IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO.

6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1997

1493

Application Considerations of Static Overcurrent

Relays: A Working Group Report
David S. Baker, Life Senior Member, IEEE, Bruce G. Bailey, Baldwin Bridger, Jr., Carey J. Cook, Keith R. Cooper,
Joseph S. Dudor, Jay D. Fischer, Ed Galyon, Guy Jackson, Charles K. Mozina, Alan C. Pierce,
Louie J. Powell, Robert L. Simpson, Robert L. Smith, and Norman T. Stringer

Abstract The technology of static overcurrent relays has

developed very rapidly in the past few years. These developments
have produced changes in the way they are applied from electromechanical (EM) relays and, further, offer many new features
to provide greater utilization than previously possible. A Working Group of the Medium-Voltage Subcommittee of the Power
Systems Protection Committee began examining the impact of
these developments several years ago. This report documents the
results and describes the nature of the changes and the new
areas of application. It is presented acknowledging the fact that
this is really an interim report, since static relay technology is a
very dynamic technology with many more innovations yet to be
developed.

2)

3)

Index Terms Communications link, coordination time interval, low burden, multifunction, operating position, reliability,
reset characteristic, self diagnostics, self powered, static analog,
static digital.

4)

I. INTRODUCTION

S the techniques and products for the transmission and

distribution of ac power progressed, so did the development of devices used to protect these circuits. The
electromechanical (EM) induction-disk overcurrent relay has
been the basic tool of the relay engineer for over 60 years. Its
operation is based on the principle of a disk turning in response
to current magnitude, similar to that of a watthour meter, and
has remained virtually unchanged. The application practices
which have been developed over the years are based on the
inherent operating characteristics of the EM overcurrent relay.
It is helpful to observe how some of the physical characteristics of the induction disk relay has influenced the application
practices.
1) It is a single-phase device. The induction disk construction was not well adapted to building three elements into
a single relay case. By using three phase relays and one

Paper ICPSD 9725, presented at the 1997 IEEE/IAS Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference, Philadelphia, PA, May
1214, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS by the Power Systems Protection Committee of the IEEE
Industry Applications Society. Manuscript released for publication August
6, 1997.
The authors are members of the Working Group on Solid-State Overcurrent
Relays of the Medium-Voltage Protection Subcommittee, Power Systems Engineering Committee, Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Department,
Industry Applications Society.
D. S. Baker, Chair of the Working Group on Solid-State Overcurrent Relays,
is at 14707 Riverforest Drive, Houston, TX 77079-6422 USA.
Publisher Item Identifier S 0093-9994(97)08450-8.

5)

6)

ground relay, a fault involving any combination of phase

and/or ground will be detected by at least two relays.
With the drawout feature, one relay may be taken out
of service for maintenance, calibration, or replacement
without sacrificing protection of the circuit.
It is a single-function device. Except for the inclusion
of an instantaneous element, the induction disk relay
is, basically, a single-function device, although it may
be combined with a directional element or a voltage
element to provide special protective functions.
The inverse time-delay characteristics are dependent on
and limited by the design of the magnetic circuit and the
induction disk. The three basic curve shapes, inverse
time, very-inverse time, and extremely inverse time,
have proven useful in obtaining selectivity with themselves and with other devices when properly chosen.
The inherent burden of the relay coil required the
selection of current transformers (CTs) that provided
transformation accuracy up to the maximum short-circuit
current which can flow. This often necessitated a CT
burden calculation for each installation.
A time interval between relays in series is required
to obtain selective operation. One of the major factors
determining this time interval is the overtravel caused by
the disk inertia that results when the operating current
is reduced to less than the relay pickup current.
Because operation of the relay entails mechanical rotation of a disk, a finite time is required for the relay
to reset following partial or complete operation, during
which the disk moves back to its at-rest position. The reset time was a factor in applications involving automatic
reclosing.
II. STATIC RELAY TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Static relay designers in the 1960s and 1970s felt it necessary to emulate the characteristics of the EM overcurrent relay,
in order to gain customer acceptance; however, they quickly
realized that static relays are not bound by the restraints of
their mechanical cousins. There have been great strides in
the development of static overcurrent relay technology since
the Working Group began its work. The newest designs use
digital technology. Static digital relays have special features
not possible with earlier generations of static relays, typically
referred to as static analog relays to differentiate them from

00939994/97$10.00 1997 IEEE

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digital types. The following is a brief description of the types

of static overcurrent relays discussed in this paper. Although
referred to as static relays, they are also known by the terms
solid-state and electronic relays. The Working Group believes
that static analog and static digital are the more appropriate
terms.

TABLE I
COMPONENTS OF THE COORDINATING TIME INTERVAL

A. Static Analog Relays

The earliest static overcurrent relays were built of discrete
components and were typically single-function units with
tap and time-dial settings to select operation of a specific
time-current characteristic curve. These devices functioned by
measuring the magnitude of a quantity derived within the
relay which was directly proportional to system current. Either
single- or three-phase units were offered, some externally
powered, designed specifically to emulate the characteristics
of EM relays. An early example of these relays is described
in [1]. In [2], application considerations of these relays were
discussed.
B. Static Digital Relays
The development of digital overcurrent relays has been very
rapid since the early 1980s. The digital relay converts the
analog input signal to a digital output by means of waveform sampling and processes these data digitally, using either
discrete components or, more likely, a microprocessor chip.
The time-current characteristic may be defined by a standard
equation, as described in a new IEEE Std C37.112 [3] or in
a lookup table. Some manufacturers provide the programming
capability to create custom time-current curves utilizing the
standard formula method of C37.112. This technology results
in a relay capable of having multiphase (including ground),
multifunction, multitasking characteristics with dial or switch
selectable time-current characteristics. These relays may also
have the capability to be programmed and monitored over
a communications link, to provide continuous self-checking
diagnostics, oscillographic recording, metering, and target data
storage.
III. RELAY SETTING CONSIDERATIONS
A. Coordination Time Intervals
When plotting time-current coordination curves, certain
time intervals must be maintained between the curves of
various protective devices, in order to ensure correct sequential
operation of the devices and to reduce nuisance tripping.
These intervals are required because the simplified, singlecharacteristic curves of overcurrent relays do not include
allowances for manufacturing tolerances, relay overtravel,
nonideal instrument transformer performance, breaker operating time, and other hard-to-define variables.
Typically, on an induction-disk-type relay, a torque is produced on the disk by current from the instrument transformers.
A control spring holds the disk in the at-rest position. The
torque that is developed overcomes the spring tension and
causes the disk to turn in the contact closing direction. When
the current is removed, the inertia of the disk will cause the

disk to continue to rotate, even after the fault is cleared. This

is called overtravel and, typically, 0.1 s should be allowed
for this effect in the coordination of the relay system.
Static overcurrent relays do not experience mechanical
overtravel, since these devices are constructed from solidstate components. Therefore, no allowance for overtravel is
needed in the coordination time interval. Pickup accuracy is
another consideration. Static relays typically have accuracies
from 2.0%5.0% of pickup current. Induction disk relays,
on the other hand, may have accuracies of 5.0% or greater.
The effect of this difference should be considered in the
coordination interval.
When coordinating overcurrent relays with one another, or
with any other overcurrent device, it is necessary to take
into account their relative locations. When induction disk
overcurrent relays are placed in series with one another, the
time interval desired between the characteristic curves may
range from 0.3 to 0.4 s, whereas for static relays, this time
interval may vary from 0.2 to 0.3 s. In both cases, this interval
is made up of the time components shown in Table I. This
interval is measured between the characteristic curves at the
maximum fault current level that can be experienced by both
relays. In Fig. 1, the time delay of both relays is set using
the maximum current defined by point when the impedance
is zero. If
e.g., transformer impedance, then the
maximum current used for setting the timing of the relays is
The total time interval consists of the sum of the
point
components described in Table I.
The component margin for other variables provides for
tolerances in pickup current repeatability, current transformer
performance, manufacturing tolerances, etc. This factor may be
reduced for static relays which have greater pickup accuracy.
Prevailing practice is to use a time interval range of 0.30.4 s
with EM relays and 0.20.3 s with static relays, but the exact
interval is a matter of judgment and comfort level. When the
relays have been tested and calibrated to trip at an exact timecurrent point, then the low end of the time interval range may
be used.
When coordinating relays with load-side envelope-type devices, i.e., fuses or low-voltage circuit breakers having directacting trips, the coordination interval is the time between
total clearing time of the envelope device and the relay
characteristic, since there is no interrupting time of the loadside device to consider.
The coordinating interval for EM relays may then be reduced to 0.220.32 s and, when a static relay is used, the

BAKER et al.: APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS OF STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS

Fig. 1.

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Typical coordinating time interval.

interval may be reduced to 0.120.22 s. When coordinating relays with line-side envelope devices, there is no disk overtravel
time of the line-side device to consider, so the coordinating
interval to do this results in an interval of 0.20.3 s for either
relay.
B. Reset Characteristics
The reset characteristic of overcurrent relays is normally
only a concern when automatic reclosing is being used or
where sustained arcing has been a problem. When a fault
occurs, both relay types will sense the current and begin to
operate.
In the case of EM induction disk relays, the disk begins
to turn and continues to do so until the contacts close or the
current is no longer sensed. In general, for static devices, the
fault signals are measured and compared against the settings
and a trip output is given upon completion of the timing circuit.
When the current is reduced below the pickup setting, the static
relay returns to its quiescent state. The time for either relay to
reach this state is defined as the reset characteristic.
Reset characteristics are controlled differently, depending
on the type of relay. With the EM relay, a restraining spring
provides the torque to reset the contacts. This occurs after

the operating current is removed or reduced below the pickup

setting (dropout). Dropout for the EM induction disk element
is approximately 95% of pickup current.
Static relay manufacturers originally tried to duplicate the
functions of the EM counterpart. Prior to 1991, static relays
dropped out at 95% of pickup current or higher and reset in
0.1 s or less. Today, relay designs are now available which
incorporate selectable reset characteristics to provide either
instantaneous reset or emulate the delayed timing provided by
the restraining spring and magnet-damping characteristic of
EM relays.
C. Verification of Setting Accuracy
Traditional testing of relays, both EM and static, have
included acceptance and periodic maintenance testing. Acceptance testing is basically the same for EM and static
overcurrent relays. These relays are tested to verify that they
will pickup and begin timing at a value of current equal to
the pickup setting. In addition, the tripping time of the relay
is checked against the manufacturers published time-current
characteristic curve. These tests will ensure that relay responds
as intended when installed and will provide the selectivity
designed into the system protection scheme.

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The purpose of periodic maintenance testing is to verify

that the relay is operational and that the settings have not
changed over time. The historic period for maintenance testing
has been on an annual basis. EM relays are prone to drift
with time and changing environmental conditions. Therefore,
annual testing provides a reasonable check to verify the units
are still functional and are timing accurately. Normally, slight
adjustments are necessary to calibrate the operation of the relay
to the intended settings.
Early static relays had the same maintenance cycle as
EM relays. The primary reason for this was that users had
not yet developed complete confidence in them. Inexperience with environmental conditions, i.e., radiated electromagnetic interference (RFI) and fast transient stress levels
on power supplies, occasionally led to early failures and,
thus, a lack of confidence. The technology of static relay
design has improved significantly, so that today, many of
the problems that led to this lack of confidence have been
overcome. The maintenance cycle of static relays has been
extended as a result of an improved reliability record and
greater accuracy and repeatability levels over those of EM
relays. These facts aided users, who were working to reduce the cost of maintaining their equipment. The extension
of the maintenance cycle up to five years is typical with
static relays, and this significantly reduces the maintenance
cost.
With the advent of microprocessors, maintenance has almost been eliminated. Self diagnostics and self-monitoring
features have eliminated the need for periodic calibration.
Alarm capabilities prompt the need for service and reduce the
chance of a relay being nonoperational when called upon to
operate. Reference [4] discusses in detail relay testing and the
advantage of microprocessor relays.

TABLE II
TYPICAL POWER SUPPLY DATA

Externally powered relays from ac sources are also available

for operation at 120 or 240 V. These relays can be equipped
with capacitor energy storage units so they will operate correctly when control power is disrupted. They exhibit the same
low burden characteristics as described above for dc-powered
relays. Typical power supply selections for externally powered
static relays are shown in Table II.
DC-powered relays are designed to have a wide operating
range. The operating range should be at least 20% of
rated voltage to survive when subjected to the equalizing
charge voltage during battery maintenance operations and
approximately 45% to assure tripping when the battery
is near the fully discharged state. AC-powered relays are
designed to operate correctly over a wide range to cover
voltage fluctuations that may occur during normal operation.
As an absolute minimum, the operating range of the static
relay power supply should equal the minimum operating range
of the trip coil of the circuit breaker with which it is used.
Required trip coil operating ranges can be found in various
ANSI standards for circuit breakers.
B. Relay Burden

IV. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

A. Power Supply Requirements
Static overcurrent relays may be either self-powered or
powered from an external source, such as a station battery
or ac station service.
Self-powered relays automatically extract the power to
operate the relay from the CT input current. This design
displays a nonlinear burden characteristic, whereby the voltage
across the relay terminals decreases as the input current
increases. The relay must be designed to power up quickly
from a cold start for fast operation of instantaneous elements.
Fortunately, the power-up time decreases with input current,
and instantaneous time characteristics similar to EM elements
can be achieved.
Externally powered relays from dc are used extensively
for applications where station batteries are available. Battery
supplies are very reliable and are depended on to operate
power circuit breakers and their control circuits. This provides
acceptable reliability, since a failure of the battery supply
would also prevent operation of the circuit breakers. DCpowered relays provide extremely low burden characteristics.

The burden of static relays varies with design. In general,

the burden of self-powered relays is similar to the burden of
EM relays, whereas the burden of separately powered relays
(ac or dc) is far lower.
The application advantages of low burden relays are as
follows.
1) The current required to saturate CTs is much higher
with lower burdens, such that a lower CT accuracy
class, typical of low-ratio CTs, may be used. In [5],
the problem of relay performance with low-ratio CTs
was discussed in detail.
2) The ability to apply multiple relays and other devices on
one set of CTs may make it possible to use fewer CTs.
The number of static relays that may be connected in any
given CT circuit depends on the CT accuracy class rating,
the burden of other devices, and whether the static relay is
self powered or externally powered. The number of externally
powered types that may be connected to any given CT is
primarily limited by the burden of other devices and the wire
resistance of the overall CT circuit. This is because the burden
of each relay by itself is very low. The number of selfpowered types that may be connected in series is primarily

BAKER et al.: APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS OF STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS

TABLE III
IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL SELF-POWERED RELAYS

limited by the accuracy class of CT employed. This is because

the impedance of self-powered relays is significant. Nonlinear
elements in the power supply cause the impedance to vary
inversely with current, as shown in Table III.
C. Multiphase and Multifunction Units
Relays designed using static technology often provide the
ability to monitor all three phases and, perhaps, also ground,
using a combination of elements that may be shared between
functions. Depending on relay design, the power supply may
be a common element and, in some designs, the measuring circuit itself is multiplexed. Therefore, relay failure or
maintenance outages affect all the shared functions. Three
factors mitigate this apparent disadvantage. First, it should be
noted that normal design practices as promulgated in standard
references, such as ANSI/IEEE Std 242 [6], call for full remote
backup protection, so that the system remains protected even
if a relay fails. Second, digital static relays typically include
self diagnostics and power supply monitors with alarms to
detect problems. When used appropriately, these early-warning
features limit the outage time and provide greater overall
reliability. Finally, failure of a static relay which eliminates
all its assigned protective functions has the same consequence
as failure of the trip circuit in a circuit breaker or failure of a
battery, which are contingencies that have always been present
with single-phase relays.
The other facet of this concern is maintainability. Here,
the user must first decide what maintenance practices will be
followed. Some users choose to perform relay maintenance
on a schedule that is not related to the maintenance schedule
for other components on the power system, thus, the ability
to retain protective functions while maintaining or calibrating
relays is important. Others adopt a policy of restricting all
maintenance to defined periods and scheduling a planned
outage for the purpose. In these cases, the purported maintainability advantage of single-phase or single-function relays
has no value. In fact, the newer technologies may actually be
preferable if the design of the relay includes some form of
on-line self-maintenance or self-check function.
D. Reliability
Reliability of relays has two factors, dependability and
security. According to [7], dependability is defined as

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the degree of certainty that a relay or relay system

will operate correctly. Security relates to the degree of
certainty that a relay or relay system will not operate
incorrectly.
Dependability, then, is the ability of the relay to operate
correctly and consistently when the system parameters require
action. An overcurrent relay should sense abnormal currents
and operate to remove the condition from the system. Traditionally, routine field testing using secondary current injection
has been the primary method of detecting failures in relays.
This provides a method to verify that the relay will operate
properly at its set parameters.
Static digital overcurrent relays have the ability to perform
self monitoring for detection of various failure modes. When
a problem is detected, an output contact can provide an alarm
indicating that relay maintenance is required. This capability in
static digital relays increases dependability, as defined above.
Furthermore, the characteristics of digital relays do not change
significantly with time, so that time interval between testing
can be increased.
The security of a relay is its ability to not operate incorrectly. In other words, the relay should not operate for faults
in other protective zones of the system, nor should the relay operate for system abnormalities, such as harmonics or transient
currents. Achievement of security is determined by two criteria. First, the relay should be properly applied to provide operation for its intended function and, second, the relay should
fail safely, i.e., not operate for any internal failures within the
relay. Thus, fail safe means that internal component failures or
loss of control power must not cause the relay to trip. The system designer has useful techniques to use, such as redundant
relays and backup protection, to compensate for a defective
relay.
Early static relay designs experienced a high rate of failure associated with surges and other power system environmental factors. The reliability expectations of both EM and
static relays were discussed in [8]. As the understanding of
these problems increased, ANSI/IEEE standards were revised
to address new designs and testing procedures. The early
problems are no longer present in contemporary designs.
In addition, the transition from designs based on discrete
components to highly integrated designs has also improved
reliability.
Most of the components in a static relay are operated
in the energized mode and, as a consequence, are subject
to failure during normal nonfault operating conditions. Such
failures must be detected before relay misoperation occurs.
Component failures in a static relay have different effects
on relay operation. Some failures may be catastrophic in
nature, while others have negligible effect. A catastrophic
component failure is one that causes the relay system to fail
or misoperate. Tolerance failures resulting from changes in
the rated values of electronic components may also change
the operating characteristics of the relay to the point that the
relay may misoperate.
One of the principal advantages of static digital relays is
their ability, through so-called self diagnostics, to continue to
operate while experiencing and/or recovering from certain pro-

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gram failures. This technique may allow unaffected protective

features to remain in service, thereby maintaining some degree
of protection. A different action may be taken for each specific
type of failure. A detected error in the relay configuration
may cause the wrong output relay to be energized, which
may constitute a catastrophic failure. For such conditions,
the software may permit correcting the configuration while in
operation. If not, the relay should be taken out of service until
it can be corrected or replaced. If a variation in the calibration
data is detected, the relay may still offer some degree of
protection and may be left in service until the problem can
be attended to.
The self diagnostic mode of static digital static relays is,
therefore, an important function which should be, and normally
is, incorporated into their design. One of the benefits of digital
relays is their ability to incorporate self testing functions,
while also performing the other functions. Self testing can,
therefore, easily be carried out during time periods when
the other processing functions are not required. The self
diagnostics can typically verify that about 85% of the relay
components are working properly. However, self diagnostics
cannot verify that the input currents are being measured
properly or that the final tripping output will work if called
upon. These self testing shortcomings can be partially offset
by periodically checking the metered relay input currents
under load conditions and by trip testing the relay outputs. Further discussion on self diagnostics is provided in
[9].

strength derating factors apply, as specified in Table I of

thestandard.
5) Surge Withstand Capability (SWC): ANSI/IEEE
Std
C37.90.1 [12] specifies both common-mode and transverse
(differential) mode tests using both oscillatory and fast
transient wave shapes. The standard specifies these test
shape characteristics and points of application for current
circuits, voltage circuits, output circuits, and power supply
circuits. For digital output circuits, the tests and method
of testing must be agreed upon by the user and manufacturer.
The manufacturer has the responsibility of designing relays
and relay systems to meet the requirements of this standard, and the user has the responsibility of keeping surges
above the IEEE limits from reaching the relay systems by
proper installation practices providing adequate shielding and
grounding.
6) RFI: The expanded use of walkie-talkies, cellular telephones, and other transceivers necessitates the application of
a test procedure to assure that static protective and control
relays will not falsely operate or be damaged by the presence
of fields generated by such equipment. ANSI Std C37.90.2
[13] specifies design test conditions, methods, and acceptance
criteria for relays and relay systems. An appendix to this
standard lists the radio frequencies in general use in electric
power operation in the U.S. The references for this standard
refer to the FCC rules and regulations.

E. Environmental Considerations

F. Effect of Wave Distortion

The relay engineer is fortunate, in that extensive criteria for

relay survival in various environments are well documented
in the standards which apply equally to both EM and static
relays. The following is a brief review of these.
1) Enclosures: Manufacturers relay literature reveals very
little information on relay enclosures. There are no IEEE
or NEMA Standards which specify a specific type of relay enclosure. However, some manufacturers specify either
dustproof or dusttight enclosures, and these are defined
in [7].
2) Temperature and Humidity: ANSI/IEEE Std C37.90
[10] specifies the limits for ambient temperature and humidity
measured from outside of the enclosures or covers of relay
equipment. Examination of manufacturers relay literature
reveals that all manufacturers meet or exceed temperature and
humidity requirements of the standard.
3) Solar Radiation: Static protective and control relays
mounted in outdoor metal-enclosed or metal-clad equipment
installed in hot, sunny locations may be subjected to high
ambient temperatures due to solar radiation. ANSI/IEEE Std
C37.24 [11] discusses the effects of solar radiation, wind influence, ventilation, condensation control, and enclosure paint
color. This standard also specifies the current-temperature
relationships and suggests modifications to standard equipment
designs.
4) Altitude: The usual altitude at which relays are applied
without rating modification is specified by ANSI Std
C37.90 [10] as 1500 m. Above this altitude, dielectric

The subject of relay performance in the presence of current

waveform distortion is complex, and there are no simple
answers. The performance characteristics of different relays
with distorted waveforms are not well known. The performance of static relays in this regard may be slightly better
known than EM relays for the simple reason that these relays
were designed since harmonics have become a concern. Some
information on the subject has been documented in [14] and
[15].
The major uncertainty with regard to waveform distortion
is the relay operating time. Because of the uncertainties, this
should be considered one of the undefined items covered
by the margin for other variables in the coordinating margin.
There are, however, some applications where there is a
strong reason to choose a relay with a known harmonic
response characteristic. For example, an overcurrent relay
applied on a harmonic filter circuit normally is expected to
measure to thermal effect of the circuit, and a relay which
responds predictably to rms current is appropriate. Conversely,
a relay applied as ground protection for a generator might be
best chosen as a device which responds only to fundamental
frequency components. Instantaneous overcurrent relays can
be designed with varying degrees of harmonic filtration, with
the simplest case being an instantaneous function measuring
the crest value of the current and defining the rms current
as equal to the peak value divided by
There have been
instances in which these peak sensing relays have misoperated

BAKER et al.: APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS OF STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS

on transformer inrush, motor starting, ground fault, or on

harmonics of load current when the peak-to-rms relationship
was not recognized.
G. Operating Position
Overcurrent relays, both static and EM types, are designed
to be mounted on a fixed, vertical panel. The great majority
of applications fit these design criteria, but a few applications require a relay to operate while tilted at an angle or
while undergoing slow cyclic motion from side to side. Such
applications occur when overcurrent relays are used aboard
ships or other seagoing structures. IEEE Standard 45 [16]
requires all devices used in shipboard electrical systems to
withstand without damage or incorrect operation a permanent
inclination of up to 15 and a momentary roll of up to 30 .
Note that these applications differ from applications involving
the effect of vibration, shock, or seismic motion on relays
mounted on a normally vertical, stationary panel. The type
and frequency of the motion and the relays response to the
motion is different. The effects of vibration, shock, and seismic
motion are discussed elsewhere in this paper.
The effects of tilting and of rolling motion on both static
and induction disk EM relays were investigated in [17]. Both
tilting at a fixed angle and motion equivalent to a ships rolling
were found to cause serious changes in the pickup value and
the timing characteristics of the EM relays. At some angles
of inclination, the relay did not reset itself after removal of
the current. The operating characteristics of the static relay
that was tested, on the other hand, were essentially unaffected
either by tilting or by rolling motion. Based on these findings,
it is recommended that static overcurrent relays be used in
preference to EM overcurrent relays for those applications that
involve either tilting or rolling motion.
H. Seismic and Vibration Response
Seismic events occur as a result of earthquakes or artificial
earth vibration. The magnitude of such events is measured by
a scale (Richter or other similar scale) based on the energy
emitted at the source of the disturbance. Section 1630 of the
Uniform Building Code (UBC) [18] describes a calculation
technique for determining the lateral forces generated by
seismic activity.
The protective relay installation should be designed to
withstand the seismic forces that will be imposed on the relay.
This includes the actual earth movement and acceleration
forces, as well as any amplification or attenuation that may be
induced by the equipment, panel, switchboard, etc., in which
the relay is mounted and by the building or structure in which
the relay equipment is located. The forces imposed may be
designated by a design and/or operating response spectrum
with different frequencies or merely horizontal and vertical
forces.
In addition, consideration should be given to the operating
regimen required for the relay. That is to say, is the relay
required to operate during a seismic event, is the relay required
to operate properly after a seismic event, or is the relay
merely required to survive without damage during a seismic

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event? What may be required for a relay installed in an

emergency system that must remain operational during a
seismic event may be quite different from a relay installed
in an industrial facility in which misoperation of the relay
is acceptable and where the relay is required only to survive
severe damage without requiring replacement. The specifier
and/or user must advise the supplier as to the desired operating
and withstand mode, as well as the seismic forces expected at
the installation.

V. CONCLUSIONS
Static overcurrent relay technology has become the preeminent choice in protection today. The application of these relays
is in many ways simpler than that of EM relays, although there
has been no significant change in the principles of system
protection and coordination. The reliability of static relays has
been greatly improved since their introduction and, with it, the
wide acceptance of this technology.
Digital technology permits more than just overcurrent protection to be built into the relay. Although beyond the scope
of this report, these extended features should be mentioned.
Digital relays now have multifunction capability. In addition
to the basic phase and ground overcurrent function, dev. no.
50/51, a negative phase sequence overcurrent function, dev.
no. 46, a reclosing function, dev. no. 79, breaker failure
function, dev. no. 50BF, and others can be provided in a
single relay case.
Through a communications link, digital static relay settings
can be programmed and relay performance monitored from a
central location to provide a daily assessment of the protection
level being provided to the system. The self diagnostics
capabilities which enable the relay to detect and alarm for
internal failures increase the confidence level of users. The
ability of these relays to recognize and store information
such as the history of relay operation (target data) greatly
increases the ability to analyze the cause of system disturbances, and this has allowed users to extend the maintenance
interval.
REFERENCES
[1] D. Dalasta, F. Free, and A. P. de Snoo, An improved static overcurrent
relay, presented at the IEEE Winter General Meeting, New York, NY,
1963, Paper 63-218.
[2] R. A. Pinkley and L. J. Powell, Application considerations in the
design of a static overcurrent relay, New England Protective Relaying
Committee, Newport, RI, Apr. 1976.
[3] Standard Inverse-Time Characteristic for Overcurrent Relays, IEEE Std
C37.112-1996.
[4] G. Benmouyal and S. E. Zocholl, Testing dynamic characteristics of
overcurrent relays, presented at the 47th Annu. Georgia Tech Relay
Conf., Atlanta, GA, Apr. 1993.
[5] J. R. Linders et al., Relay performance considerations with low-ratio
CTs and high-fault currents, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 31, pp.
392404, Mar./Apr. 1995.
[6] IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, ANSI/IEEE Std 242-1986.
[7] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, IEEE Std
100-1992.
[8] C. R. Heising and R. C. Patterson, Reliability expectations for protective relays, presented at the Georgia Tech Relay Conf., Atlanta, GA,
May 1988.

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[9] B. Bailey, J. Mizener, and M. Bentley, Much more than an overcurrent

relay, presented at the IEEE-IAS Annu. Meeting, Orlando, FL, Oct.
812, 1995.
[10] IEEE Standard for Relays and Relay Systems Associated with Electric
Power Apparatus, ANSI/IEEE Std C37.90-1989.
[11] IEEE Guide for Evaluating the Effect of Solar Radiation on Outdoor
Metal-Enclosed Switchgear, ANSI/IEEE Std C37.24-1986.
[12] IEEE Standard Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Tests for Protective
Relays and Relay Systems, ANSI/IEEE Std C37.90.1-1989.
[13] IEEE Trial Use Standard Withstand Capability of Relay Systems to
Radiated Electromagnetic Interference from Transceivers, ANSI/IEEE
Std C37.90.2-1987.
[14] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee Report, Sine wave distortions in power systems and the impact on protective relaying, IEEE
Publication 84TH0115-6 PWR.
[15] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, Working Group Report of
the Comsumer Relaying Coordination Subcommittee, The impact of
sine-wave distortions on protective relays, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat.,
vol. IA-20, pp. 335343, Mar./Apr. 1984.
[16] IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical Installations on Shipboard,
ANSI/IEEE Std 45-1983.
[17] B. Bridger, Jr. and R. J. Walker, Operating characteristics of protective
relays in positions other than vertical, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol.
26, pp. 5065, Jan./Feb. 1990.
[18] Uniform Building Code (UBC), International Conf. Building Officials,
Whittier, CA, vol. 2, 1994.

David S. Baker (M51SM59LS96) was born in

Dallas, TX, in 1927. He received the B.S. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of Texas,
Austin, in 1950.
He served in the U.S. Navy for two years. He
was with General Electric Co. (GE) for 24 years,
first in Richland, WA, where he was primarily
engaged in the design of electrical systems for
nuclear reactors and their related systems. He then
was with GE in Schenectady, NY, and Chicago, IL,
as an Application Engineer and a Systems Engineer,
respectively, engaged in the application of electrical equipment for commercial, institutional, and industrial facilities. He joined Bechtel Power Corp.,
Houston, TX, in 1974 as Lead Design Engineer for a nuclear power plant. In
1976, he joined Brown and Root, Inc., Houston, TX, as a Consultant. He was
responsible for analytical studies and protective device coordination studies
for power generation and distribution systems of industrial plants. In addition,
he served as a Consultant to project engineering teams for special design
problems and participated in the technical training of electrical personnel.
He retired from Brown and Root in 1995 and is currently an Independent
Consultant.
Mr. Baker was the 19941995 Chair of the Industrial Power Systems
Department of the IEEE Industry Applications Society and has served in other
offices of the Department for 18 years. He is a member of the Power Systems
Protection Committee and its Medium-Voltage Protection Subcommittee. He
has been a contributor to chapters of the Gray, Red, and Buff books of
the IEEE Recommended Practice Series for Industrial and Commercial
Facilities. He served as Principal on Code Making Panel no. 11, Motors,
Motor Circuits and Controllers, as a representative of the IEEE for the 1990,
1993, and 1996 editions of the National Electrical Code. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in the States of Texas and Washington.