ClothingintheVikingAge

AswithmanyaspectsofVikingagematerialculture,ourknowledgeofVikingeraclothingisfragmentary.The
Vikingpeopleleftfewimagesandlittleinthewayofwrittendescriptionsoftheirgarments.Archaeological
evidenceislimitedandspotty.Thus,differentscholarsexaminingtheevidencecometodifferentconclusions.
Whatispresentedinthisarticlerepresentsonlyarangeofpossibleinterpretations.
AlltheGermanicpeoplesinnorthernEurope
woresimilarclothing.Whilevariationsdidexist,
throughouttheVikingeraandacrosstheViking
lands,clothingstyleswereremarkably
consistent.Thephotoontheleftshowsmen's
clothingsimilartothatwornthroughoutthe
Norseregions,whilethephotoontheright
showsadistinctlyeasternNorsestyleformen.
Uptop,menworeatunicthatwastightfitting
acrossthechestwithabroadskirt.Downbelow
weretrouserswhichcouldbeeitherloosefitting
ortight.Womenworealongshiftwitha
suspendedoverdress.Bothmenandwomen
worealongcloakorajackettoprovidewarmth
andprotectionininclementweather.
MostofourknowledgeofVikingeraclothing
andtextilescomesfromarchaeologicalfinds,
whilesomecomesfromliterarysourcesand
writtenlaw.MostfindsofVikingerafabricare
fromgravegoods.Asonemightexpect,fabric
doesn'tsurviveverywellwhenburied
underground.Thesurvivaloflargequantitiesof
fabricisquiterareandrequiresunusualsoil
conditions.Sometimesthetracesoftextilesare
foundontheundersideofjewelry,asthe
corrosionproductsofthefabricincontactwith
thejewelryinthegraveetchthejewelry.From
theseghostimages,theweaveandthread
countmaybedetermined.
Remainsofclothingarealsofoundinotherplaces.Norsepeopleusedwornoutclothingformanypurposes.
Sometimes,itwascoatedwithpitchandusedtosealcracksintheshipbuildingprocess.Inothercases,fabric
wascoatedwithpitchtouseasatorch,butneverlit.Thesepitchcoatedfabricshavesurvivedverywell.Atleast
oneentiregarment(apairofmen'strousers)hassurvivedfromtheVikingerabecausesomeoneuseditinthe
processofbuildingaship.
Men'sClothing

Theoutergarmentfortheman'supperbodywasthekyrtill,the
overtunic.Itwasconstructedfromwoolandwasconstructed
usingsurprisinglycomplicatedpatterns,withmanypiecesthat
neededtobecutoutofthefabricandsewnbacktogether.
However,whenitwasalllaidout,verylittlefabricwentto
waste.

Thephototothe
leftshowsthe
individual
piecesoffabric
beingfitted
togetherto
makethetunic.
Thephototothe
rightshowsa
finishedtunic.
Thecomplexity
resultsina
garmentthat
doesn'tbindor
restrict
movement.The
upperpartof
thegarmentis
relativelytight
fitting,butthe
sleevesare
fittedtoprovide
freedomof
motion.The
skirtranged
fromthigh
lengthtoknee
length.Aswith
mostarticlesof
clothing,the
lengthwas
determinedby
thewealthof
theowner.A
poorerman
wouldnotwaste
materialthat
wasn'tneeded,
whileamore
wealthyman
wouldshowoff
hiswealthby
usingmore

materialthan
wasneeded.On
hotdays,the
skirtwaslifted
upandtucked
intothebeltfor
bettercooling.
Thetunicwaspulledonoverthehead.Therewereusuallynofasteners,although
Sleeveswere
sometunicshadasimplebuttonandloopofthread(left)tofastentheneck
probablylonger
opening.Akeyholenecklinewasthemostcommon,althoughmanyothershapes
thanistypicalin
wereusedfortheneckopeningforbothmenandwomen.Men'snecklineswere
modern
high,sinceagarmentthatrevealedthechestwasconsideredeffeminate.
garments,
reachingwell
Tunicsofallbutthepoorestpeopleweredecoratedwithbraid,atleastonthe
pastthewrists.
necklineandcuffs.Thetunicsofthemorewealthywerealsodecoratedwithbraid
onthehemoftheskirt.Thebraidwaswovenfrombrightlycoloredwoolusingthe
tabletweavingtechnique,describedlaterinthisarticle.

Silkwasalsousedtotrimatunic,althoughthecostofimportedsilkmusthavelimitedthiskindoftrimtoonlythe
wealthiestpeople.
Underthetunic,it'slikelythatmostmenalsoworeanundertunic
(left).Thiswasmademostcommonlyfromlinen.(Linenwasmore
expensivethanwool,butmorecomfortableagainsttheskin.)The
constructionwassimilartothatoftheovertunic,exceptthatthe
sleevesandskirtweremadelonger.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthe
undertunicwasvisibleextendingpasttheovertunic,sothatpeople
couldseethatonewaswealthyenoughtobeabletoaffordan
undertunic.

Somesurviving
undertunicsare
assembledfrommany
piecesoffabric(left)with
noapparentpurposeto
shapethegarment.Were
thepanelsandstitching
meantobedecorative?
Ormerelyaneconomical
attempttoconstructa
garmentfromwhatever
fragmentsoffabric
happenedtobeleftover
fromotherprojects?
Thisreplicaalsohasa
squareneckopeningwith
overlappingflapsinfront
tosealoutcoldweather.
Theflapsareheldshut
Itappearsthatawiderangeofstylesoftrouserswereusedin
withcordsandloops
theNorselands.Someweretight.Somewerebaggy.Some
(right).
trouserswereofsimpleconstruction.Somewerecomplicated,
usingelaborategoresaroundthecrotchareaforfreedomof
motion,andbuiltinsocks(likemodernsleepwearfortoddlers),

withbeltloopsaroundthewaist.Asketchofahistoricalpairof
trouserswiththispatternisshowntotheleft.
Inchapter16ofFljtsdlasaga,thetrousersofKetill
rirandasonaredescribedashavingnofeet,butstrapsunder
theheels,likestirrups.
Trousershadnopocketsandnofly.Thelackofaflymeantthat
menhadtopulluptheirtunicskirtsanddroptheirtrousersto
relievethemselves.ThelackofpocketsinanyVikingera
clothingmeantthatmenandwomenhadtocarrytheireveryday
itemsinotherways,describedinmoredetaillaterinthisarticle:
suspendedfromthebelt,carriedinpouches,carriedaroundthe
neck,orsuspendedfrombrooches.

Itispossiblethatsometrouserswereheldupwithasimpledrawstringinthe
waistband,asseeninthereproductiontrousersshowntotheleft.Yetmany
survivingexamplesoftrousershavebeltloops,suggestingthatthetrousers
wereheldupwithabelt.
Somemeansofholdingupthetrousersisrequired.Sincethereisnoflyor
openingatthewaist,thewaistbandmustbebigenoughtopassoverthe
hips.Apairoftrouserswithnomeanstosecurethemwillsimplyfalldownto
theankles.
Fightingmentookadvantageofthatfact.Inchapter6ofBrarsaga
Snfellsss,LnEinarrwasfightingwithEinarrwhenLnEinar'strouser
beltsnapped.AsLnEinarrclutchedathistrousers,Einarrgavehimhis
deathblow.
Oneepisodeinthesagassuggeststhattightfittingclothingwasconsideredshowyorostentatious.Inchapter45
ofEyrbyggjasaga,roddurorbrandssonhadbeenwoundedinafight.Histrousers(whichhadfeetinthem)
weresoakedwithblood.Aservanttriedtoremovethetrousers,tuggingwithallhismight,butthetrouserswould
notcomeoff.Theservantsaidthattheorbrandssonbrothersmustbestylishdressers,sincetheirclotheswere
sotightfittingthattheycouldn'tbetakenoff.Subsequently,Snorrigoilookedmorecloselyanddiscoveredthat
thepantswerepinnedinplacebyaspearinrodd'sleg.
Onewondersifrodd'strousersweresimilartotheThorsbjerg
trousers,atightfittingstyle.Theoriginalisawellpreservedartifact
from4thcenturyGermany,butpoorlypreservedtrouserswithasimilar
cutwerefoundinVikingeraHedeby.Asketchofthepatternisshown
totheright,andalinenreproductionisshowntotheleft.Theoriginal
hadbeltloopsonthewaistband,andfeetattachedtothelegs,which
werenotreproducedhere.Detailedinformation,sewinginstructions,
andpatternsforthisreproductionmaybedownloadedfromthe
Hurstwiclibrary.

SomeoftheGermanicpeople(suchastheSaxonsandtheFranks)areknowntohave
wornputteelikelegwrappingsfromkneetofoot(showninmanyofthephotosonthis
page,andtotheleft)togathertheexcessfabricoftheirbaggytrousers.Theevidencefor
theiruseinwesternNorselandsisscant,butbetterevidenceexistsfromeasternNorse
regions.

Thewrapsconsistentoftwolong,narrow
stripsofcloth,typicallywool,whichwere
woundaroundthelegandfoot.Bystarting
atthekneeandwrappingdownwardsand
endingatthetoes,noclipsorfastenersare
needed.Thewrapsstayfirmlyinplace,
evenduringvigorousactivity.
DuringtheVikingage,thefabricwouldhave
beenwoventothecorrectdimensionsfor
theintendedpurpose,ratherthancutfrom
largerpieceofcloth,aswasdoneforthe
replicashowntotheright.Asaresult,aleg
wrapfromtheVikingagewouldhave
selvagesalongeachedgewhichresisted
fraying,ratherthanastitchusedonthe
modernreplica.

Anepisodeinthesagassuggeststhatlegwrappingswere
uncommonenoughinIcelandtobeworthyofnote.Chapter9
ofGullorissagadescribesGrmr,whoworeawhitecloak,
whitetrousers,andswathingbands(spjarrar)wrappedaround
hislegs.Andso,hewascalledVafspjarraGrmr(swathing
bandGrmr).
Ontheotherhand,theselegwrappingsprovidesignificant
protectiontothelowerlegwhencrashingthroughdense
brush,suchasexistsinIcelandicbirchforests.Inaddition,
theyhelpkeeplegsandtrouserswarmanddrywhenwalking
insnow(left).

WeknowlittleaboutunderpantsusedduringtheNorseera.Nosurvivingexamplesare
knowntoexist.Itisbelievedthattheyfollowedthesamepatternsastrousersbutwere
typicallykneelength.Liketrousers,somemayhavebeensimple,andsomemayhave
beencomplicatedinthecrotcharea,againforfreedomofmotion.Liketrousers,theyhad

nofly.Adrawstringatthewaistorbeltheldtheunderpantsup,andtheymayhavehad
drawstringsattheknees.Whenavailable,theyweremadeoflinenforcomfort,butwool
wasusedaswell.
Inchapter16ofFljtsdlasaga,thesagaauthormentionsthatatthetimeoftheeventsin
thesaga(10thcentury),mendidnotwearunderpants.Yet,justtwochapterslater,Gunnar
irandabaniisdescribedleavinghistentatnighttorelievehimselfwearingnothingbut
tunicandunderpants.(Atthatmoment,hispursuersspottedhim,andGunnarspentthe
restofthenightandthefollowingdaydressedsowhileeludinghispursuersacrossthe
coldIcelandiclandscape.)
GslasagaSrssonar(ch.16)saysthatGsliwalkedonenighttotheneighboringfarmatSbldressedinshirt
andlinenunderdrawers,withacloakoverhisback.Gsli'splanwastoenterthesleepinglonghouseatnighttokill
hisbrotherinlaworgrmr.Althoughnotexplicitlystated,thelackoftrouserswouldmakeitdifficultforthepeople
ofSbltorecognizetheintruderbytouchinthedarklonghouse.
Thesetwoepisodes(andmanyothers)suggestthatlinenunderwearwasworntobed.
It'sbeensuggestedthatverypoormendidnotuseunderclothingandthusmayhavesleptnaked.Inchapter18of
Ljsvetningasaga,orbjrnrindill,apoormanfromtheEastFjords,washiredbyGumundrinnrki(the
powerful)toserveasaspyatthehomeoforkellhkr(bully).Onthenightoftheattack,orbjrnheardthedog
barkingandmenridinguptothehouse.Hesprangfromhisbedandranoutsidenaked,withhisclothesinhis
handandgotdressedoutside.Theepisodesuggestshesleptnaked.

Thecloakwassimplyalargerectangularpieceofwool,
sometimeslinedwithcontrastingcolorwool.Cloaksprovided
protectionfromthecold,fromthewind,andtoalimiteddegree,
fromtherain.Somecloaksweremadewithverydense,very
thickwool,whichwouldhaveprovidedextraprotection.Cloaks
weretypicallywornoffset,withtherightarm(theweaponarm)
unencumberedbythecloak.
Ihadlongwonderedifoverlappingthecloakovertherightarm,
ratherthaninthemiddle,wouldreallymatter.Duringarecent
snowstorm,Ihadanopportunitytoputittothetest.Grabbingfor
somethinginahurry(inthiscase,aprojectileinflight)was
substantiallyeasierwiththecloakoffset.Whenoverlappedinthe
middle,thecloakalwaysgotintheway.
Cloakscouldbeembroidered,ortrimmedwithtabletwoven
braid.Typicallytheyhungtosomewherebetweenthekneeand
theankledependingonthewealthoftheowner.

DuringtheNorseera,Icelandexportedwoolintheformofhomespuncloth
(vaml)orreadymadecloaks(vararfeldur),alsocalledashaggycloak
(rggvarafeldur).Therewerestrictregulationsonhomespun,anditwas
usedasastandardexchangeproduct,inthesamemannerassilver.

Homespuncloakshadashaggyexterior,likesheepskin.One
explanationisthattheshaggyappearancewascreatedbytying
additionalthreadstothewarpthreadswhilethefabricwas
beingwoven(left).

Anexplanationthatbetterfitsthedescriptionsofthefabricinthestoriesis
thattuftsfromthefleeceofthesheepwereloopedaroundwarpthreadsbut
notpulledtight,leavingalargeloop.Theresultinggarmentresembleda
patchylambfleece.Amodernreconstructionofashaggycoatdisplayedon
amannequinisshowntotheright,butit'sworthnotingthatthisreproduction
differsinappearancefromsurvivingfragmentsofhistoricalshaggyfabrics.
Perhapsthetechniqueusedinmakingthereproductionisinerror,or
perhapsthesurvivingfragmentshavechangedtheirappearanceoverthe
interveningcenturies.

Cloakswereheldin
placebyapinatthe
rightshoulder.The
pinsrangedfrom
simplebonepinsto
elaborategoldjewelry.
Acommonstylewas
thepenannularbrooch
(righttop).Thepinis
heldcaptiveonaring
thathasabreakinitto
allowthepintopass
throughtheringafterit
hasbeenpassed
throughthefabric.Like
allNorsejewelry,the
broochtypicallywould
havebeenhighly
decorated.Amodern
replicasimplepin
fastenerisalsoshown
totheright,andan
assortmentofhistorical
pinsareshowntothe
left,madefromiron,
bronze,wood,or
antler.
Otheroutergarmentswerealsoused,includingwoolencoatsandjackets.
Capsweremade
ofwool,or
sheepskin,or
leatherandfur.
Somehadear
flapsforwarmth.
Typically,they
weremadeinthe
Phrygianstyle,
withfourormore
triangularpieces
sewntogether.A
modernreplica
capmadeinthis
mannerisshown

totheleft,and
somestitching
detailsofthecap
Grgs,themedievalIcelandiclawbook,hasfurtherevidenceonthenatureofcapsworn.The
areshowntothe
law[St362]prohibitedapersonfrompullingthehatoffofsomeoneelse'shead.Iftherewas
right.
nochinstrap,thepenaltywasafine.Iftherewasachinstrapandthehatwaspulledforward,
thepenaltywaslesseroutlawry(banishment).Butiftherewasachinstrapandthehatwas
pulledbackwards,thehatwearerhadtherighttokillinretaliation,sinceitwasconsidered
throttling.
Otherhoodlikehead
coveringscalledhttr
wereworn,especiallyfor
protectioninfoul
weather.Presumably,
thehttrcoveredthe
headandshoulders,like
hoodsworninthelater
medievalperiod.In
Fljtsdlasaga,
Sveinungrordereda
youngboyathisfarmto
headoutandgatherin
thesheep.Theboy
wantedtogethishood
andglovesbefore
leaving,butSveinungr
shamedhimintoleaving
immediately.Sveinungr
wantedtheboytobe
spottedandmistakenfor
Gunnarr,whowasbeing
pursuedandwhohad
beentakeninto
Sveinung'sprotection.
Thereplicahoodshown
totherightusesan
extremelysimple
pattern,inwhichallthe
piecesoffabricare
rectangles.Adrawstring
helpedclosethehood
aroundtheface.Other
hoodsaremorecarefully
fittedtokeepout
weather.
Thesagasalsotellofprestigioushats,suchasRussianhats(gerzkrhattr).InLaxdlasaga(ch.12),theslave
merchantGilliinngerzki(theRussian)waswearingsuchahatandotherfineclothes.Itispossiblethatsilk
trimmedhatsfoundinsomeBirkagravesrepresentthiskindofhat.
Socksapparently
wereoptional,
dependingonthe
wealthofthe
individual(although
moreonthatina
moment).Those
withoutthemeans

forsocksprobably
usedmossor
grassesoreven
haytolinetheir
shoes.Whensocks
wereavailable,
theyweremadeof
undyedwool.A
sockfoundinYork
hasabandofred
trimatthetop,
whichishowthe
reproduction
showntotheright
isconstructed.

However,Norsesockswerenotknitted(which
apparentlywasunknowntotheNorse).Instead,they
weremadeusinganancienttechniquecalled
nlbinding(needlebinding).Usingasinglelarge,
thickneedle,itwasamethodofknottingtheyarn.
Althoughtimeconsuming,thisapproachresultedin
anearlyindestructiblegarment.Ifthethreadwereto
breakorwearout,thegarmentwouldstillbeintact,
sincethethreadwaseverywhereknottedto
neighboringthreads.Mittensandcapswerealso
madeusingthistechnique.Thesketchtotheleft
showsthestepsinvolvedinmakinganarticleof
clothingusingthenlbindingtechnique.Notethat
thefabricgrowsinaspiralpattern.Oncethespiralis
largeenough,itisknottedbackonitselftocreatethe
shapeofthefinishedarticle.
(IrecentlymettwoIcelandicwomenwhoshowedmethatmy
understandingofthenlbindingtechniquewasfaulty.Itmaybe
conceptuallycomplicated,buttheydemonstratedtomethat
knottingtogethergarmentswasnotonlysimple,butextremely
fast.Thecapshowntotherightwastheworkofasingle
afternoon.)

Mittenswerealsomadeusingnlbindingtechniques.Inaddition,thereareexamplesofmittensmadebysewing
togetherpiecesofwovenwoolenfabric.

Shoestypicallyweresimpleaffairsmadeusingtheturnshoe
technique.Theuppersweresewntothesole(uppersketchtothe
right)withthefinishedsidein(blue),andtheroughsideout(red).
Thentheshoeswereturnedinsideout.Thisputtheseaminsidethe
shoe(lowersketchtotheright),whereitwaslesssusceptibletowear.
Italsoputtheholesthatresultedfromthestitchinginsidetheshoe,
sotheshoewaslesslikelytoleakonwetground.

Acrosssectionofaturnshoestyleshoeisshowntotheright.The
heaviersoleissewntothelighteruppers,thenturnedinsideouttoput
thestichingontheinside.Onemightthinkthathavingtheseamonthe
insidewouldbeuncomfortable,butit'snot.Theseamisoutoftheway,
anditdoesn'ttouchthefoot.

Vikingage
shoes
probablydidn't
lastlong
perhapsafew
monthstohalf
ayearbefore
theyworeout
andwere
replaced.Asa
result,worn
outshoesare
commonfinds
inVikingera
trashpits.The
replicashoes
showntothe
leftare
reachingthe
endoftheir
usefullife,
basedonthe
visiblewearin
thesole.
Insome
regions,
leather
surviveswell,
andcomplete
examplesofa
numberof
Theshoesshowntothe
differentshoe
styleshave leftareacopyofapair

beenfound.foundinYorkinEngland.
Theillustration
Theyareabitmore
totheright elaboratethansome,and
showsvarious
usetoggles,ratherthan
shoestyles laces,forclosingthe
foundattheshoe.Twotogglesare
Vikingage showntotheright,thetop
tradingtownof
onefastened,andthe
Hedeby.
bottomoneloose.The
shoetogglesareeasily
adjustable,sothatone
canadjustthesnugness
oftheshoeastheleather
stretches.

ThetopoftheYorkshoeis"whipped"withacontrasting
colorthread,bothasdecorationandtoreinforcethe
edge(right).Thesoleextendswellupthebackofthe
heel,perhapstoprovidesomeadditionallifetothe
shoesbykeepingtheheelseamupofftheground
whereitcan'tbescuffed.
Theshoeshowntotheleftisacopyofonefoundin
Hedeby.Theseamthatjoinstheupperisinthecenter,
ratherthanontheside,aswiththeYorkshoe,above.
Thispatternismuchsimplertoconstruct.
Mostshoeswereankleheight,
althoughafewexamplesofhigher
bootshavebeenfound.Apairof
calfhighreproductionbootsare
showntotheright,whichusethe
samekindoftoggleclosureasthe
shoeshownabove.Asimilarpairis
showntotheleft,withdecorative
stitchingontheback.
Thesagaliteraturealsomentions
highshoes.Inchapter9ofHvarar
sagasfiring,Valbrand'ssonstook
offtheirhighshoeswhiletheyraked
hay.
However,theuseofthiskindofboot
amongtheNorsepeoplehasbeen
contested.Thesurvivingexamples
typicallyarefrommarkettowns,
whereNorsetradersmetpeople
fromaroundtheworld.These
examplesmayhavebeenbroughtto
thesetownsbytradersfromother
regions.

AfindfromCoppergateinYorksuggeststhat,inatleastsome
cases,theshoetogglesweretotheinsideofthefeet,rather
thantotheoutsideasinallthereproductionshoesshown
above.Thereproductionshoesshowntotheleftweremade
usingthisalternatepattern.Icancertainlyseehowthey'dbea
loteasiertofasteninthatlocation.

Shoefasteningsoccasionallybrokeinuse.SkarpheinnNjlsson'sshoelace(skvengr)brokeasheran
towardsanambush,forcinghimtostopandretieit,asdescribedinchapter92ofBrennuNjlssaga.Itdidn'tslow
himdownany.Heleaptontotheiceandslidacrossthefrozenrivertokillrinn.

Shoelaceswereroutedthroughtheupperoftheshoe
toavoidputtingpressureonsensitiveareasofthefoot.
Asaresult,thelaceranbelowtheankleboneonthe
sides,andabovetheheelintheback.

Howevertheywerefastened,shoesoccasionallycameoff,accordingtothesagas.Chapter19ofSvarfdlasaga
tellsofabattleinwhichgmund'sshoeshadcomeoffinthedeepsnow.Karlofferedtostandinfrontofhimfor
protectionwhilegmundrputthembackon.
NowthatweatHurstwichavedone
someextendedoutdoorwinterevents,
myopinionofVikingerafootwearhas
changedconsiderably.Theshoessoak
throughprettyeasilyinwetsnow,
resultinginwetfeet.Peoplewithout
socksquicklygetuncomfortablycold
feet,evendangerouslycoldfeet.Those
peopleareeasytospotatourwinter
eventstheycanbefoundwiththeirfeet
inthefire(right)ateveryopportunity.
Woolensocksmakeabigdifference.
Thoughthefeetmaybewet,theystay
warm.Evenfabricfootwrappingsdon't
doasgoodajobofkeepingwetfeet
warmasthewoolensocksmadeusing
thenlbindingtechnique.
Afterhavingexperiencedthedifference,
Ihavetoconcludethatsocksmaynot
havebeenasoptionalasIfirstthought
inNorselands.

Vikingerabeltswereleather,andconsiderablynarrowerthanbelts
latercametobe.Survivingbucklesandstrapendstellusthat2cm

(3/4inch)wasaboutthewidestbeltcommonlyused.Therewere
nobeltloopsinatunic,soanyexcesslengthwasknottedaround
thebeltandallowedtohangfreely.Thefreeendwasweighted
withadecorativestrapend.Notonlywasthestrapenddecorated,
sowerethebuckleandthebeltitself.Modernreplicasofabelt
buckle,decorativeplates,andastrapendareshowntotheright.
Twoessentialitemswornonthebeltwereautilityknifeanda
pouchofsoftleatherorfabric.Sincegarmentshadnopockets,
peopleneededsomeplacetostoretheitemstheyroutinelycarried
withthem,suchascoins,ascrapofcleancloth(towipeone's
handsandface),afirestartingkit,etc.Keys,however,were
routinelycarriedaroundtheneck.Smallerweapons,suchasa
sax,mightalsobewornonthebelt.

ThesagassuggestthatotherformsofclothingwerewornintheVikingage,someofwhicharepoorlyunderstood.
KjalnesingasagadescribesKolfi'sclothinginchapter7asbeingbaggytrousers,ahoodedcloakfastened
betweenhislegs,andfurrycalfskinshoes.Peoplethoughthisappearancewasludicrous.

Theworkingclothesofafarmhandaredescribedinchapter16ofFljtsdlasaga.The
manworeagraytunic,withtheflapsfasteneduponhisshouldersandtheloopshanging
downathissides.Overthat,heworeawhiteworkshirt.Thedetailsofthesegarmentsare
obscure(inboththeIcelandicoriginalandinEnglishtranslation),butitispossiblethe
man'stunicwasablaakyrtill,withaskirtmadeoftwoflapsslitatthesides.Perhapsit
resembledthetunicshowntotheright.

Women'sClothing

Ingeneral,women'sclothingwasmadefromthesame
materialsasmen'sclothing.Typically,awomanworean
anklelengthlinenunderdressorshift,withtheneckclosed
byabrooch.Overit,sheworeashorterlengthwoolen
dresssuspendedbyshoulderstrapsfastenedbybrooches.
Thiskindofsuspendeddressissometimescalleda
hangerockoranapronskirt.

Thedetailsofhowthesegarmentswereconstructedis
speculative.Someinterprettheouterdressastwoseparate
panels,othersasaslightlyflaringtubeshapeddress,
longeratthebackthanthefront.
Thereisalsoevidenceforanoverdresssimilartotheone
wornbythewomanontheright,completelycoveringthe
shouldersandrequiringnobroochestoholditinplace.

Therearstrapsofthesuspendeddresswerelongenoughtopassoverthe
shouldertothebrooches,whilethefrontstrapsweremuchshorter,asseenin
thephotographtotheleft.Apinandcatchontheinsideofthebroochheldthe
loopsofthestrapstothebrooch.

Somegravefindssuggestmultiplelayersoffabricinsidesurviving
brooches.Ithasbeensuggestedthatafabricpanelwashungbyloops

fromthebroochesoverthesuspendeddress,alongthelinesofan
apron.Onecanonlyspeculatewhetherthepanelwasintendedtohelp
keepthesuspendeddressclean,orwasdecorative,orperhapsboth.
Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthepanelsofthesuspendeddresswere
notfullysewn,allowingthedresstobeopenedtoallowfornursing,and
thatthisadditionalpanelwasusedtocovertheopening.

SeveraldifferentstylesofViking
agebroochesareshowntothe
left.Inmoderntimes,these
broochesaresometimescalled
turtlebrooches,sincetheirshape
issimilartotheshellofaturtle.A
modernreplicaisshowntothe
right.

Frequently,glassoramberbeads,orotherjewelrywasstrung
betweenthebrooches.Womenalsocarriedneededitems(e.g.,
keys,scissors,needles,aknife,andawhetstone)suspendedby
cordsorchainsfromtheirbrooches,orfromtheirbelts.

SomeexamplesofVikingageglassbeadsare
showntotheleft,andahistoricalstringofglass
beadsfromtheVikingageisshowntotheright.

Thewomanshownstandinginthe
doorwayabovetotherightiswearing
ananklelengthcoatlikeouter
garmentoverhersuspendeddress,
butcloaksorshawlswerealsoused
andwereprobablymorecommon.
OnesuchcoatwasfoundinBirka
withanecklinecutsofullthattheoval
broochesunderneathwerevisible
whenthecoatwasclosedand
fastened.Amodernreplicaisshown
totheleft.
Womenoftenusedtrilobedbrooches
(right)tofastentheneckopeningof
theirclothing.

TheseskeletalremainsofaVikingagewomanclearlyshowhertri
lobedbroochinplacewhereitfastenedtheneckopeningofherburial
clothes.
Beltbucklesorotherfasteningsarerarelyfoundinwomen'sgraves,
astheyareinmen'sgraves,suggestingthatwomen'sbeltswere
wovenfabric,ratherthanleather.Alternatively,itispossiblethat
womendidnotroutinelywearbelts,asmendid,andinstead,they
carriedalloftheireverydayitemssuspendedfromtheirbrooches.

Headcoveringsweretypicallywornbywomen,perhapsassimpleasaknotted
kerchiefoverthehead(left),whichwassuggestedbyfindsattheOsebergship
burial.Rgsula(verse2)saysthatevenwomenofthelowestclassworea
headdress.
Anumberofdifferentkindsofheadcoveringsforwomenarementionedinthe
sagas,someofwhichareelaborateheaddresses,whichmayhavebeenwornlike
jewelryonspecialoccasions.Laxdlasaga(chapter45)tellsofaheaddressgiven
byKjartantohisbrideHrefnaasaweddinggift.Ithadeightouncesofgoldwoven
intothefabric.
Ithasbeensuggestedthatthetypeofheaddresswornservedtodistinguish
marriedfromunmarriedwomen.

Women'sshoesweresimilartomen'sshoesinvirtuallyeveryparticular.

Someevidencesuggeststhatwomen'sclothingwaswornlong.Imagesofwomen
inpicturestonesandjewelry(right)showlong,trailingskirtsonfemalefigures.
Sagaevidencealsosuggestslongclothingforwomen.Perhapsthebestevidence
comesfromGslasaga(ch.34).AsGsliswifeandfosterdaughterwalkedwith
him,theirlongclothingleftatrackinthefrostwhichGsli'senemieswereableto
followdirectlytohishideout.

Amoment'sreflectionsuggeststhatlong,flowingclothingwasimpracticalintheagriculturalsocietyoftheViking
age.Trailinggarmentswouldgetsoiledwhileworkingaroundanimalsandwouldbeawkwardaroundthefire
burningonthefloorofeverylonghouse.Perhapshighstatuswomenworesuchlongclothingonspecial
occasions.AsisoftenthecasewithVikingmaterialculture,weareremindedofthelimitsoftheavailable
evidence.
Children'sClothing

Thereislittlesurvivingevidencetohelpus
determinewhatsortofclothingchildrenwore,but
thereislittletosuggestthatchildren'sclothingwas
anythingotherthanadultclothingcuttofitthe
child'ssmallerframe.

Tunicandtrouserswereprobablytypicalfor
boys,andadressforgirls.
Fljtsdlasaga(chapter11)describesthe
everydayclothingwornbyHelgiandGrmr,boys
twelveandtenyearsold.Theirtunicswereplain
stripedroughhomespunwool,withtrousers
below.Theybothworecloaksovertheirtunics.

Slaves'Clothing
Weknowlittleabouttheclothingwornbyslaves,orhowitdifferedfromtheclothingwornbyfreepeople.Most
likely,itwassimilartobutsimplerindesignandexecutionthanclothingwornbyfreemenandwomen.Coarser,
undyedfabricwasprobablyusedtoreducecosts,withlittleornoornamentation.
Oneofthefewdescriptionsofslaves'clothinginthesagasappearsinchapter12ofLaxdlasaga.Hskuldr
enteredtheboothofamerchantlookingtopurchaseaconcubine(ambatt)andhiseyewasdrawntoMelkorka,
whowaspoorlydressed(illakldd).Afterpurchasingher,Hskuldrdressedherinfineclotheswhichsuitedher
better.
ClothMaking
Allofthestepsofmakingasetofclothing,fromprocessingthefibers,tospinning,weaving,cutting,andsewing,
weredonebythewomenofthefamily.Sincetheprocesswassolaborintensive,asetofclothingwashighly
prizedandcarefullymaintained.Andsincetheworkwasskilled,thewomendoingthisworkwereanindispensible
partofthehousehold.
Clothingwascommonlymadefromwoolorlinen.Otherfabrics(suchassilk)wereknown,butwerecostlyand
rare.Ithasbeenthoughtthatoutergarmentsweretypicallywool,whileundergarmentswerelinen.Morerecent
researchsuggeststhatlinenwascommonlyusedforoutergarmentsaswell.
Bothfabricsbegin
withnaturalfibers.
Woolismadefrom
thefibersfromthe
coatsofsheep.
Sheepwereraised
throughoutallofthe
Norselands,not
onlyforwool,butfor
foodaswell.

Fleecethathadbeenshornorpluckedfromsheepwascleaned
(left)toeliminatedirtanddebrisandcombedwithirontoothed
combs(right)tosmoothanddisentanglethefibers,makingthem
easiertospin.

Linenismadefromfibersinthestemoftheflaxplant,aslender,erect
plantthatgrowsabout100cm(40in)tall.Earlierreferencessuggestthat
flaxgrewonlyinthemostsoutherlyoftheNorselandsduringtheViking
age.However,morerecentevidencesuggeststhatflaxwascultivatedin
themorenortherlylands,includingnortherndistrictsofNorwayand
Sweden.BothpollensamplesandplacenameevidenceinIceland
suggestsflaxcultivationthere,aswell,althoughitseemsunlikelythat
flaxwouldflourishthere.Linakradalur(flaxfieldvalley)isshowntothe
rightasitappearstoday
Flaxwasharvestedbeforetheseedsripened.Theseedpods
wereremoved,andthestemswere"retted"inshallowwater,a
processthatcausedtheplanttodecomposeandloosenthe
fiberswithoutcausingthefiberstorot.Theprocesscreates
verydisagreeableodors.

Linenfiberwasmechanicallyseparatedfromflaxstemsbybeatingthestems,usingawoodenbeating
toolsuchastheoneshowntotheright.Thefiberswerethencombedtoseparateoutanywoody
particlesfromthelinenfibersandtoalignthefiberstomakethespinningprocesseasier.

Thebundleofwool(orlinen)fiberswasattachedtoa
simpledistaff,whichthespinstercouldsecuretoher
beltorunderherarm.Thespindle(intheupperleftin
thephotototheright)wasweightedbyaspindle
whorl,asmallstonewithaholecutinthecenter
(right).Thespindlewassetspinningandallowedto
sinktowardsthefloor.Fiberswereteasedoutofthe
massofrawmaterialonthedistaffandspuntogether
betweenthefingerstocreatethread.
Spindlewhorlsarecommonarchaeologicalfinds.The
examplesinthephotoontherightarefromthe
collectionoftheIcelandicNationalMuseum.The
findingofaspindlewhorlandaboneneedleatthe
L'AnseauxMeadowssiteisconvincingevidencethat
womenwerepresentatthesiteduringtheNorseera.

Differentsizedspindlewhorlswereusedformaking
differentweightthreads.Somespindlewhorlfindsare
sosmallthattheywereoriginallyclassifiedasbeads
forjewelry.Onlyrecentlyhavetheybeenreclassified
aswhorlsformakingextremelyfinethread.
Makingthethreadwasprobablythemosttime
consumingaspectofclothingmanufacturing.Itis
estimatedthatabout35hoursoflaborwasrequiredto
makethethreadrequiredforonedayofweaving.

Finishedthreadwaswoundontoathreadreel,showntotheleft.
Alternatively,threadwaswoundontoanimalbones.
Askeinofdyedthread,readyfortheloom,isshowntotheright.

Thedyeingprocesscouldbe
appliedtothefleece,tothe
thread,ortothefinishedfabric.
ThedyesavailabletoNorse
weaverswerelimited,butmany
ofthemwerebright.Avarietyof
vegetabledyeswerecommonly
used,resultinginarangeof
colors:browns,fromoffwhiteto
beigethroughrussettodark
brownreds,fromapaleredtoa
deepredyellows,frompaletoa
brilliantgoldandblue.The
resultsofsomemoderndyeing
experimentsareshowninthe
photos.Theyarnsshowntothe
rightweredyedwithnatural
dyestuffsfoundinIceland,as
wasthetunicandtabletwoven
trimshowntotheleft.

Thesagasmentionthatdyestuffswerecollected.Svarfdla
saga(ch.18)saysthatrhildrsenthersons,orleifrand
lfruponKlaufabrekka(right,asitappearstoday)tobring
backsomeherbsfordyeing(litgrs,literallycolorgrasses).

TheIcelandicsagasoftenmentionsclothingcolor.Brightlycoloredclothingwasasymbolofwealthandpower,no
doubtduetotheadditionalexpenseofthedyestuffsandthemultipledyeingoperationsrequiredtomakebright
colors.Thewearingofblack(blr)clothingisafrequentliteraryconventioninthesagas,indicatingthatthewearer
isabouttokillsomeone.
Intheoldlanguage,blrprobablymeantadarkblueblack,andthesagas
distinguishedthecolorblrfromthecolorsvartr.Blristhecolorofaraven,
whereassvartristhecolorofablackhorse.InmodernIcelandic,blrhastakenthe
meaningblue.Presumably,atrueblackcouldnotbeobtainedwithdyesofthe
time,andadarkblueblackwasascloseascouldbeobtained.Thedeepblackof
thetunicoftheeasternNorsemaninthephotoatthetopofthisarticlewouldhave
beenverydifficulttoobtainduringtheNorseera.Ithasbeensuggestedthatusing
darkbluedyesonthewoolfroma"black"sheep(whichweremoreadarkbrown
thantrueblack)resultedinblrcoloredclothing.
Frequently,linenundergarmentswereleftundyed,inpartbecause
linenisdifficulttodye.
TheloomsusedbyVikingageweaverswouldhaveallowedthemto
makeawidevarietyofplaids,checks,stripes,andotherpatterns,but
forwhateverreason,theychosenotto.Fewexamplesofthese
patterenedfabricsarefoundinthearchaeologicalrecord.When
patternswerewovenintothefabric,Vikingweaversmorecommonly
usedfinepatterns,withoneortwothreadsofasinglecontrasting
colorthreadcloselyspacedintheweave,illustratedinthesketchto
theleft.
Patternedfabricsarementionedinthesagas.Forexample,when
SkarphinnvisitedthegoaratAlingwithhisfatherandbrothers,
heissaidtohavewornblackstriped(blrendur)trousers(Njlssaga,
ch.120).

Fabricwaswovenonavertical
loom.Averticalloomislittlemore
thanawoodenframeworkthat
leansagainstthewall.Itstands
aboutheadhigh,whichputsthe
workingareaataconvenient
heightforsomeonestandingin
frontoftheloom.Themodern
reproductionshowntotheleftisa
bitmorenarrowthanthemore
typicalwidthorthereplicaloom
showntotheright.Typicallooms
fromtheperiodwereabout2m
(80in)wide,capableofweaving
materialaswideas165cm(65in).

Thewarpthreadsweretensionedbymeansof
thestonestiedtothethreadsatthebottom.
Thewarpthreadsweremovedrelativetoone
anotherusingtheheddlerods(thehorizontal
rodslocatedhalfwaydowntheloom).

Eachwarpthreadhadaloopofthreadaroundittiedtooneof
severalheddlerods.Thus,bymovingtheheddlerods
forwardsandbackwardsrelativetothewarp,ashedwas
createdthroughwhichtheweftthreadwaspassedona
shuttle.

Thearrangementofthe
warpthreadsontheheddle
rodandthemovementof
theheddlerodsbetween
eachpassoftheshuttle
allowedavarietyofweaves
tobecreated,including
plainweave(left)andtwills
ofvariouskinds(right).
Aftereachpassoftheweftthread,a
woodenbeater(shownatthetopofthe
photototheleft,alongwiththreadand
shuttles)wasusedtopushthenewweft
againstthefabricabove.Finished
materialwaswounduponthetopbeam,
usingthehandleontherightsideofthe
beam(barelyvisibleintheloomphototo
theright).
Othermaterialswereusedasbeaters,
includingbrokenswordcomponents.
Thehistoricalbeatershowninthe
bottomphotototheleftisabroken
portionofapatternweldedswordblade,
fittedwithawoodenhilt,havinga
woodencrossguardandpommel.
Weavingusingaverticalloomis
describedasbeingbothtediousand
physicallydemanding,requiringthatthe

weaverwalkbackandforthfromone
endoftheloomtotheotherwitheach
passoftheshuttle.However,vertical
loomsallowedawomantoweavecloth
ofanyrequiredwidth,fromwideto
narrow.Thus,itwasnotnecessaryto
wasteclothbyweavingmaterialwider
thanneeded.
Itisestimatedthatinoneday,aweaver
couldproduceoneell(50cm,about20
inches)oftwoellwidefabric(1m,about
40in):onehalfofasquareyardperday
ofwork.

Becauseofthecostofmakingfabric,clothingpatterns
wereveryefficientintheiruseoffabric.Thematerial
wascutwithlittlelossorwasteofpreciousfabric.The
topsketchtotherightshowsthepiecesmakingupa
simplewoman'sunderdress,andthebottomsketch
showshowtheywerecutfromasinglepieceoffabric
asitcameofftheloom.Theyellowisthebodyofthe
garment,themagentaarethesleeves,thelightblue
aretheunderarmgussets,andthegreenarethegores
forthebody.Theonlywastedfabricwasthewhiteneck
opening.
Thereislittleinformationaboutwhatsortoftemplates
(ifany)wereused,andhowtheywerelaidoutonthe
fabrictoensurethepieceswerecutaccurately.

Thefabricwascutwithironshears(left).Generally,thistool
appearstohavebeencarriedbywomeninaleathercase
suspendedfromtheirshoulderbrooches(right).

Garmentsweresewntogetherusing
needlesmadeofbone,wood,antler,or

metal.Largerneedlesweretypically
madefromorganicmaterials,butsmaller
needles(similarinsizetothoseused
todayforhandstitching)weremadeof
ironorcopperalloy.Thesmallsizeofthe
needlesandoftheireyessuggestthat
finethreadwasusedforstitching,
consistentwithsomeofthefineweaves
foundinfinishedfabricfromtheViking
age.

Needleswereoftenstoredinneedlecasesmadeofbone,
iron,orcopperalloy.Thesecasesarecommonfindsinthe
gravesofwomen,andweresuspendedfromthebrooches
wornbywomen.Whenhanging,thecasekepttheneedles
safeandsecure(left),yetitwaseasilyopenedtoreveal
theneedlesinsidewhenneeded(right).

Aswithweaving,sewingtheclotheswasatimeconsuming,labor
intensivetask.Theseamsinthisreplicawomen'sunderdresstook
about25hourstosewbyhand.Theseamstressestimatedthatshe
couldsewtheseamsatarateofabout1mperhour(about1
yard/hour).Again,thereislittleinformationabouthow(ifatall)the
fabricwasheldinpositionasitwassewnbyaVikingageseamstress.

Avarietyofseamsandstitcheswereused,

Avarietyofseamsandstitcheswereused,
includingthefinishstitchshowntotheleft.Some
oftheseamswerefinishedonbothsides,sothatit
isnearlyimpossibletotelltheoutsidefromthe
insideofthegarmentfromlookingattheseam
(right).

Decorativetrimsandbraids
(suchasusedaroundthe
neckopeningofatunic)
weremadeusingaprocess
calledtabletweaving.In
tabletweaving,alarge
numberofvariouscolored
warpthreadswerethreaded
betweentabletsmadeof
wood,boneorheavyleather
(left).

Asthetabletswererotated,differentcoloredthreads
werebroughttothetopoftheshed.Theweftthread
waspassedthroughtheshedonashuttle.

Witheachpassoftheshuttle
throughtheshed,abeaterwas
usedtotightlypackthethreads
(left).Byrotatingthetabletsina
systematicway,adecorative
coloredpatternwascreatedin
thematerial(right).

Thewarpthreadswere
tensionedbetweenthe
weaver'sbeltandsome
heavy,immovableobject
suchasawallorpillar.

Thephotototheleft
showshowtypicaltablet
wovenbraiduseddozens
oftabletstocreatevery
elaboratepatterns.
Somemodernsamplesof
tabletwovenbraidare
showntotheright,above,
asitiswoven,andbelow,
sewntothesleeveofa
tunic.

Anothermethodofweavingbraidisinkleweaving.Whiletheuseofinkleweavingisknownoverabroadperiodin
history,itsuseintheVikingeraisdebatable.Archaeologicalevidenceissparse.Inkleweavingcannotproduce
asmanypatternvariationsastabletweaving,butitismuchfaster.

Drawstrings(forthewaistbandsoftrousers,forexample)weremadebyfinger
braiding,inwhichloopsofyarnweremovedfromfingertofingertocreatebraid.
Modernpractitionersdoitatlightningspeed,turningoutlargequantitiesofbraidin
ashorttime.PresumablyVikingagewomenwerenolessspeedy.

Embroidery
wasalso
usedto
decorate
clothing.The
modern
reproductions
ofacap(left)
andahood
(right)are
decorated
with
embroidery
aroundthe
edge.

Woolandlinenwerethemostcommonlyusedfabrics.Therearealsoexamplesoffinesilk,whichmusthave
beenimportedfromAsia,althoughonlytheverywealthiestpeoplecouldhaveaffordedit.Leatherwasused
whereappropriate,forshoesandoccasionallyforoutergarments.
Fursandanimalskinswereusedforwarmthonwintergarments.
Chapter22ofFstbrrasagastatesthattheGreenlanderLoinn
woreasealskincoatandtrousers,whilechapter8ofBrarsaga
SnfellsssaysthatIngjaldrwasaccustomedtohavingagreatfur
cloakoverhimwhenonboardhisship.
DuringtheVikingage,therewasextensivetradeinfurs.Tracesof
marten,beaver,bear,fox,andsquirrelpeltshavebeenfoundatthe
tradingtownofBirka.Thesketchtotheleftshowsmartenandsable
huntingandwastakenfromOlausMagnus'HistoryoftheNorthern
Peoplepublishedin1555.
Somefurswerewornasstatussymbols.Abearskinmightbeworn
bysomeonecourageousenoughtohaveattackedandkilledabear.
Norseeragarmentswereprobablyfiner,betterproportioned,betterdesigned,morebrightlycolored,andbetter
suitedtotheirpurposethanonemightordinarilyimagine.Thematerialsthathavesurvived(boththefabricitself,
andthestitching)aremuchfinerthanonemightexpectgiventheirtimeinhistory.Samplesoffabricwithover125
threadsperinch(60threadspercm)havebeenfound.Handstitchingfinerthanmodernmachinestitchingseems
tohavebeenthenorm.Norsepeopleprobablyexpectedtheirclothingtolastforyearswithoutmuchattention.
Unlikemodernswhohaveadifferentsetofclothesforeverydayoftheweek,Norsepeopleprobablyhadasingle
setthatwasexpectedtolastforyears.
Thevalueofasetofclothingcanbeputintoperspectivebyconsideringthenumberofhoursoflaborrequiredto
raisethesheep,shearthesheep,cardthewool,spinthethread,weavethefabric,cutthefabric,andsewthe
garments,allofwhichwasdonebyhandlabor.ClothingwasdesirablebootyinaVikingraid(alongwithprecious
metalsandweapons),furtheremphasizingthevalueofclothingintheVikingera.
Theproductionofclothforeverydayusewasahomecraft.Professionalclothmakingprobablydidnotoccurin
Vikinglands,althoughprofessionallymadeclothwasimportedfromotherlandsduringtheVikingera.
Besidesitsobviousutilitarianfunctions,clothingplayedotherrolesinNorsesociety.Clothingcouldbealove
token,eitherpremaritalorextramarital.Inchapter17ofKormkssaga,orvalduraskedforandreceivedthe
handofSteingerur,whohadbeenromanticallyinvolvedwithKormkur.WhenKormkurlateraskedSteingerur
tomakehimashirt,sherefused.
Then,therearethecuriousepisodesinthesagasinwhichwomensewupmen'ssleeves.Inchapter17ofGrettis
saga,itissaidthattheshipcaptain'swifemadeahabitofsewingupGrettir'ssleevesforhim.It'sbeensuggested
thatthiswasdoneeveryday,sothatthewide,buttonlesssleevesofthetuniccouldbemadetightatthewristsfor
maximumwarmthandfreedomtowork.Iremainunconvincedofthisinterpretation,yetitsuggeststheimportance
andvalueoffashionableclothingtothepeopleoftheVikingage.

Clothingwasasignofhospitality.Anyfamilywhichcouldaffordspareclothing
wouldcertainlykeepwarm,dryclothingonhandfortravelers.Inthewet,cold
Northernclimates,fewthingswouldbemorewelcometoanarrivingtraveler
thanasetofdryclothing.
ClothingfromtheVikingeraappearstohavebeenutilitarian,comfortable,
andpractical.It'ssurprisinglywarm,butadjustsforvaryingtemperature
ranges.Actualclothingfromtheperiodwas,likeotherNorsecraftitems,both
finelymadeandhighlydecorated.

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19992016WilliamR.Short
ContactusatHurstwic,LLC