MNGE 310

Course Lecture Notes

Table of Contents

Table of Contents..........................................................................1
Introduction.................................................................................2
Room and Pillar Mining.................................................................4
Stope and Pillar Mining.................................................................8
Longwall Mining.........................................................................11
Shrinkage Stoping......................................................................14
Block Caving............................................................................... 17
Sub Level Stoping.......................................................................21
Sub Level Caving........................................................................24
Cut and Fill Mining......................................................................27
Stull Stoping..............................................................................29
Square Set Mining......................................................................31
Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Method...........................33
Applications of Each Method........................................................35
Definition of Terms...................................................................... 37

Introduction
Surface vs Underground
Surface

Underground

Production
Productivity
Accident Risk Lower
Energy Demand

Maintainable Subsurface Environment

Not Affected by Weather
More Aesthetically Appeasing to Environment

Mining Classifications
1) Self-Supported require no major artificial support system to carry
overlying load
Ex: Room and Pillar, Stope and Pillar, Sub Level Stoping, Shrinkage
Stoping
2) Supported require substantial, artificial support to maintain stability
of openings
Ex: Cut and Fill, Square Set, Stull Stoping
3) Caving workings are allowed to cave (collapse), caving of ore/rock
Ex: Longwall, Block Caving, Sub Level Caving
Methods
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Room and Pillar

Stope and Pillar
Longwall
Shrinkage Stoping
Block Caving
Sub Level Stoping
Sub Level Caving
Cut and Fill

Factors that Determine the Method

1)
2)
3)
4)

Dip
Size of Deposit
Rock Strength
Ore Value/Grade/Continuity

Guidelines for Selection

Objective: Best under the given conditions for a particular deposit given:
1) High Productivity (Ore/Person)
2

2) Complete/Maximum Extraction
3) Safe Working Conditions
Considerations
1) General Considerations
What methods can be used, equipment, mine life, etc.?
2) Geological Conditions
Steep 50+ degrees (gravity used)
Flat 0-20 degrees (no gravity)
Medium 20-30 degrees (difficult decision)
3) Rock Strength
Strong or Weak (test through core samples)
Uniaxial Strength of Core and Empirical Form
4) Ore Reserves and Grade
Ore boundaries are never distinct
Delineate the boundaries, determine ore reserve (cut-off grade)
5) Mining Costs
Influenced by mining method
6) Productivity/Mechanization
Select large machines, limited by size of opening
Utilize as high as practical
Productivity: output/shift, output/worker
7) Safety, Welfare, Government Regulations
Work may be limited by safety hazards and laws

Room and Pillar Mining (Self-Supported)

Room and Pillar Operation

Typically 40-60 percent extraction (70-90 with extraction of pillars)
Openings are orthogonal at regular intervals to create pillars for natural
support
Development openings are entries, and exploitation openings are rooms.
Entries are/act as either:
1) Ore Source
2) Access Opening
3) Transport
4) Air/Ventilation
Pillars control the immediate roof
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Moderate
Moderate to Strong
Tabular, Continuous
Nearly Flat (<15 degrees)
Large
Moderate
Moderate (<1500 for coal, <2000 for hard rock)

Design Parameters
Most important is dimensions of openings, rooms, and pillars
1) Height thickness of deposit
2) Width (open span) should be as wide as possible
3) Spacing (center) [entries and rooms] sufficiently close to ensure
stress distribution between pillars is minimum
4) Spacing between Cross-Cuts defined by law
5) Pillar Size depends on stresses and ability of pillars to carry the extra
load
Development (for a simple layout)
1) Main Shaft/Slope
Primarily used for materials handling, typically centrally located
Separate shaft/slope for personnel close by
Must be protected by barrier pillars on all sides
2) Horizontal Development
Multiple openings exploited for access and haulage
Principle openings are called main entries
Always driven from the bottom of the main shaft/slope
Coal mines required by law to have cross-cuts
3) Exploitation
After main entries are completed, deposit/seam is divided into
large exploitation zones by panel entries (large rectangular
blocks)
Most U.S. mines use retreat method (entries are driven to the
extreme end of panel and exploit on the retreat)
Ventilation is unidirectional flow through system bounded by
bleeder entries
Pillars are either left, partially recovered, or fully recovered
If fully recovered, subsidence will occur and is considered a
caving method
Types of Room and Pillar Mining
Two types of room and pillar mining are Conventional Mining and
Continuous Mining
Continuous Mining is the current industry standard
Conventional Mining was used before the emergence of the continuous
mining machine

Conventional Mining
Cyclic operation, employs mobile, mechanized equipment to carry out
all operations
Requires at least 5 working places for a smooth cycle (typically 8-12)
Best in hard rock
Operational Cycle
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Cutting creates void to improve

breakage
Drilling rubber-tired rotary
face operations
Blasting compressed air,
compressed CO2
Loading gathering arm
Haulage shuttle cars -> belt conveyor -> train, truck, etc.

Auxiliary Operations
Ventilation
Support
Health and safety
Dust, Gas, and Water Control
Cut Sequence
Simple echelon (lengths before cross-cuts)
Limited by law to the length of the unsupported roof
Continuous Mining
Separate operations consolidated by a high performance Continuous
Miner
One working area for mining, another for the roof bolter
Operational Cycle
1) Mine (Cut) continuous miner cuts from face, loads onto
shuttle cars
2) Hauling shuttle cars -> conveyor -> train, truck, etc.
3) Roof Bolting bolting machine
Auxiliary Operations
Ventilation
Health and Safety
6

Dust, Gas, and Water Control

Multi-Seam Mining
Methods:
1) Mine upper seam completely, columnize pillars in lower seam (see
Diagram below)
2) Mine lower seam completely, backfill, mine upper seam
*Must mine the upper seam in advance if being mined
simultaneously

Advantages and Disadvantages of Room and Pillar Mining

Advantages
Produce while Developing
Moderately High Production
Extracted
Moderately High Productivity
Highly Mechanized
Optimal for Ventilation

Disadvantages
Leaving Coal Behind
Subsidence/Caving if Pillars
Cannot Work in Deep Conditions
Fairly Capital Intensive

Stope and Pillar Mining (Self-Supported)

Stope and Pillar Operation

Hard Rock Version of Room and Pillar
Typically 80 percent extraction (25 percent for salt)
Oldest underground mining method
Accounts for about 50 percent of U.S. non-coal mining
Similar to Room and Pillar, with unique differences
1) Stricter laws in coal mining (fewer development heads required in
stope and pillar)
2) Cross-Cuts not required (unless a classified as a gassy mine)
3) Pillars are not frequently as required
Method is Stope and Pillar if 2/3 are true:
1) Pillars are irregular
2) Deposit is moderately thick
3) Non-Coal
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Moderate to High
Moderate to Strong
Large, Continuous
Nearly Flat (<30 degrees)
Large
Low to Moderate
Moderate (<1500 for coal, <2000 for hard rock)

Design Parameters
1)
2)
3)
4)

Rock Mechanics Considerations

Economics (Cut-Off Grade and Recovery)
Technological Factors (Equipment Size/Costs)
Pillar and Room sizes

Height of the pillar is a major consideration (10-300)

Mined in lifts if height exceeds 20-25
Stresses concentrate on edges and corners as height increases (see
Diagram)

Corners on the Left Pillar are prone to failure in the shaded areas due to
stress. The shape of the Right Pillar redistributes stresses to strengthen the
corners of the pillar.
Development
Access openings are very similar to room and pillar
Intermediate Depth belt conveyor/slope
Shallow Depth rubber-tired haulage equipment
Additional openings are used for ventilation raises

Operational Cycle
Exploited in One of Two Ways:
1) Full Face Slicing entire vertical extent is extracted at once
2) Multiple Slicing for heights above 20-25
Benching (vertical holes)
Breasting (horizontal holes)
1)
2)
3)
4)

Drill jumbo (double/single)

Blast high powered, ANFO
Load LHD, FEL
Haulage LHD, FEL, belt conveyor

*Salt is mined in a very similar manner as coal

Auxiliary Operations
1) Health and Safety
2) Ventilation
3) Dust, Ground, and Water Control
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stope and Pillar Mining
Advantages

Disadvantages

High Production
Ore is Lost in Pillars
High Productivity
Depth Limitations
Moderate Operational Costs
Moderately High Capital Costs
Can Be Highly Mechanized
Ventilation is Complex
Selective Method*
Early Development Not Expensive
Good Recovery

10

Longwall Mining (Caving)

Longwall Operation
Long face is established across a panel between sets of supported entries
Longwall has the simplest layout
Usually around 80 percent extraction
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak
Weak to Moderate
Tabular and Continuous
Fairly Flat (<12 degrees, could be steeper)
Large
Moderate
500-2000 for Coal, High for Hard Rock

Design Parameters

11

Typical Dimensions:
Panel Length: 8000-20000
Face Length: 700-1400
Face Width: 20
Face Height: seam thickness (5-15)
Depth of Cut: 3-30 (plow vs. shearer)
Barrier pillars block panels, are put between bleeder entries and setup
room, also in between recovery room and main entries
Bleeder entries are located in the back of the operation, help with
ventilation
Barrier pillars are not as needed with multiple bleeder entries
Classified as shortwall if face is <400
Immediate entries (room and pillar) on sides of panel for ventilation and
transport of coal and supplies
Development
Main entries, barrier pillars, immediate entries, and bleeder entries are all
developed first
Panel is exploited in either retreat (U.S.) or advance
Face moves from the bleeder entries -> inward in retreat method
Caved rock behind the shields/chocks is called gob
Operational Cycle
Coal Removal
Longwall is either exploited by a plow (breaking) or a shearer (cutting)
Plow
Takes a shallow cut
Limited to thin seams
Low capital and maintenance costs
Shearer
Deep cut (>30)
Moderate to thick seams
More productive and cheaper
Most used in U.S. longwall mines
Shears are either single or double drum, double is
preferred
Unidirectional if they cut in one direction, can cut in
either direction
Travels from tailgate (passage of return air) to headgate
(incoming air)

12

Cleans loose coal on the return, possibly cutting coal left

at the bottom

13

Support
Working area is protected by either chocks or shields (Armored Face
Conveyor [AFC])
Chocks
Four joints
Vertical legs
Shield (U.S.)
Three joints
Angled legs
Supports retract, advance, and re-engage, allowing the roof to cave
behind
CAVING MUST OCCUR, which will eventually lead to subsidence
If caving does not occur, it will eventually, causing air blasts (high
winds/temperatures)
Important to ventilate the gob to reduce gas build-up
*Primary difference in hard rock longwall is breakage, loading, and roof
support (will use LHD, Scrapers, etc.)
Equipment
Operations of the AFC
1) Breakage of Rock
2) Roof Support
3) AFC hauls coal-> head entry -> stage loader -> belt conveyor
Advantages and Disadvantages of Longwall Mining
Advantages

Disadvantages

Low Overall Costs

High Production
High Recovery
Easy Ventilation
Very Good Health and Safety
Cheaper than Room and Pillar
High Mechanization

High Capital Costs

Subsidence
Dependence on One Working Area
High Moving Costs and Downtime
Air Blasts

14

Shrinkage Stoping (Self-Supported)

Shrinkage Stoping Operation

First vertical stoping method
Around 80 percent recovery
Overhand method (bottom -> upwards)
Considered a simple method
Uses concept of ore bulking at 30 percent after breaking to support sides
Only extracts the 30 percent bulked after each blast, until final draw
Application
Ore Strength:
Combustible
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Strong, Not Running, Does Not Oxidize, NonFairly Strong to Strong

Fairly Large
Fairly Steep, More than Angle of Repose
Fairly Large
Fairly High
Moderate (<2500)

15

Design Parameters
Stope dimensions depend on shape and size of the deposit
Stope Width: 3-100
Stope Length: 150-400
Stope Height: 200-400
*Stopes are typically small, not excessively stressed
Development
All (most) vertical stoping methods contain:
1) Main (Haulage) Level
200-600 apart
2) Sublevels (depending on height)
Connected by ore passes
3) Raises/Manways
Access route
Ventilation between main levels
Ends of the stope, typically in the middle
Primary Tasks in Stope Preparation
1) Draw System
Gravity flow to the stope bottom
2) Undercut
Horizontal at the sill level to provide area for initial ore
breakage
Finger raises at desired spacing to connect haulage level
with sill level
Tops of finger raises are connected by a drift
Cross-cuts between drifts
Enlarge at the top of the finger raises to form draw
points
Remove pillars (slabbing) to form undercut
Typically 6-10
Closer draw points, less hilling of ore in final draw

16

Operational Cycle
Ore is blasted in horizontal slices after exploitation of undercut
Ore remains in the stope provides working surface for miners and
equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)

Bench face is established at the rib pillar

Advanced across the face by horizontal drilling
Vertical drilling into in-situ rock above
Charge the holes, but draw (shrink) 30% of ore before
blasting
5) Repeat after proper ground control (re-leveling)
Components of Cycle
1) Drilling airleg, stoper
2) Blasting ANFO
3) Secondary Blasting Impact Hammer
4) Loading Gravity, FEL, LHD
5) Hauling Rail, Truck, Belt Conveyor
6) Final Draw 60-70 percent that was left is extracted after final
blast
Blast Hole Shrinkage
1) Long Horizontal Drillage
2) Downhole Drilling (VCR)
Parallel holes well-aligned to the bottom of the stope
Load, blast explosives in 6-10 increments from the
bottom
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shrinkage Stoping Mining
Advantages

Disadvantages

Gravity Flow in Stope

70 Percent of Ore Remains in Stope
Until Last Draw
High Recovery
Low Productivity
Low Capital Costs
Cannot Use Heavy Equipment
Simple Mining Technique
Working Surface is Very Uneven
(Broken Ore/Rock)
Stope Development is Little-Moderate
Special Care Needed if Ore
Oxidizes or Packs
Low Dilution (High Ore/Low Waste)
Can Easily Be Used for Small Operations

17

Block Caving (Caving)

Block Caving Operation

Mass exploitation technique
Can compete with surface mining with regard to production
Extraction from 95 to 125 percent (with dilution)
Considered an American Method
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Strong, must be well fractured/jointed, not blocky,

cavable, able to flow easily, not sticky
Similar to ore, has a clear ore-rock boundary
Massive
Fairly Steep
Massive, Large
Low
Very High, stress helps crush the ore, 2000<D<4000,
must be sufficient to develop overburden stress which
exceeds the ore strength

18

Caving Mechanics
First major task when choosing this method
Cavability influences:
1) Secondary Breakage
2) Loading
3) Haulage (Belt vs LHD vs Train)
4) Crushing and Processing
Cavability study must be carried out early
Important Question: Will the rock cave, come down, can be handled
and processed?
Rule of Thumb: Ore caves such that 50 percent of the fragments are
5 or less
Studies Show: Ideal for rock and ore to have 2 sets vertical fractures,
1 set of horizontal fractures
Cavability not just for proper fragmentation, but for safety, too
Design Parameters
Most important factors are Draw Control and Draw Point Spacing
Gravity Flow: ellipsoid funnel progressing upwards into the capping
(zone of draw)
Draw Point Spacing
1) Large Spacing ore loss, stress concentration, less
development
2) Close Spacing Dilution, more development
3) Perfect Spacing Touching of consecutive ellipsoids

Once caving starts, the only control is draw

Panel caving progresses across a deposit, regulated by draw and
analysis
Draw Point Spacing: 15 to 40
Height of Block: large as possible to minimize development costs
(300 to 500)

19

Draw Systems
Three primary types of draw systems are:
1) Gravity Draw (if you have a lot of money to develop)
Finger Raises (between undercut and grizzlies)
Transfer Raises (between grizzlies and haulage
level)
Grizzly Level (for secondary breakage)
Consists of:
Fine Fragmentation
Easy Flowing
Very High Production Possible
Most Labor Intensive
2) Slusher Method (if you have good fracturing)
Slusher Drift: to regulate and facilitate the
downward flow or ore to transfer raises
Consists of:
Moderate fragmentation
Lower Production
High Capital Costs
3) Loader Method (if you have large rocks)
Use an LHD to deposit rock into conveyances
Consists of:
Course/Large Fragmentation
Lower Production (but not always)
High Capital Costs
Development
Main Level
Develop haulage level
High speed, high capacity haulage and airflow
Sub Level (Grizzly Level, Production Level, Slusher Level)
1) Draw facility (draw points) under the block to be caved
2) Finger raises going up to the undercut level
3) At the undercut level, finger raises are enlarged to funnelshaped draw points
Undercut
Most important aspect of development
All development is done by conventional mining
Boundary Weakening

20

Rarely used and only if absolutely necessary (in addition to

undercutting)
Corner raises driven on one side of the block, slabbed to create
a vertical slot
Even the most competent rock will come down
Cycle of Operations
Cycle of operations for development is conventional mining (used to
be TBM)
Follows cycle of:
1) Drill
2) Blast
3) Load
4) Haul
Undercutting miners tend to have double the salary of the average
miner
Drilling and Blasting only done during development and the undercut
Loading and Hauling are considered production operations
Rate of Draw: 6 to 4 per day, for 10000 to 70000 tons a day
Auxiliary Operations:
Ventilation
Health and Safety
Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages of Block Caving
Advantages

Disadvantages

Use of gravity flow leads to:

expensive
High to Very High Production
stop)
Low Mining Cost
High
High Extraction (95 to 125 percent)
Large Scale Method
Good Health and Safety (except
undercutting workers)

Development is extensive and

Rigid Method (once started, hard to
Capital Costs
Subsidence
High Dilution
Maintenance of Draw Points

21

Sub Level Stoping (Self-Supported)

Sub Level Stoping Operation

Also know as Blasthole/Longhole/Openhole/VCR Stoping
Vertical stoping method that utilizes gravity flow to move in-stope ore
Utilizes long hole drilling
Classified as a large scale method
Very little temporary support required
Miners work in sublevel drifts and cross cuts
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Strong
Strong
Large Extent
More than Angle of Repose
Large Extent
Moderate
Moderate to Deep (examples of 4000 to 8000)

22

Design Parameters
Stope Dimensions:
Stope Width: 100 (can be as little as 20)
Stope Length: 300
Stope Height: 300
Method is dependent on longhole drilling
Special attention must be made to fragmentation design, which
includes:
1) Hole Diameter
2) Length
3) Burden and Spacing
4) Example Selection
Considerations of a Good Draw Point System
1) Spacing
2) Uniform Draw
3) Stability of the System over the Life of the Block
4) Location/Orientation w/ Respect to Haulage System
5) Length to Allow FEL to Work (preferably in a straight line)
Development
Three main developments are in the:
1) Haulage Drift
In between stope and sill pillar
2) Sublevel Drifts and Cross Cuts
Exploited in the stope to allow for longhole drilling
3) Draw Points
Connect the stope to the haulage drift
4) Interval Raises
Connect levels for ventilation and access
Undercut for horizontal relief, slot cut for vertical relief
If a vertical slot is used, sublevel cross cuts needed from the sublevel
drift
Stope is blasted from bottom of the raise to form a slide for the ore
Two Variations of Sub Level Stoping
1) Parallel Longhole Drilling
Take vertical slices, need a vertical slot
2) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR)
Take horizontal slices, need an undercut
Drilling from sublevel (overcut) completed before blasting
Unlike shrinkage stoping, all ore is taken out after each
blast
Differences:
1) Must drill the entire stope in one shot in VCR

23

2) VCR holes typically 6x the diameter of normal longholes

(spherical charge)
Boundary pillars are left behind (Sill, Ribs, Crown)
Types of Systems
Four types of systems include:
1) Moving ore directly from cones (draw points) into raises and
drawing it off through chutes
2) Finger raises to grizzlies to transfer areas
3) Slusher/scraper drift: ore is scraped directly to the haulage
level below
4) Have the cone draw points on the haulage level
Cycle of Operations
Major unit operations are:
1) Drilling
Longhole, high precision (direction controlled)
2) Blasting
ANFO, concentrated explosives, slurries (high powder
factor)
Other operations include:
1) Secondary Blasting
Drill and blast mudcapping
2) Loading
In-stope gravity flow to draw points
3) Hauling
LHD all the way, or onto rail haulage or belt conveyors
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sub Level Stoping
Advantages

Disadvantages

High Productivity
Extensive and Expensive Development
Highly Mechanized
High Capital Costs
Roof Support Easy
Longhole and Precise Drilling is
Difficult
High Recovery (around 75 percent)
High Vibrations from Blasting
Great Health and Safety
Not Selective/Flexible

24

Sub Level Caving (Caving)

Sub Level Caving Operation

Mass mining method
High recovery at nearly 80 to 90 percent, up to 125 percent with dilution
Not considered an American Method
Uses gravity flow to move blasted ore and caved rock
Application
Ore Strength:

Moderately to Fairly Strong (competent to stand without

excessive support)
Rock Strength:
Weak to Fairly Strong, Fracturable, should not break into
fines to avoid dilution, should hold strong brows
Deposit Shape: Tabular to Massive
Deposit Dip:
Near Vertical is Ideal, More than Angle of Repose or
less than 60 degrees
Deposit Size:
Large
Deposit Grade: Moderate

25

Deposit Depth:
fragmentation
Development

Moderately Deep (around 4000), deeper prevents proper

All development takes place in the footwall since the hanging wall will
eventually collapse
Development can be undertaken by conventional mining or a TBM
Most of the development is horizontal
15 to 20 percent of ore is produced during development
Main features include:
1) Main Shaft
First development executed
2) Development Drifts
Connect the main shaft with the sub levels
3) Sublevel Drifts
Driven through ore for access to drill and blast, and haul
Distance between sub levels: 30 to 40
4) Cross Cuts
Connects sublevel drifts for additional drilling and blasting
area
Distance between cross cuts: 25 to 35
5) Haulage Ramps
Exploited at lower extent of sublevel panel
Shuttle car, truck, or rail system
6) Ore Raises
Connects sublevels for skips, ventilation, supplies, or
secondary exit
7) Slot Raise
Driven near end of the deposit hear the hanging wall
Slabbed off to form free face for blast (similar to sub level
stoping)
Operation Cycle
Production takes place with the following:
1) Conventional mining cycle
Fan Hole drilling every 8 to 12 and blasting
2) Part of sublevel or entire sub level can be blasted (function of
production requirement)
3) Blasting uses ANFO, slurries (pumps or bulk charging)
Secondary blasting done by mudcapping, hammering
4) Loading is done by LHD or FEL
Loading stops when dilution is excessive
5) Transportation is done by shuttle cars, skips, or rail systems
6) Auxiliary operations include:
Ventilation (air ducts)
26

 Ground Control (spot bolting, shotcreting, timbering)

Health and Safety
Power Supply Materials

Example of Fan Hole Drilling

Kiruna Mine Statistics
Operates in Kiruna, Sweden, which is the northernmost town in the country
Kiruna is moving 3 miles to the east due to expected caving due to mining
expansion
Has produced over 950 million tons of iron ore to date
Produced 27.5 million tons in 2008
Deposit dips at 50 to 60 degrees
Contains nearly 60 percent iron, .9 percent phosphorus
Current reserve is 602 million tons at 48.5 percent iron
Sublevel drifts are spaced 28.5 meters apart
Fan Holes are drilled every 3 to 3.5 meters
Load-Haul machines (some automated) carry broken ore to the ore passes
Ore passes fall to current 1365 meter haulage level (previous were 775 and
1045 meters)
Automated rail haulage takes the ore from the ore passes to crushers, then
to hoist skips
Hoist skips take the ore in multiple steps to the surface
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sub Level Caving
Advantages

Disadvantages

High Production

Subsidence

27

High Recovery (80-125 percent)

Development
Highly Mechanized
Safe Method (most permanent
development is in footwall)
Decreases

Cut and Fill Mining

Extensive and Expensive

High Capital Costs
High Dilution
High Ore Loss as the Angle of Dip

Data for Feasibility Stage Extremely

Difficult to Find
(Supported)

Cut and Fill Operation

Horizontal slices are excavated in the stope and replaced with fill
Accounts for less than 5 percent of underground mining
Bottom-upward method
Very high extraction
Selective method
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:
Special:

Moderate to Strong
Weak to Fairly Weak
Tabular
Fairly Steep
Fairly Large, Vertical Extent
High (10-13 percent Cu)
Moderate to Deep
Subsidence Must Be Prevented
28

29

Past and Present

In the Past:
Fill was broken waste rock
Dumped through raises and spread using scrapers
In the Present:
Fines (tailings) and water using pipes and pumps are used to fill
Network of pipes laid for drain water (everything is hydraulic)
30 to 40 percent of the backfill is water
All access openings below have to be secured using bulkheads
Tops of raises/manways have to be extended before fill is
pumped in
Runoff water us collected below, drained to surface for reuse
Fill
The fill has the following functions:
1) Ground Support
Weak walls of the deposit
2) Working Platform
Surface for which the next horizontal slice is drilled and
blasted
For every 1 ton of ore mined, .6 tons of fill are used
Other Facts to be Assigned to a Category at a Later Date
Filling/Backfilling is a part of the mining cycle, not after completion of entire
operation
Stopes can be divided into two working areas, one filling w/waste and the
other mining
Two types of drilling:
1) In-Front Stoping
Drilled horizontally in front of stope, blasted
Little clearance is needed
2) Uphole Drilling
Holes drilled vertically upward into stope
Opening must be must larger to allow for drilling and blasting

30

Stull Stoping (Supported)

Stull Stoping Operation

Accounted for less than 1 percent of underground mining in 2002
No known documented uses as of today
Can be used as its own method or as a supplement to another method
Selective method with high recovery (up to 90 percent)
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Fairly Weak to Strong

Fairly Weak to Moderate
Tabular
Any Dip
Very Thin
High
Moderately Deep (less than 3500)

31

Development
Development of stull stoping is not very extensive
Key areas include
1) Main Shaft
Provides main access into dipping mines
2) Main Drift
Provides main access into near horizontal mine
3) Haulage Level
Drift at the bottommost extent of orebody for haulage
4) Interval Raises
Connect levels for ventilation, supplies, or access
5) Ore Passes and Chutes
Connected to the haulage level
Cycle of Operations
Uses conventional mining in all facets of development
1) Drilling
Ore is drilling vertically in vertical mines, horizontally in
horizontal mines
2) Blasting
Ore is blasted into the free face
3) Loading
Only required in mines that cannot employ the use of
gravity
Steeply dipping mines direct blasted or to ore passes or
chutes
4) Hauling
Ore is taken to skip hoists that transport it to the surface
Works from the bottom, upwards
Slushers/Scrapers used to be used frequent, but became outdated
Timbers can be used with or without cemented waste for further
support
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stull Stoping
Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple Method
Low Productivity
Adaptable to Small, Irregular Orebodies Low Production Rate
Low Capital and Development Costs
High Mining Cost
Selective Method
Labor Intensive and Slow
High Recovery (up to 90 percent)
Heavy Timber Requirements and
Costs
Low Dilution
32

Square Set Mining (Supported)

Square Set Operation

Prior to 1860, open stoping that required extra support was usually done
using stulls
Expansive deposits can not be support with single stulls
Philip Diedescheimer, a German Mining Engineer, developed the square set
in 1860
First used in the Ophir Mine at he Comstock Lode in 1860
Highly selective method with very high extraction
Application
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Moderate
Unable to Support Itself
Can be very irregular
Any Dip
Fairly Small to Moderately Large
Very High
Moderately Deep (less than 3000)

33

Development
Very similar to development of open stope, cut and fill, and shrinkage
operations
Consists of:
1) Main Shaft
Sunk in the most advantageous position
Size depends on expected level of production
2) Level Intervals
Drifts that can be spaced 100 to 300 apart
3) Drifts and Adits
Haulage drift exploited at the bottommost extend of the
orebody
Adits serve as drainage for orebody before and during
production
4) Interval Raises
Driven upward to connect levels for ventilation, supplies,
and exits
Cycle of Operations
Works from the bottom, upwards
Follows typical Drill, Blast, Load, Haul Cycle
1) Ore is drilled and blasted, systematically sorted to chutes or
orepasses
2) Ore falls to the haulage level to be taken out through raises
3) Larger mines have grizzly level for size control, secondary
breakage
4) Waste rock (if any) is left in the sets of the stope for extra
support
Timbering System
Wood is usually pine, but locally available cedar, redwood, oak, etc.
can be used
As the size of the sets increase, the mining costs decrease
When the size of the sets increase, thicker and more expensive
timbers are used
Sets can be anywhere from 5x5x5 to 5x9x16
Square Timbers: 6-18 inched squared
Round Timbers: 6-20 inches in diameter
Advantages and Disadvantages of Square Set Mining
Advantages

Disadvantages
34

Very Selective
Extremely Flexible
High Recovery
Low Development Costs

High Costs of Lumber

Low Production
Very Slow Process
Lack of Mechanization

35

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Method

Advantages and Disadvantages of Room and Pillar Mining
Advantages

Disadvantages

Produce while Developing

Moderately High Production
Moderately High Productivity
Highly Mechanized
Optimal for Ventilation

Leaving Coal Behind

Subsidence/Caving if Pillars Extracted
Cannot Work in Deep Conditions
Fairly Capital Intensive

Advantages and Disadvantages of Stope and Pillar Mining

Advantages

Disadvantages

High Production
High Productivity
Moderate Operational Costs
Can Be Highly Mechanized
Early Development Not Expensive
Good Recovery

Ore is Lost in Pillars

Depth Limitations
Moderately High Capital Costs
Ventilation is Complex

Advantages and Disadvantages of Longwall Mining

Advantages

Disadvantages

Low Overall Costs

High Production
High Recovery
Easy Ventilation
Very Good Health and Safety
Cheaper than Room and Pillar
High Mechanization

High Capital Costs

Subsidence
Dependence on One Working Area
High Moving Costs and Downtime
Air Blasts

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shrinkage Stoping Mining

Advantages

Disadvantages

Gravity Flow in Stope

High Recovery
Low Capital Costs
Simple Mining Technique
Ore/Rock)
Stope Development is Little-Moderate
Low Dilution (High Ore/Low Waste)
Can Easily Be Used for Small Operations

70 Percent of Ore Remains in Stope Until Last Draw

Low Productivity
Cannot Use Heavy Equipment
Working Surface is Very Uneven (Broken
Special Care Needed if Ore Oxidizes or Packs

Advantages and Disadvantages of Block Caving

Advantages

Disadvantages

Use of gravity flow leads to:

High to Very High Production
Low Mining Cost
High Extraction (95 to 125 percent)
Large Scale Method
Good Health and Safety (except
undercutting workers)

Development is extensive and expensive

Rigid Method (once started, hard to stop)
High Capital Costs
Subsidence
High Dilution
Maintenance of Draw Points

36

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sub Level Stoping

Advantages

Disadvantages

High Productivity
Highly Mechanized
Roof Support Easy
High Recovery (around 75 percent)
Great Health and Safety

Extensive and Expensive Development

High Capital Costs
Longhole and Precise Drilling is Difficult
High Vibrations from Blasting
Not Selective/Flexible

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sub Level Caving

Advantages

Disadvantages

High Production
High Recovery (80-125 percent)
Highly Mechanized
Safe Method (most permanent
development is in footwall)

Subsidence
Extensive and Expensive Development
High Capital Costs
High Dilution
High Ore Loss as the Angle of Dip Decreases
Data for Feasibility Stage Extremely Difficult to Find

Advantages and Disadvantages of Stull Stoping

Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple Method
Adaptable to Small, Irregular Orebodies
Low Capital and Development Costs
Selective Method
High Recovery (up to 90 percent)
Low Dilution

Low Productivity
Low Production Rate
High Mining Cost
Labor Intensive and Slow
Heavy Timber Requirements and Costs

Advantages and Disadvantages of Square Set Mining

Advantages

Disadvantages

Very Selective
Extremely Flexible
High Recovery
Low Development Costs

High Costs of Lumber

Low Production
Very Slow Process
Lack of Mechanization

37

Applications of Each Method

Room and Pillar Mining
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Moderate
Moderate to Strong
Tabular, Continuous
Nearly Flat (<15 degrees)
Large
Moderate
Moderate (<1500 for coal, <2000 for hard rock)

Stope and Pillar Mining

Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Moderate to High
Moderate to Strong
Large, Continuous
Nearly Flat (<30 degrees)
Large
Low to Moderate
Moderate (<1500 for coal, <2000 for hard rock)

Longwall Mining
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak
Weak to Moderate
Tabular and Continuous
Fairly Flat (<12 degrees, could be steeper)
Large
Moderate
500-2000 for Coal, High for Hard Rock

Shrinkage Stoping
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Strong, Not Running, Does Not Oxidize, Non-Combustible

Fairly Strong to Strong
Fairly Large
Fairly Steep, More than Angle of Repose
Fairly Large
Fairly High
Moderate (<2500)

Block Caving
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Strong, must be well fractured/jointed, not blocky, cavable, able to

flow easily, not sticky
Similar to ore, has a clear ore-rock boundary
Massive
Fairly Steep
Massive, Large
Low
Very High, stress helps crush the ore, 2000<D<4000, must be sufficient
to develop overburden stress which exceeds the ore strength

Sub Level Stoping

38

Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Strong

Strong
Large Extent
More than Angle of Repose
Large Extent
Moderate
Moderate to Deep (examples of 4000 to 8000)

Sub Level Caving

Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:
fragmentation

Moderately to Fairly Strong (competent to stand without excessive

support)
Weak to Fairly Strong, Fracturable, should not break into fines to avoid
dilution, should hold strong brows
Tabular to Massive
Near Vertical is Ideal, More than Angle of Repose or less than 60 degrees
Large
Moderate
Moderately Deep (around 4000), deeper prevents proper

Cut and Fill Mining

Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:
Special:

Moderate to Strong
Weak to Fairly Weak
Tabular
Fairly Steep
Fairly Large, Vertical Extent
High (10-13 percent Cu)
Moderate to Deep
Subsidence Must Be Prevented

Stull Stoping
Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Fairly Weak to Strong

Fairly Weak to Moderate
Tabular
Any Dip
Very Thin
High
Moderately Deep (less than 3500)

Square Set Mining

Ore Strength:
Rock Strength:
Deposit Shape:
Deposit Dip:
Deposit Size:
Deposit Grade:
Deposit Depth:

Weak to Moderate
Unable to Support Itself
Can be very irregular
Any Dip
Fairly Small to Moderately Large
Very High
Moderately Deep (less than 3000)

39

Definition of Terms
Adit:

Back:
mine opening

A horizontal passageway driven into a mine from the

side of a hill; Open to the surface at only one end,
the portal
The roof or upper part of any underground

Cage:

A rectangular steel structure that runs on guides in a

mine shaft and is used for conveyance of men and
materials

Crosscut:

A horizontal underground passageway driven

perpendicular to the strike of the vein or long
dimension of the orebody

Development:

Gaining access to an orebody by driving underground

openings to and into a proven orebody; Preparing an
orebody for mining by underground methods

Drift:

A horizontal underground passageway which

parallels the strike of the vein or the long dimension
of the orebody

Face:

The more or less vertical surface of rock exposed by

blasting or excavating; The end of a drift or crosscut

Headframe:

The steel framework at the top of the shaft on which

is mounted the sheave or pulley for the hoisting
rope, the skip dumping gear, and landings for multideck cages

Hoist:

Electrical machinery used to lower cages and skips

into a mine and to raise them to the surface again

Incline:

A gently sloping opening driven from the surface that

is flat enough for conveyance of trackless mining
equipment or for a conveyor installation

Inclined Shaft:

A steeply inclined opening extending downward from

the surface; Usually driven parallel to the dip of the
vein

Level:
elevation
Overhand Stoping:

Portal:

Refers to all mine workings at a particular

A general term applied to any mining method where
the ore in an individual stope is removed from the
bottom up
The opening of a drift or adit to the surface
40

Raise:

A vertical or inclined underground opening driven

upward from an underground location; Usually
connects two levels of the mine

Shaft:

A vertical opening extending downward from the

surface; Commonly the primary means of access to
an underground mine

Shaft Collar:

The term applied to the timber or concrete support

framework constructed around the mouth or top of
the shaft

Skip:

A large metal bucket or hopper that runs on guides in

a shaft and is used in hoisting broken ore to the
surface

Station:

The excavation adjoining the shaft at each of the

different levels where men and material are removed
or delivered

Stope:

The open area of an underground mining operation

once occupied by ore

Stoping:

The actual extraction of the ore when the mine is in a

full production phase of operation

Sump:

Any excavation in a mine for collecting or storing

water; Usually found at the bottom of a shaft

Tunnel:

A horizontal underground passageway driven through

a mountain or hill, thus has openings on both ends

Underhand Stoping: A general term applied to any mining method where

the ore in an individual stope is removed from the
top down
Winze:

A vertical or inclined underground opening driven

downward from an underground location; Usually
connects two levels of the mine

41