve the single particle problem, i.e. Eqs.16.1 and 16.2. Generally,
V (i) represents some charge neutralizing positive background potential, e.g. positive ions, so obtaining a solution may be computationally intensive. It is, however,
common and useful to assume that the background ions are replaced by a uniform
positive charge, which is called the free electron approximation. Presuming a solution
is obtained, we can proceed to introduce Fermi-Dirac particle thermodynamics.
16.2.1
(16.3)
(16.4)
i=1
(16.5)
with ns = 0, 1, 2 . . . the number of particles occupying the single particle eigenstate Es and the system chemical potential. The sum over s is a sum over
all states.2
However, temporarily ignoring spin, each (non-degenerate) single particle state is restricted by PEP to have occupation number zero (no particles) or one (one particle),
i.e. ns = 0 or 1.
We continue by constructing the Least Biased Lagrangian LF D
LF D = kB
PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . ) ln PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . )
(16.6)
PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . )
where PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . ) is the probability there are n1 particles in the single particle
state E1 , n2 particles in the single particle state E2 , etc. and where the sums
mean
(16.7)
n1 =0,1 n2 =0,1
n1 ,n2 ...=0,1
PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . ) =
(Es )ns
(16.8)
1
where, as usual, 1 = T1 with =
.
kB T
F D
The denominator in Eq.16.8 is identified as the grand partition function, Zgr
F D
Zgr
=
(Es )ns
s
(16.9)
Here we picture each single particle state as an open system into and out of which particles
diffuse so that in thermodynamic (diffusive) equilibrium all particles have the same chemical
potential.
(16.10)
ns =0,1
(16.11)
16.2.1.1
Electron Spin
Taking electron spin into account, the non-degenerate pair of single particle states
Es, , Es, emerges with corresponding eigen-energies Es, and Es, so that
F D
Zgr
= [1 + e(Es, ) ] [1 + e(Es, ) ] .
(16.12)
With zero magnetic field Es, = Es, . As a result of this two-fold degeneracy
F D
= [1 + e(Es ) ]
Zgr
(16.13)
16.2.2
Fermi-Dirac Thermodynamics
(16.14)
2
FgrD = ln [1 + e(Es ) ]
s
(16.15)
ns =0,1
(16.16)
Nop =
[
s
ns =0,1
e(Es )ns ]
T,V
1
= 2 [ (Es )
]
e
+1
s
= 2 nFs D
(16.17)
(16.18)
(16.19)
where nFs D is a single particle average occupation number for the state s,
nFs D = [
1
e(Es )
+1
],
(16.20)
(FgrD )] + Nop .
V,
(16.21)
(16.22)
s
3
Nop
V
8.47
5.86
5.90
18.1
24.7
14.8
8.61
17.0
13.2
8.65
Table 16.1: Average electron density Nop /V of several elemental metals. Densities
are in units of 1028 m3 . (N. W. Ashcroft and N. D. Mermin, Solid State Physics,
Saunders, 1976.)
Figure 16.1: The Fermi-Dirac function in Eq.16.20. The solid line (red) represents
ns at low temperature. The short dashed curve (green) is representative at higher
temperatures. With increasing temperature ns exp (Es ) the semi-classical
limit. At T = 0 ns is a step function with unit jump at Es = EF .
(16.23)
(16.24)
PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . ) ln PF D (n1 , n2 , . . . )
(16.25)
n1 ,n2 ,...=0,1
FgrD
]
,V
(16.26)
(16.27)
16.2.3
The independent Fermion model for metals usually includes interactions with a static
array of positive ions (band structure approximation) but neglects both electron-electron
repulsion (correlations) and interactions with vibrating ions (electron-phonon interactions.)4
Independent fermion thermodynamics begins with FgrD [see Eq.16.15] where, using
Diracs f unction5 property
df () ( Es ) = f (Es ) .
(16.28)
FgrD
2
= d ( Es ) ln [1 + e() ]
(16.29)
These effects can often be summarized by a few parameters, such as an effective mass m and
an electron-phonon coupling constant which characterize individual systems. This electron gas
model has been successful in describing simple metals and semiconductors.
5
( Es ) is the Dirac delta-function.
4
(16.30)
FgrD
2
= dD () ln [1 + e() ] .
(16.31)
Nop = 2 d
0
D ()
+1
e()
(16.32)
and
D ()
U = 2 d ()
e
+1
(16.33)
Evaluating integrals Eqs.16.32, 16.33 and related types that appear in degenerate
fermion models ( 1) often require specialized techniques. The simplest of these
is Sommerfelds asymptotic expansion, which is discussed in Appendix H.7,8
16.2.3.1
N
density Vop by expanding the right hand side of Eq.16.32 about = F to linear
order, where F is the chemical potential at T = 0, to give
D ()
( F )
Nop = d ( )
+
dD () sech2 [ ( F )]
F +1
4
2
e
0
(16.34)
F
2
D ()
dD
()
+
D (F )
6 2
e(F ) + 1
(16.35)
2
2
dD
()
sech
[
(
)]
D
(
)
+
D (F )
F
F
4
2
6 2
(16.36)
dD () = Nop
(16.37)
gives,
2 D ( )
F
6 2
= F
2
D (F ) + 2 D (F )
6
(16.38)
which to order T 2 is
= F
2 D (F )
.
6 2 D (F )
(16.39)
Note the important result that the chemical potential decreases from F with increasing temperature. At very high temperature, T >> 0, .
10
16.2.3.2
Internal Energy
Similar to the argument above, the internal energy, [Eq.16.33], is first expanded
about = F
D ()
D ()
( F )
d D () sech2 [ ( F )] .
d e() + 1 d e(F ) + 1 +
4
2
0
(16.40)
Applying Sommerfelds approximation to the first term on the right-hand-side
F
D ()
2
d
d e(F ) + 1 d D () + 6 2 { d [ D ( )]}
=F
0
(16.41)
4
2
d D () sech [ 2 ( F )] F D (F ) .
(16.42)
2
U = 2 d D () + 2 D (F )
3
(16.43)
U
)
T V
is
CV =
2 2 2
k D (F ) T ,
3 B
(16.44)
a result quite different from the constant valued classical result. This follows since
PEP allows only the small fraction of particles near F , i.e. Nef f N kB T , to participate in low temperature thermal processes. Interestingly, measured macroscopic
heat capacity is proportional to the density of states D (F ), a microscopic quantum
property.
16.2.4
11
The electron gas model is frequently used to describe the behavior of simple (monovalent) metals. It assumes a macroscopic collection of non-interacting spin particles,
neutralized only by a uniform positive background, with a single particle hamiltonian
for the (ith ) particle
hop (i) =
2
h
2 .
2m i
(16.45)
Choosing periodic boundary conditions [see Appendix G], the single particle eigenenergies are
(k) =
2 k2
h
2m
(16.46)
where kj (j = x, y, z) are the eigenstate quantum numbers which assume the values
2
j
L
(16.47)
j = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(16.48)
kj =
where
Here L is the length of one side of a notional periodic cube with macroscopic
volume V = L3 . From Appendix E the density of states, D (), corresponding to this
model [see Eq.16.46] is
D () = [ (k)]
k
V 2m 3/2
( 2 )
,
4 2 h
(16.49)
FgrD
V
2m 3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d ln [1 + e() ]
2 h
0
(16.50)
12
D()
Figure 16.2: Density of states for 3 D electron gas model. [See Eq.16.49].
which is integrated by parts to give
FgrD
V 2m 3/2
3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d ()
.
3 h
e
+1
(16.51)
gr
)
V T,
(16.52)
Since
p = (
the fermion gas pressure is
F D
1 2m 3/2
3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d ()
.
3 h
e
+1
(16.53)
The degenerate gas pressure, ( >> 1), is expanded in powers of T by applying the
The mass can be replaced by an effective mass, m m , where m approximates the effect of
a crystal lattice.
10
13
3/2
3/2
( F )
d 3/2 sech2 [ ( F )] .
d e() + 1 = d e(F ) + 1 +
4
2
0
(16.54)
The first integral on the right-hand-side is approximated using Sommerfelds method
2 5/2 2 1/2
3/2
d e(F ) + 1 5 F + 4 2 F
(16.55)
4 3/2
3/2
2
d sech [ 2 ( F )] F .
(16.56)
Therefore Eq.16.54, together with Eqs.16.55, 16.56 and 16.39, gives the pressure of
a degenerate ( >> 1) Femi-Dirac gas model
pF D =
2
2m 3/2 5/2
5 2
)
(
(1
+
).
F
2
15 2 h
12 2 2F
(16.57)
Unlike a classical ideal gas for which p T , the pressure of a degenerate Fermi-Dirac
gas is nearly independent of temperature.
Finally, in the Fermi gas model we have [see Eq.16.37]
F
Nop
1 2m 3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d
V
2 h
(16.58)
1 2m
( 2 )
3 2 h
3/2
3/2
F
(16.59)
or
2/3
2
h
2 Nop
F =
(3
) .
2m
V
(16.60)
14
16.2.5
16.2.5.1
(3 2 )
p =
5
e
11
e 5/3
2
Nop
h
( )(
) ,
me
V
(16.61)
High temperatures result from nuclear fusion at the stars center in which hydrogen burns to
helium and, eventually, heavier nuclei including carbon and oxygen.
15
e
Nop
is the electron number density. The stellar
V
e
M = 2Nop
mHe .
(16.62)
core
gr
)
V
T,
(16.63)
core
gr
V 2mHe 3/2
3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d (+W )
3
h
e
1
(16.64)
with W the mean field gravitational potential energy per He nucleus [see Chapter
14]
W = mHe (r) .
(16.65)
(16.66)
with a solution
r
G
(r) = (r )dr
r
(16.67)
where G is the universal gravitational constant and (r) is the He mass density.
In the extreme non-degenerate (classical) limit ( << 1), where boson-fermion statistics are irrelevant, Eq.16.64 becomes
core
gr
V 2mHe 3/2
= 2 ( 2 ) d 3/2 e(+W )
3
h
(16.68)
mHe 3/2 (W )
=
(
.
1/2
2 ) e
(2 3 ) 5/2 h
(16.69)
16
(16.70)
(16.71)
3GM
.
5R
(16.72)
core
1/3
1 GM 2 mHe 3/2
mHe 3/2 (W )
2
( 2 ) e
( 2 ) ( 2 ) e(W ) .
=
1/2
1/3
h
3
5 V
(2 3 ) 5/2 h
(16.73)
1
(16.74)
He
Nop
1 4 1/3 GM 2
( )
V
5 3
V 4/3
(16.75)
where the first term is the classical ideal He gas nuclei pressure, which is negligible
for this cool star. The total pressure i.e. the equation of state for the white dwarf
star, is therefore
(3 2 )
ptotal =
5
2/3
e 5/3
2
Nop
h
1 4 1/3 GM 2
( )(
) ( )
.
me
V
5 3
V 4/3
(16.76)
2/3
e 5/3
2
Nop
h
1 4 1/3 GM 2
( )(
) = ( )
me
V
5 3
V 4/3
(16.77)
The factor 3/5 in the expression that follows is due to assumed spherical symmetry. For other
mass distributions a different constant 1 will appear.
17
which with
e
He
Nop
= 2Nop
(charge neutrality)
M
=
2mHe
(16.78)
(16.79)
2
34/3 2/3 h
] = RM 1/3 .
5/3
8G(mHe ) me
(16.80)