DESIGN OF RCC BUILDINGS

The foremost basic in structural engineering is the design of simple basic components and members
of a building viz., Slabs, Beams, Columns and Footings. In order to design them, it is important to
first obtain the plan of the particular building that is, positioning of the particular rooms (Drawing
room, bed room, kitchen toilet etc.) such that they serve their respective purpose and also suiting to
the requirement and comfort of the inhabitants. Thereby depending on the suitability; plan layout of
beams and the position of columns are fixed. Thereafter, the loads are calculated namely the dead
loads, which depend on the unit weight of the materials used (concrete, brick) and the live loads,
2
which according to the code IS:875-1987 is around 2kN/m .
Once the loads are obtained, the component takes the load first i.e the slabs can be designed.
Designing of slabs depends upon whether it is a one-way or a two-way slab, the end conditions and
the loading. From the slabs, the loads are transferred to the beam. The loads coming from the slabs
onto the beam may be trapezoidal or triangular. Depending on this, the beam may be designed.
Thereafter, the loads (mainly shear) from the beams are taken by the columns. For designing
columns, it is necessary to know the moments they are subjected to. For this purpose, frame analysis
is done by Moment Distribution Method. After this, the designing of columns is taken up depending
on end conditions, moments, eccentricity and if it is a short or slender column. Most of the columns
designed in this mini project were considered to be axially loaded with uniaxial bending. Finally, the
footings are designed based on the loading from the column and also the soil bearing capacity value
for that particular area. Most importantly, the sections must be checked for all the four components
with regard to strength and serviceability.
Overall, the concepts and procedures of designing the basic components of a multistory building are
described. Apart from that, the planning of the building with regard to appropriate directions for the
respective rooms, choosing position of beams and columns are also properly explained. The future of
structure engineering mainly depends on better and more effective methods of designing the
structures so that they serve better and are also economical. The advancement of innovative and
environmentally friendly building materials are also coming up. They can give a new direction to the
structural engineering field as the availability of concrete and steel is not only decreasing but also
they are harmful to the environment. Hence, eco friendly materials which are economical and more
effective methods of designing will decide the future of structure engineering.

DESIGN OF RCC BUILDINGS

THE DESIGN PROCESS:

The entire process of structural planning and design requires not only
imagination and conceptual thinking but also sound knowledge of practical
aspects, such as recent design codes and bye-laws, backed up by ample
experience, institution and judgment.
It is emphasized that any structure to be constructed must satisfy the need
efficiency for which it is intended and shall be durable for its desired life
span. Thus, the design of any structure is categorizes into following two main
types:
1. Functional design 2. Structural design
1. FUNCTIONAL DESIGN:
The structure to be constructed should primarily serve the basic purpose for
which it is to be used and must have a pleasing look.
The building should provide happy environment inside as well as outside.
Therefore, the functional planning of a building must take into account the
proper arrangements of room/halls to satisfy the need of the client, good
ventilation, lighting, acoustics, unobstructed view in the case of community
halls, cinema theatres, etc.
1. STRUCTURAL DESIGN:
Once the form of the structure is selected, the structural design process
starts. Structural design is an art and science of understanding the behavior
of structural members subjected to loads and designing them with economy
and elegance to give a safe, serviceable and durable structure.
1.2 STAGES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN:
The process of structural design involves the following stages.
1) Structural planning.
2) Action of forces and computation of loads.
3) Methods of analysis.
4) Member design.

5) Detailing, Drawing and Preparation of schedules.

1.2.1 STRUCTURAL PLANNING:
After getting an architectural plan of the buildings, the structural planning of
the building frame is done. This involves determination of the following.
a. Position and orientation of columns. b. Positioning of beams. c. Spanning
of slabs.
d. Layouts of stairs. e. Selecting proper type of footing.
1.2.1.1 Positioning and orientation of columns: Following are some of the
building principles, which help in deciding the columns positions.
1 GUIDELINE FOR FIXING THE POSITION AND ORIENTATION OF
COLUMNS IN THE LAYOUT

This is an important stage . It is a skillful job and economy in

design is achieved by locating columns at proper and / ideal locations.

Normally the positions of the columns are shown by Architect in his

plans .

ii

Columns should generally and preferably be located at or near

corners and intersection /junction of walls (at beam- beam
junctions).

iii

If the site restrictions make it obligatory to locate column footings

within the property line the column may be shifted inside along a
cross wall to accommodate footings within the property line .
Alternatively trapezoidal footing, eccentric footing can also be
adopted.
In residential buildings, generally columns
should be located at 3 to
4m.c/c to avoid large spans for beams. This will also control

deflection
and cracking .

iv

While fixing the columns orientation care should be taken that it

does not change architectural elevation. This can be achieved by
keeping the column orientations and side restrictions as proposed in
plans by the Architect .

As far as possible, column projection/s outside the walls should be

avoided, unless Architects plans show contrary or same is required
as structural requirement.

vi

Columns should not obstruct door and window position/s shown in

the Architects plans.

vii

As far as possible, column should be so positioned, that continuous

frames from one end to the other end of building in both X and Y
directions are available. This will increase the global stiffness of the
building against horizontal forces .

viii

When the locations of two columns are near to each other (for e.g.
the corner of the building and intersection of the walls), then as for
as possible only one column should be provided .

ix

As far as possible, column should not be closer than 2m.c/c to avoid

stripped /combined /continuous footings. Generally the maximum
distance between two column should not be more than 8m.c/c.

Columns should be normally provided around staircases and lift

wells.

xi

Preferably overhead water tank should rest on the columns as

shown in the Architects plan. The height of water tank should be up
to 2.0m.

xii

Twin columns of equal size are desirable at expansion joints from

aesthetic point of view .

xiii

As far as possible every column must be connected (tied) in both

directions with beams at each floor level, so as to avoid buckling
due to slenderness effects.

xiv

As far as possible column supported on beam (Floating column)

should be avoided.

xv

When columns along with connecting beams from a frame, the

columns should be so orientated that as far as possible the larger
dimension of the column is perpendicular to the major axis of
bending. By this arrangement column section and the reinforcement
are utilized to the best structural advantage.

xvi

Orientation of columns: In case of square or circular columns there

would have been no problem regarding orientation. Normally
circular columns are provided outside the building for aesthetic
point of view. But in case of rectangular columns the designer must
have sufficient knowledge regarding orientation of the columns. The
orientation of the columns mainly deponds upon two factors. They
are (i) Structural point of view (ii) Functional point of view.
For Structural point of view, a column is oriented in such a manner
that the depth of column is in the plane of the maximum bending.
But sometimes a column oriented to suit the structural requirement
may offset inside the room and may cause inconvenience for the
user. In such cases the designer can orient the column so as to
merge into the wall, provided that the column must have sufficient
strength in the plane of

maximum bending. This can be made

possible by arranging the longitudinal steel at the faces in the plane

of bending.

COLUMN TRIAL SECTION

The column section can be assumed by any one of the method:
1.

Based on Load:

Ag (Gross area) required = 80 to 100 mm2 per every 1KN ultimate

load carried by the column depending on the grade of concrete used.
Ac= cross sectional area of column
D= large dimension of column =Ac/b
b=width of column.
For 600KN ultimate load, area required= 80x 600 =48000 mm2
If b=230mm, D=48000/230=209mm say 230mm.
Size of column is 230 x 230mm.
2. Based on tributary load carried by the column:
Area required is mm2/m2 of area covered by the column
Grade of concrete
M15

External column

M20
M25

Internal column

2500

1800

2000

1500

1800

1200

For example for 3 storeyed building interior column with M20 concrete
with 3m by 4m grid
Area required = (3 storey) x tributary area (3x4)x 1500 mm2
=54000mm2
Assuming width of column b=230 mm
Depth required

D = 54000/230 =235mm say 300mm

The size of column to be adopted is 230 x 300 mm.

3. Estimation of Load on column by thumb rule:
Column Position
Interior column
Side or end column
Corner column

Residential
building
1.2t/m2
1.7t/m2
2.2t/m2

Office/commercial
building
1.4t/m2
1.9t/m2
2.4t/m2

Size of column assumed based on loads

Load (tons)

Column size

(mm)
Up to 45
46 to 80
81 to 110
111 to 150
151 to 195
Above 195

230 x 230
230 x 450 or 300x 300
230 x 600
300 x 600 or 230 x 750
300 x 750 or 450 x 450
300 x 830

4. Based on thumb rule :

(i) Based on height or span of the beam
Column depth is 3 to 5% of total height of building
For example 8 storeyed building with 3m height
The depth of column is (8x3=24m )x3/100= 0.72m say 750mm.
If the beam span is 4.5m, along transverse direction,
width (b) = 1/12 of span of beam
b= 1/12x4.50 =0.375m say 380 mm.
(ii) Based on storey/ span of beam
If building height is 3 storeys or less:
If beam span is < 6m, D=300mm;
If beam span is between 6.0 to 9m, D=350mm
If the beam span is more than 12.0m, D=400mm.
If the building height is 4 to 9 storeys:
If beam span is < 6m,

D=400mm;

If beam span is between 6.0 to 9m,

D=500mm

If the beam span is more than 12.0m,D=600mm

5. Based on Load and moment:
Assume 2% of C.S area for fy=250N/mm2
(i) If the line of action of the eccentric load is outside
c.s area =Pu/0.4 fck
(ii) If the line of action of the eccentric load is inside (within the section)
c.s. area =Pu/0.45fck
Example:
Pu=2460KN; Mu=91KNM; fck=20N/mm2 ;fy=415N/mm2
Calculate eccentricity of load =Mu/Pu
=91/2460= 0.037m

Assume that line of action of axial load is inside the section and check
this later.
c.s area required =2460x103 /0.45x20x106
=0.273m2
If one dimension is 460mm, the other needs to be
=0.273/0.46=0.59m say 0.60m
Section is 460mm x 600mm
Area of steel reinforcement= 0.02x0.273x(250/415)x106
=3289.16 mm2
6. Capacity of Columns based on % of steel
Steel Grade
Concrete Grade

Fe 415

Fe 500

M20

P=(2.7005 p+ 8)

P=(3.27p + 8)

M25

bD/1500
P=(2.6805 p+ 10)

bD/1500
P=(3.25p +10)

M30

bD/1500
P=(2.6605 p+ 12)

bD/1500
P=(3.23p + 12)

M35

bD/1500
P=(2.6405 p+ 14)

bD/1500
P=(3.21p + 14)

M40

bD/1500
P=(2.6205 p+ 16)

bD/1500
P=(3.19p + 16)

bD/1500
bD/1500
Where P is Axial Load carrying capacity of column in Kn.
p = % of steel reinforcement (say 2% is 2)
b = Breadth of Column in mm
D = Depth of Column in mm.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS
A column may be classified based on different criteria such as:
1. Based on shape

Rectangle

Square

Circular


Polygon
2. Based on slenderness ratio

Short column L/d< 12

Long column, L/d > 12

3. Based on type of loading

Axially loaded column

A column subjected to axial load and unaxial bending

A column subjected to axial load and biaxial bending

4. Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement

Tied columns

Spiral columns
Minimum eccentricity

Emin > l/500 + D/30 >20

Where, l = unsupported length of column in mm
D = lateral dimensions of column
Other Aspects:
1.

Size of column

Size of columns to be kept as

Square
:
Upto 500 mm
multiples of 50 mm
Rectangular
:
> 500 mm
multiples of 100 mm
Circular
:
> 200 dia is preferable

Size of column

Square Column
230 x 230

Rectangular
230 x 300

300
400
450
500
600

300
400
450
500
600

x
x
x
x
x

300
400
450
500
600

x
x
x
x
x

230 x380

300 x 380

380
450
530
600
750

300
400
450
500
600

Circular Column

x
x
x
x
x

450
530
600
680
840

380 dia
400 dia
450 dia
500 dia
600 dia

Longitudinal reinforcement
Minimum dia

12 mm

Maximum dia

40 mm

Minimum No. of bars

4 for rectangular, 6 for circular

Minimum reinforcement

0.8% C.S. area of columns

Maximum reinforcement

4% bD

Common dia of bars used

12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28.

Common No.

4, 6, 8, 10, 12

Maximum spacing of bars

300 mm when measured along

periphery of column.

Other aspects
1.

Normally size of column should not be altered for atleast four floors in multistoried buildings. Not zig-zag

2.

A section less than 200 x 200 mm is generally not preferred.

3.

Provide Columns at the intervals of 12,15,18, 20. Provide columns

symmetrically or at regular intervals

4.

For columns , rich concrete mixes like M 25 and M30 in the lower storeys of
multi-storeyed building will lead to economy. Column sizes should be chosen
on the higher side and richer concrete mixes and age factors shall be used in
the lower storeys . For durability, the minimum concrete mix in all concrete
members shall be M20.

5.

For achieving economy in shuttering , column size can be kept the same
throughout

the height of building ( or in steps of a few storeys at the

least ) . Varying the reinforcement and the concrete mix as required in the
design. Normally size of the column should not be altered for atleast four
floors in multi-storeyed building.
6.

Slender columns should be avoided , if possible , as these consume more

steel than that required for the corresponding short columns.

7.

In earthquake prone areas, square columns will prove more economical

than rectangular columns , as these columns will have to be designed for
earthquake effect in each principal direction .

7.
1.

Dia of Ties greater of

Lateral Ties

(I)

6 mm

(II)

of dia of largest longitudinal bar

Maximum dia
2. Pitch:

16 mm

Maximum spacing is least of the following:

(I)

Least lateral dimension of column.

(II)

16 x dia of smallest longitudinal bar

(III)

300 mm

GUIDELINE FOR FIXING THE

COLUMNS IN THE LAYOUT:
This is an important stage.

POSITION

AND

ORIENTATION

OF

It is skillful job and economy in design is

achieved by locating columns at proper and/ideal locations.

(i) Normally the positions of the columns are shown by Architect in his plans.
(ii) Columns should generally and preferably be located at or near corners
and intersection/junction of walls.
(iii) If the site restrictions make it obligatory to locate column footings within
the property line the column may be shifted inside along a cross wall to
accommodate footings within the property line.

Alternatively trapezoidal

footing, eccentric footing can also be adopted.

In residential buildings, generally columns should be located at 3 to 4
m.c/c. to avoid large spans of beam. This will also control deflection and
cracking.
(iv) While fixing the orientation of columns care should be taken that it does
not change architectural elevation.

This can be achieved by keeping the

column orientations and side restrictions as proposed in plans by the

Architect.
(v) As far as possible, column projection/s outside the walls should be
avoided, unless Architects plans show contrary or same is required as
structural requirement.
(vi) Columns should not obstruct door and window position/s shown in the
Architects plans.

(vii) As far as possible columns should be so positioned, that continuous

frames from one end to the other end of building in both X and Y directions
are available. This will increase the global stiffness of the building against
horizontal forces.
(viii) When the locations of two columns are near to each other (for e.g. the
corner of the building and intersection of the walls) then as far as possible
only one column should be provided or secondary beam shall be provided.
(ix) As far as possible columns should not be closer than 2m. c/c to avoid
stripped/combined/continuous footings.

Generally the maximum distance

between two columns should not be more that 8m. c/c.

(x) Column should be normally provided around staircases and lift wells.
(xi) Preferably overhead water tank should rest on the columns as shown in
the Architects plan. The height of water tank should be upto 2.0 m. Clear
height between top of Terrace and Bottom of water tank should not be less
than 0.90 m.
(xii) Twin columns of equal size are desirable at expansion joints from
aesthetic point of view.
(xiii) As far as possible every column must be connected (tied) in both
directions with beams at each floor level, so as to avoid slender columns.
(xiv) As far as possible columns supported on beam should be avoided. (Such
columns are commonly called as floating columns)
(xv) When columns along with connecting beams form a frame, the columns
should be so orientated that as far as possible the larger dimension of the
columns is perpendicular to the major axis of bending. By this arrangement
column sections and there reinforcement are utilized to the best structural
advantage.
POSITION OF BEAMS
1) Beams shall normally be provided under the walls or below a heavy
concentrated load to avoid these loads directly coming on slabs. Since
beams are primarily provided to support slabs, its spacing shall be
decided by the maximum spans of slabs.
2) Slab requires the maximum volume of concrete to carry a given load.
Therefore the thickness of slab is required to be kept minimum. The

maximum practical thickness for residential/office/public buildings is

200mm while the minimum is 100mm.
3) The maximum and minimum spans of slabs which decide the spacing of
beams are governed by loading and limiting thickness given above. In
the case of buildings, with live load less than 5kN/m^2, the maximum
spacing of beams may be limited to the values of maximum spans of
slabs given below.
Support
condition
One-way Twoway
Maximum
Recommended
span
of slabs

cantilevers
One-way Twoway
1.5m
2.0m

Simply
supported
One-way Twoway
3.5m
4.5m

Fixed/continous
One-way Twoway
4.5m
6.0m

4) Avoid larger spacing of beams from deflection and cracking criteria.

Larger spans of beams shall also be avoided from the considerations of
controlling the deflection and cracking. This is because it is well
known that deflection varies directly
with the cube of span and inversely
with the cube of depth i.e., L3/D3. Consequently, increase in D is less
than increase in span L which results in greater deflection for larger
span.
5) However, for large span, normally higher L/D ratio is taken to restrict the
depth from considerations of head room, aesthetics and psychological
effect. Therefore spans of beams which require the depth of beam
greater than one meter should be avoided.
SPANNING OF SLABS
This is decided by supporting arrangements. When the supports are only on
opposite edges or only in one direction, the slab acts as a one way supported
slab. When rectangular slab is supported along its four edges, it acts as one
way slab when Ly / Lx > 2 and as two way slab for Ly/Lx < 2. however two
way action of the slab not only depends on the aspect ratio Ly / Lx and but
also on the ratio of reinforcement in the two directions. Therefore, designer is
free to decide as to whether the slab should be designed as one way or two
way.
1) A slab normally acts as a one way slab when the aspect ratio Ly/Lx
>2 ,since in this case one way action is predominant. In one way slab,
main steel is provided along the short span only and the load is
transferred to two opposite supports only. The steel along the long span
just acts as distribution steel and is not designed for transferring the load
but to distribute the load and to resist shrinkage and temperature
stresses.
2) A two way slab having aspect ratio Ly / Lx < 2 is generally economical

compared to one way slab because steel along the spans acts as main
steel and transfers the load to all its four supports. The two way action is
advantageous essentially for large spans and for live loads greater than
3kN/m^2. for short spans and light loads, steel required for two way slab
does not differ appreciably as compared to steel for one way slab because
of the requirement of minimum steel.
3) Spanning of the slab is also decided by the continuity of the slab.
4) Decide the type of the slab. While deciding the type of the slab whether a
cantilever or a simply
supported slab or a continuous slab loaded by UDL it should be borne
in
2
mind that the maximum bending moment in cantilever
(M
=
wL
/
2)
is
four times that of a simply supported slab (M=wL2/8) , while
it is five
to six
2
2
times that of a continuous slab or a fixed slab (M=wL /10 or wL /12) for
the same span length.
5) Similarly deflection of a cantilever loaded by a uniformly distributed load
is given by :
= wL4 /8EI = 48/5 *(5wL4 / 38EI)
which is 9.6 times that of a simply supported slab = (5wL4 / 384 EI).
While designing any slab as a cantilever slab, it is utmost importance to see
whether adequate anchorage to the same is available or not.
CHOICE OF FOOTING TYPE

1) The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and
bearing capacity of the supporting soil. It may be noted that the earth
under the foundation is susceptible to large variations. Even under one
small building the soil may vary from a soft clay to hard murum.
2) It is necessary to conduct the survey in the area where the proposed
structure is to be constructed to determine the soil properties. Drill holes
and trail pits should be taken and in situ plate load test may be performed
and samples of soil tested in the laboratory to determine the bearing
capacity of soil and other properties.
3) For framed structure under study, isolated column footings are normally
preferred except in case of soils with very low bearing capacities. If such
soil or black cotton soil exists for great depths, pile foundations can be
appropriate choice.
4) If columns are very closely spaced and bearing capacity of the soil is low,
raft foundation can be an alternative solution. For column on the
boundary line, a combined footing or a strap footing may be provided.
The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the
bearing capacity of the supporting soil. The soil under the foundation is more
susceptible to large variations. Even under one small building the soil may

vary from soft clay to a hard murum. The nature and properties of soil may
change with season and weather, like swelling in wet weather. Increase in
moisture content results in substantial loss of bearing capacity in case of
certain soils which may lead to differential settlements. It is necessary to
conduct the survey in the areas for soil properties. For framed structure,
isolated column footings are normally preferred except in case of exists for
great depths, pile foundations can be an appropriate choice. If columns are
very closely spaced and bearing capacity of the soil is low, raft foundation
can be an alternative solution. For a column on the boundary line, a
combined footing or a raft footing may be provided.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Working stress method (WSM)
Ultimate load method (ULM)
Limit state method (LSM)
Working stress method (WSM):
This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced concrete,
but also for structural steel and timber design. The method basically
assumes that the structural material behaves as a linear elastic manner, and
that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting the stresses in
the material induced by the expected working loads on the structure. As
the specified permissible stresses are kept well below the material strength,
the assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable. The ratio of
the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to as
the factor of safety.
However, the main assumption linear elastic behavior and the tacit
assumption that the stresses under working loads can be kept within the
permissible stresses are not found to be realistic. Many factors are
responsible for this such as a long term effort of creep and shrinkage, the
effects of stress concentrations, and other secondary effects. All such effects
resulting significant local increases in a redistribution of the calculated
stresses. The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural
members, thereby resulting in better serviceability performance under the

usual working loads.

Ultimate load method (ULM):
With the growing realization of the short comings of WSM in reinforced
concrete design, and with increased understanding of the behavior of
reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load of design is evolved
and became an alternative to WSM. This method is sometimes also referred
to as the load factor methods are the ultimate strength. In this method, the
stress condition at the site of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed,
and the non linear stress-strain curves of concrete and steel are made use of.
The concept of modular ratio and its associated problems are avoided
entirely in this method. The safety measure design is introduced by an
appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load
to the working load. The ultimate load method males it possible for different
types of loads to be assigned different load factors under combined loading
conditions, thereby overcoming the related shortcoming of WSM.
This method generally results in more slender sections, and often economical
designs of beams and columns, particularly when high strength reinforcing
steel and concrete are used. However, the satisfactory strength
performance at ultimate loads does not guarantee satisfactory
serviceability performance at the normal service loads.
The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack-widths
under service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use of
high strength reinforcing steel and concrete. The distribution of stress
resultants at ultimate load is taken as the distribution at the service loads,
magnified by the load factor(s); in other words, analysis is still based on
linear elastic theory.
Limit state method (LSM):
The philosophy of the limit state method of design represents a definite
advancement over the traditional design philosophies. Unlike WSM which
based calculations on service load conditions alone, and unlike ULM, which
based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone, LSM aims for a
comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering
safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads.

The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to
provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability
at service loads, by considering all possible Limit State.
Limits States:
A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases
to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either safety of
serviceability i.e. it either collapses or becomes unserviceable.
There are two types of limit states:
Ultimate limit states (limit states of collapse):- which deal with strength,
overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture etc.
Serviceability limit states: - which deals with discomfort to occupancy and/ or
malfunction, caused by excessive deflection, crack width, vibration leakage
etc., and also loss of durability etc.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:
Grades of concrete:
Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in
which letter M refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the
specified compressive strength (fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in
N/mm2. Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25
are the most common grades of concrete, and higher grades of concrete
should be used for severe, very severe and extreme environments.
Compressive strength
Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies
considerably for the same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative
value, known as characteristic strength is used.
Characteristic strength
It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more then 5% of
the test results are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving
this value only 5% of not achieving the same)
Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member
The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67
times the strength of concrete cube.
Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength

The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as

design strength and is given by
Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for
material strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and
upon the type of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is
taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.
Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck
Tensile strength
The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the
cracking strength of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by
the relations
fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2
The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained experimentally
by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive strength.
Creep
Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustain load. Creep strain
depends primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the
code, the value of the ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of
loading.
Shrinkage
The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and
hardening is termed Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of
exposure. If this strain is prevented, it produces tensile stress in the concrete
and hence concrete develops cracks.
Modular ratio
Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus
of elasticity of concrete.
Short term modular ratio = Es / Ec
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2x10 5 N/mm2)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000fck N/mm2)
As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading
etc the modular ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the

effects of creep and shrinkage partially IS code gives the following

expression for the long term modular ratio.
Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)
Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in
N/mm2.
Poissons ratio:
Poissons ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for
weak mixes. It is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for
serviceability criteria.
Durability:
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One
of the chief characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its
permeability to increase of water and other potentially deleterious materials.
The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate
cement, sufficient low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of
concrete and by adequate curing.
Unit weight of concrete:
The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of
aggregate, amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26KN/m2. The unit weight
of plain and reinforced concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25KN/m3
respectively.
TYPES OF LOADS:
The loads are broadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and
longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and
impact load. The horizontal loads comprises of wind load and earthquake
load. The longitudinal loads i.e. tractive and braking forces are considered in
special case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc.
Dead load:
Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to
structure throughout the life span. Dead load is primarily due to self weight
of structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permanent
equipments and weight of different materials.

Imposed loads or live loads:

Live loads are either movable or moving loads with out any acceleration or
impact. There are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy
of the building including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc. The
floor slabs have to be designed to carry either uniformly distributed loads or
concentrated loads whichever produce greater stresses in the part under
consideration. Since it is unlikely that any one particular time all floors will
not be simultaneously carrying maximum loading, the code permits some
reduction in imposed loads in designing columns, load bearing walls, piers
supports and foundations.
Impact loads:
Impact load is caused by vibration or impact or acceleration. Thus, impact
load is equal to imposed load incremented by some percentage called
impact factor or impact allowance depending upon the intensity of impact.
Wind loads:
Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative
to earth. Wind load is required to be considered in design especially when
the heath of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the
exposed wind surface.
For low rise building say up to four to five storeys, the wind load is not critical
because the moment of resistance provided by the continuity of floor system
to column connection and walls provided between columns are sufficient to
accommodate the effect of these forces. Further in limit state method the
factor for design load is reduced to 1.2 (DL+LL+WL) when wind is considered
as against the factor of 1.5(DL+LL) when wind is not considered. IS 1893
(part 3) code book is to be used for design purpose.
Earthquake load:
Earthquake loads are horizontal loads caused by the earthquake and shall be
computed in accordance with S 1893. For monolithic reinforced concrete
structures located in the seismic zone 2, and 3 without more than 5 storey
high and importance factor less than 1, the seismic forces are not critical.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF FRAMES:
Elastic analysis deals with the study of strength and behavior of the

members and structure at working loads. Frames can be analyzed by various

methods. However, the method of analysis adopted depends upon the types
of frame, its configuration (portal bay or multibay) multistoried frame and
Degree of indeterminacy.
It is based on the following assumptions:
1. Relation between force and displacement is linear. (i.e. Hooks law is
applicable). 2. Displacements are extremely small compared to the geometry
of the structure in the sense that they do not affect the analysis.
The methods used for analysis of frame are:
1. Flexibility coefficient method. 2. Slope displacement method. 3. Iterative
methods like a. Moment distribution method(By Hardy Cross in 1930s) b.
Kanis method (by Gasper Kani in 1940s) 4. Approximate methods like a.
Substitute frame method b. Portal method c. Cantilever method
FLEXIBILITY COEFFICIENT METHOD:
This method is called as force method or compatibility method. In this
This method is called as force method or compatibility method. In this
Redundant forces are chosen as unknowns. Additional equations are
obtained by considering the geometrical conditions imposed on the
formation of structures. This method is used for analyzing frames of lower
D.O.R.
Limitations:
1. This method involves long computations even for simple problems with
small

D.O.R.

2. This method becomes intractable for large D.O.R. (>3), when computed
manually especially because of simultaneous equations involved.
This method is not ideal for computerizing, since a structure can be reduced
to a statically determinate form in more than one way.
SLOPE DISPLACEMENT METHOD:
It is displacement or equilibrium or stiffness method. It consists of series of
simultaneous equations, each expressing the relation between the moments
acting at the ends of the members is written in terns of slope & deflection.
The solution of slope deflection equations along with equilibrium equations

gives the values of unknown rotations of the joints. Knowing these rotations,
the end moments are calculated using slope deflection equations.
Limitations:
1. This method is advantageous only for the structures with small Kinematic
indeterminacy.
2. The solution of simultaneous equation makes the method tedious for
annual computations.
The formulation of equilibrium conditions tends to be a major constraint in
adopting this method.
Hence flexibility coefficients & slope displacement methods have limited
applications in the analysis of frames. While other methods like iterative or
approximate methods are used for analyzing frames containing larger
indeterminacy.
APPROXIMATE METHODS:
Approximate analysis of hyper static structures provides a simple means of
obtaining quick solutions for preliminary designs. It is a very useful process
that helps to develop a suitable configuration for final (rigorous) analysis of a
structure, compare alternative designs & provide a quick check on the
adequacy of structural designs. These methods make use of simplifying
assumptions regarding structural behavior so as to obtain a rapid solution to
complex structures. However, these techniques should be applied with
caution & not relied upon for final designs, especially complex structures.
The usual process comprises reducing the given indeterminate configuration
to a structural system by introducing adequate number of hinges. It is
possible to check the deflected profile of a structure for the given loading &
there by locate the points of inflection.
Since each point of inflection corresponds to the location of zero moment in
the structure, the inflection points can be visualized as hinges for purpose of
analysis. The solution of the structure is rendered simple once the inflection
points are located. In multistoried frames, two loading cases arise namely
horizontal & vertical loading.
The analysis is carried out separately for these two cases:
VERTICAL LOADS:

The stress in the structure subjected to vertical loads depends upon the
relative stiffness of the beam & columns. Approximate methods either
assumes adequate number of hinges to render the structure determinate or
adopt simplified moment distribution methods.
HORIZONTAL LOADS:
The behavior of a structure subjected to horizontal forces depends on its
height to width ratio. The deformation in low-rise structures, where the
height is smaller than its width, is characterized predominantly by shear
deformations. In high rise building, where height is several times greater
than its lateral dimensions, is dominated by bending action. There are two
methods to analyze the structures subjected to horizontal loading.
PORTAL METHOD:
Since shear deformations are dominant in low rise structures, the method
makes simplifying assumptions regarding horizontal shear in columns. Each
bay of a structure is treated as a portal frame, & horizontal force is
distributed equally among them.
The assumptions of the method can be listed as follows:
1. The points of inflection are located at the mid-height of each column
above the first floor. If the base of the column is fixed, the point of inflection
is assumed at mid height of the ground floor columns as well; otherwise it is
assumed at the hinged column base. 2. Points of inflection occur at mid span
of beams. 3. Total horizontal shear at any floor is distributed among the
columns of that floor such that the exterior columns carry half the force
carried by the inner columns.
CANTILEVER METHOD:
This method is applicable to high rise structures. This is based on the
simplifying assumptions regarding the Axial Force in columns.
1. The basic assumption of the method can be stated as the axial force in
the column at any floor is linearly proportional to its distance from the
centroid of all the columns at that level.
Assumptions 1&2 of the portal are also applicable to the cantilever method.
POINTS OF INFLECTION METHOD:

The frame is reduced to a statically determinate form by introducing

adequate number of points of inflection. The loading on the frames usually
comprises uniformly distributed dead loads & live loads.
The following are assumptions made:
1. The beams of each floor act as continuous beams, with the points of
inflection at a distance of one-tenth of the span from the joints. 2. The
unbalanced beam moment at each joint is distributed equally among the
columns at the joint. 3. Axial forces & deformations in beams are negligible.
SUBSTITUTE FRAME METHOD:
The method assumes that the moments in the beams of any floor are
influenced by loading on that floor alone. The influence of loading on the
lower or upper floors is ignored altogether. The process involves the division
of multistoried structure into smaller frames. These sub frames are known as
equivalent frames or substitute frames.
The sub frames are usually analyzed by the moment distribution method,
using only one cycle of distribution. The substitute frames are formed by the
beams at the floor level under consideration, together with the columns
above & below with their far ends fixed. The distributed B.M are not carried
over far ends of the
columns in this process; the moments in the columns are computed at each
floor level independently & retained at that floor irrespective of further
analysis.
ITERATIVE METHOD:
Iterative procedures form a powerful class of methods for analysis of
indeterminate structures. These methods after elegant & simple procedure of
analysis, that are adequate for usual structures.
These methods are based on the distribution of joint moments among
members connected to a joint. The accuracy of the solution depends upon
the number of iterations performed; usually three or five iterations are
adequate for most of the structures.
The moment distribution methods were developed by Hardy Cross in 1930s
& by Gasper Kani in 1940s. These methods involve distributing the known

fixed moments of the structural members to the adjacent members at the

joints, in order to satisfy the conditions of the continuity of slopes &
displacements.
Though these methods are iterative in nature, they converge in a few
iterations to give correct solution.
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD:
This method was first introduced by Prof. Hardy Cross is widely used for the
analysis of intermediate structures. In this method first the structural system
is reduced to its kinematically determinate form, this is accomplished by
assuming all the joints to be fully restrained. The fixed end moments are
calculated for this condition of structure. The joints are allowed to deflect
rotate one after the other by releasing them successively. The unbalanced
moment at the joint shared by the members connected at the joint when it is
released.
LIMITATIONS:
1. This method is eminently suited to analyze continuous beams including
non-prismatic members but it presents some difficulties when applied to rigid
frames, especially when frames are subjected to side sway. 2. Unsymmetrical
frames have to be analyzed more than once to obtain FM (fixed moments) in
the structures. 3. This method can not be applied to structures with
intermediate hinges.
KANIS METHOD:
This method was introduced by Gasper Kani in 1940s. It involves distributing
the unknown fixed end moments of structural members to adjacent joints, in
order to satisfy the conditions of continuity of slopes and displacements.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Hardy Cross method distributed only the unbalanced moments at joints,
whereas Kanis method distributes the total joint moment at any stage of
iteration. 2. The more significant feature of Kanis method is that the process
is self corrective. Any error at any stage of iteration is corrected in
subsequent steps.
Framed structures are rarely symmetric and subjected to side sway, hence

Kanis method is best and much simpler than pther methods like moment
distribution method and slope displacement method.
PROCEDURE:
1. Rotation stiffness at each end of all members of a structure is determined
depending upon the end conditions.
a. Both ends fixed
Kij= Kji= EI/L
b. Near end fixed, far end simply supported
Kij= EI/L; Kji= 0
2. Rotational factors are computed for all the members at each joint it is
given by
Uij= -0.5 (Kij/ Kji)
{THE SUM OF ROTATIONAL FACTORS AT A JOINT IS -0.5}
(Fixed end moments including transitional moments, moment releases and
carry over moments are computed for members and entered. The sum of the
FEM at a joint is entered in the central square drawn at the joint).
3. Iterations can be commenced at any joint however the iterations
commence from the left end of the structure generally given by the equation
M ij = Uij [(Mfi + M i) + M ji)]
4. Initially the rotational components Mji (sum of the rotational moments at
the far ends of the joint) can be assumed to be zero. Further iterations take
into account the rotational moments of the previous joints. 5. Rotational
moments are computed at each joint successively till all the joints are
processed. This process completes one cycle of iteration. 6. Steps 4 and 5
are repeated till the difference in the values of rotation moments from
successive cycles is neglected.
7. Final moments in the members at each joint are computed from the
rotational members of the final iterations step.
Mij = (Mfij + M ij) + 2 M ij + M jii
The lateral translation of joints (side sway) is taken into consideration by
including column shear in the iterative procedure.
8. Displacement factors are calculated for each storey given by

Uij = -1.5 (Kij/Kij)

FUNDAMENTALS:
(i)
Grade of Concrete (RCC): Minimum Grade M20.
(ii)
Grade of Steel:
Mild Steel Fy 250 N/mm2
Tor Steel Fy 415 N/mm2
(iii) Unit Weight of material (Density):
(a) Unit weight of RCC 25 KN/m3
(b) PCC
24 KN/m3
(c) Brick Masonry
19 KN/m3
(d)Cement mortar
20 KN/m3
(e) Water
10 KN/m3
(f) Steel
78.5 KN/m3
LOADS TRANSFORMATION:
Live Load (IS 875)

Slab
Beams
Columns
Footings
Soil
CONCEPT OF STRUCTURAL DESIGNING:
(a) Section: Satisfy three conditions
(i)

Bending Moment Concept

(ii)

Shear Force Concept

(iii)

Deflection Concept

Bending Moment Concept: (Thickness required is less)

On loading of member the thickness should not bend.
Shear force Concept: (Thickness required is more)
On loading of member, it should not fail at support section.
Deflection Concept:
Due to loading, the structure vibrates and air cracks develops and water
vapour will enter. Steel will get rusted and corrosion take place (or) Steel
will get rusted. Durability of structure affect failure of structure. Deflection
check will govern the design.
The principle elements of a R.C building frame consists of :
1)
2)
3)
4)

slabs to cover large area

beams to support slabs and walls
columns to support beams
footings to distribute concentrated column loads over a large of the
supporting soil such that the bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded.

STAGES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The process of structural design involves the following stages :
1) structural planning
2) action of forces and computation of loads
3) methods of analysis
4) member design
5) detailing, drawing and preparation of schedules.
The basic principle in deciding the layout of compent members is that the loads should be
transferred to the foundation along the shortest path.
POSITION OF COLUMNS
1) Columns should be preferably located at or near the corners of a building
and at the intersections of beams/walls. Since the basic function of the
columns is to support beams which are normally placed under the walls to
support them, their position automatically gets fixed as shown in the
figure below.

Column position for rectangular pattern building.

2) Select the position of columns so as to reduce bending moments in
beams. When the locations of two columns are very near, then one
column should be provided instead of two at such a position so as to
reduce the beam moment.

3) Avoid larger spans of beams. When the centre to centre distance between
the
intersection of walls is large or when there are no cross walls, the spacing
between
two columns is governed by limitations of spans of supported beams
because
spacing of columns decides the span of beam. As the span of the beam
increases,
the required depth of the beam, and hence its self weight, and the total
load on
beam increases.
It is well known that the moment governing the beam design varies with
the square of the span and directly with the load. Hence with the increase
in the span, there is considerable increase in the size of the beam.
On the other hand, in the case of column, the increase in total load due to
increase in length is negligible as long as the column is short. Therefore
the cost of the beam per unit length increases rapidly with the span as
compared to beams on the basis of unit cost. Therefore the larger span of
the beams should be preferably avoided for economy reasons.
In general, the maximum spans of beams carrying live loads upto 4 kN/m^2
may be limited to the following values.
Beam type
rectangular
flanged

Cantilevers
3meters
5meters

simply
supported
6meters
10meters

Fixed/continuou
s
8meters
12meters

4) Avoid larger centre to centre distance between columns. Larger spacing of

columns not only increases the load on the column at each floor posing
problem of stocky columns in lower storeys of a multi storeyed building.
Heavy sections of column lead to offsets from walls and obstruct the floor
area.
5) The columns on property line need special treatment. Since column
footing requires certain area beyond the column, difficulties are
encountered in providing footing for such columns. In such cases , the
column may be shifted inside along a cross wall to make room for
accommodating the footing within the property line.
ORIENTATION OF COLUMNS
1) Avoid projection of column outside wall. According requirements of
aesthetics and utility, projections of columns outside the wall in the room
should be avoided as they not only give bad also obstruct the use of floor
space and create problems in furniture flush with the wall. Provide depth
of the column in the plane of the wall to avoid such offsets.
2) Orient the column so that the depth of the column is contained in the
major plane of bending or is perpendicular to the major axis of bending.
When the column is rigidly connected to right angles, it is subjected to

moments of addition to the axial load. In such cases, the column should
be so oriented that the depth of the column is perpendicular to major axis
of bending so as to get larger moment of inertia and hence greater
moment resisting capacity. It will also reduce Leff/D ratio resulting in
increase in the load carrying capacity of the column.
3) It should be borne in mind that increasing the depth in the plane of
bending not only increases the moment carrying capacity but also
increases its stiffness, there by more moment is transferred to the
column at the beam column junction.
4) However, if the difference in bending moment in two mutually
perpendicular directions is not large the depth of the column may be
taken along the wall provided column has sufficient strength in the
plane of large moment. This will avoid offsets in the rooms.
POSITION OF BEAMS
4) Beams shall normally be provided under the walls or below a heavy
concentrated load to avoid these loads directly coming on slabs. Since
beams are primarily provided to support slabs, its spacing shall be
decided by the maximum spans of slabs.
5) Slab requires the maximum volume of concrete to carry a given load.
Therefore the thickness of slab is required to be kept minimum. The
maximum practical thickness for residential/office/public buildings is
200mm while the minimum is 100mm.
6) The maximum and minimum spans of slabs which decide the spacing of
beams are governed by loading and limiting thickness given above. In
the case of buildings, with live load less than 5kN/m^2, the maximum
spacing of beams may be limited to the values of maximum spans of
slabs given below.
Support
condition
One-way Twoway
Maximum
Recommended
span
of slabs

cantilevers
One-way Twoway
1.5m
2.0m

Simply
supported
One-way Twoway
3.5m
4.5m

Fixed/continous
One-way Twoway
4.5m
6.0m

6) Avoid larger spacing of beams from deflection and cracking criteria.

Larger spans of beams shall also be avoided from the considerations of
controlling the deflection and cracking. This is because it is well
known that deflection varies directly
with the cube of span and inversely
with the cube of depth i.e., L3/D3. Consequently, increase in D is less
than increase in span L which results in greater deflection for larger
span.
7) However, for large span, normally higher L/D ratio is taken to restrict the

depth from considerations of head room, aesthetics and psychological

effect. Therefore spans of beams which require the depth of beam
greater than one meter should be avoided.
SPANNING OF SLABS
This is decided by supporting arrangements. When the supports are only on
opposite edges or only in one direction, the slab acts as a one way supported
slab. When rectangular slab is supported along its four edges, it acts as one
way slab when Ly / Lx > 2 and as two way slab for Ly/Lx < 2. however two
way action of the slab not only depends on the aspect ratio Ly / Lx and but
also on the ratio of reinforcement in the two directions. Therefore, designer is
free to decide as to whether the slab should be designed as one way or two
way.
6) A slab normally acts as a one way slab when the aspect ratio Ly/Lx
>2 ,since in this case one way action is predominant. In one way slab,
main steel is provided along the short span only and the load is
transferred to two opposite supports only. The steel along the long span
just acts as distribution steel and is not designed for transferring the load
but to distribute the load and to resist shrinkage and temperature
stresses.
7) A two way slab having aspect ratio Ly / Lx < 2 is generally economical
compared to one way slab because steel along the spans acts as main
steel and transfers the load to all its four supports. The two way action is
advantageous essentially for large spans and for live loads greater than
3kN/m^2. for short spans and light loads, steel required for two way slab
does not differ appreciably as compared to steel for one way slab because
of the requirement of minimum steel.
8) Spanning of the slab is also decided by the continuity of the slab.
9) Decide the type of the slab. While deciding the type of the slab whether a
cantilever or a simply
supported slab or a continuous slab loaded by UDL it should be borne
in
2
mind that the maximum bending moment in cantilever
(M
=
wL
/
2)
is
four times that of a simply supported slab (M=wL2/8) , while
it is five
to six
2
2
times that of a continuous slab or a fixed slab (M=wL /10 or wL /12) for
the same span length.
10) Similarly deflection of a cantilever loaded by a uniformly distributed
load is given by :
= wL4 /8EI = 48/5 *(5wL4 / 38EI)
which is 9.6 times that of a simply supported slab = (5wL4 / 384 EI).
While designing any slab as a cantilever slab, it is utmost importance to see
whether adequate anchorage to the same is available or not

CHOICE OF FOOTING TYPE

5) The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and
bearing capacity of the supporting soil. It may be noted that the earth
under the foundation is susceptible to large variations. Even under one
small building the soil may vary from a soft clay to hard murum.
6) It is necessary to conduct the survey in the area where the proposed
structure is to be constructed to determine the soil properties. Drill holes
and trail pits should be taken and in situ plate load test may be performed
and samples of soil tested in the laboratory to determine the bearing
capacity of soil and other properties.
7) For framed structure under study, isolated column footings are normally
preferred except in case of soils with very low bearing capacities. If such
soil or black cotton soil exists for great depths, pile foundations can be
appropriate choice.
8) If columns are very closely spaced and bearing capacity of the soil is low,
raft foundation can be an alternative solution. For column on the
boundary line, a combined footing or a strap footing may be provided.

STEPS INVOLVED IN R.C.C. DESIGN :

The R.C.C. design of a building is carried out in following steps.
(i) Study the architectural drawings.
(ii) Study the field data.
(iii) Prepare R.C.C. layouts at
various floor levels.
(iv) Decide the imposed live load
and other loads such as wind, seismic
and other miscellaneous loads, (where applicable), as per I.S.:875, IS 18932000 considering the contemplated use of space, and seismic zone of the
site of proposed building.
(v) Fix the tentative slab and beam sizes and then prepare preliminary beam
design. Using values of support reactions from preliminary beam design,
prepare preliminary column design and based on these load calculations, fix
tentative column section and its concrete mix. As far as possible, for
multistories buildings, the same column size and column mix should be used
for at least two stories so as to avoid frequent changes in column size and
concrete mix facilitate easy and quick construction. Concrete Mix to be
adopted for beams and slabs as per IS :456-2000 .
(vi) Group the members such as columns, beams, slabs, footings etc.
wherever possible, on the basis of the similarity of loading pattern, spans,
end conditions etc. It reduces the quantum of calculation work.
(vii)
Prepare R.C.C. Layouts and get approval from the Architect to the R.C.C.
layouts and tentative sizes of beams and columns and other structural
members if any. In the R.C.C. layouts, show the structural arrangement and
orientation of columns, layout of beams, type of slab (with its design live
load) at different floor levels.
For a building, generally following R.C.C. layouts are prepared.
(a) R.C.C. layout at pile cap/plinth level/tie level (if any).

(b) R.C.C. layout at various floor levels or at typical floor level (depending on
Architectural plans).
(c) R.C.C. layout at terrace level.
(d) R.C.C. layout at staircase roof level.
and where lifts are provided.
(e) R.C.C. layout at lift machine room floor level.
(f) R.C.C. layout at lift machine room roof level.
Where good foundation is available at

GUIDELINE FOR FIXING THE POSITION AND ORIENTATION OF COLUMNS IN

THE LAYOUT.
This is an important stage.

It is skillful job and economy in design is

achieved by locating columns at proper and/ideal locations.

(i) Normally the positions of the columns are shown by Architect in his plans.
(ii) Columns should generally and preferably be located at or near corners
and intersection/junction of walls.
(iii) If the site restrictions make it obligatory to locate column footings within
the property line the column may be shifted inside along a cross wall to
accommodate footings within the property line.

Alternatively trapezoidal

footing, eccentric footing can also be adopted.

In residential buildings, generally columns should be located at 3 to 4
m.c/c. to avoid large spans of beam. This will also control deflection and
cracking.
(iv) While fixing the orientation of columns care should be taken that it does
not change architectural elevation.

This can be achieved by keeping the

column orientations and side restrictions as proposed in plans by the

Architect.
(v) As far as possible, column projection/s outside the walls should be
avoided, unless Architects plans show contrary or same is required as
structural requirement.
(vi) Columns should not obstruct door and window position/s shown in the
Architects plans.

(vii) As far as possible columns should be so positioned, that continuous

frames from one end to the other end of building in both X and Y directions
are available. This will increase the global stiffness of the building against
horizontal forces.
(viii) When the locations of two columns are near to each other (for e.g. the
corner of the building and intersection of the walls) then as far as possible
only one column should be provided or secondary beam shall be provided.
(ix) As far as possible columns should not be closer than 2m. c/c to avoid
stripped/combined/continuous footings.

Generally the maximum distance

between two columns should not be more that 8m. c/c.

(x) Column should be normally provided around staircases and lift wells.
(xi) Preferably overhead water tank should rest on the columns as shown in
the Architects plan. The height of water tank should be upto 2.0 m. Clear
height between top of Terrace and Bottom of water tank should not be less
than 0.90 m.
(xii) Twin columns of equal size are desirable at expansion joints from
aesthetic point of view.
(xiii) As far as possible every column must be connected (tied) in both
directions with beams at each floor level, so as to avoid slender columns.
(xiv) As far as possible columns supported on beam should be avoided. (Such
columns are commonly called as floating columns)
(xv) When columns along with connecting beams form a frame, the columns
should be so orientated that as far as possible the larger dimension of the
columns is perpendicular to the major axis of bending. By this arrangement
column sections and there reinforcement are utilized to the best structural
advantage.

GUIDELINES FOR FINALISING THE BEAM POSITIONS :

(i) Normally beams shall be provided below all the walls.
(ii) Beams shall be provided for supporting staircase flights at floor levels and
at mid landing levels.
(iii) Beams should be positioned so to restrict the slab thickness, to 15 cm,
satisfying the deflection criteria. To achieve this, secondary beams shall be
provided where necessary.
(iv) Generally we come across with the situation that there is a gap between
the floor level beam and beam supporting the chajja. Here the depth of floor
beam shall be so chosen that it can support chajja also. However if depth so
required is large (distance between floor beam bottom and lintel top, greater
than 30 cm) provide separate beam.
(v) As far as possible, cantilever beams should not be projected from beams,
to avoid torsion.
(vi) Beams of equal depths shall be provided on both sides of the expansion
joint from aesthetical point of view.
(vii) To get the required minimum head room, following alternatives can be
tried. (a) Reduce the beam depth without violating deflection criteria and
maximum percentage of steel criteria for beams.
(b)

In case there is a wall, over the beam without any opening, inverted

beam may be provided in consultation with Architect.

(viii)Where secondary beams are proposed to reduce the slab thickness and
to form a grid of beams, the secondary beams shall preferably be provided of
lesser depth than the depth of supporting beams so that main reinforcement
of secondary beams shall always pass above the reinforcement of main
beams.
(ix)In toilet block provide minimum number of secondary beams so that
casting of slabs and beams will be simple. No secondary beam condition
would be ideal. (x) Beams which are required to give a planer look from the
underside shall be provided as Inverted Beams, e.g. canopies.

GUIDELINES FOR FIXING THE SLAB DIRECTIONS :

(i)

Slab shall be designed as one

way slabs if ratio of Ly to Lx is more

than 2 and two way slab, if the ratio is equal or less than 2.
Where Lx is shorter span and Ly is longer span of the slab.
(ii) However as per Designs Circles practice slabs upto 2.5 m. spans may be
designed as one way slabs.
(iii) Canopy, Chajja, balcony slabs are generally provided as cantilever slabs.
(iv) W.C. slab is generally made sloping or sunk by about 50 cm. OR as
indicated in architects drawing below general floor level for Indian type
water closet. Slabs for toilet block and Nahani slab are generally sunk by 20
cm. OR as indicated in architectures drawing below general floor level.
(v) Staircase waist slab shall be generally one way slab.
(vi) Loft slabs over toilets are generally supported on partition walls of toilet
and W.C. Loft load should be considered while designing the beams
supporting these walls.

Once the loads are obtained, the component takes the load first i.e the slabs
can be designed. Designing of slabs depends upon whether it is a one-way or
a two-way slab, the end conditions and the loading. From the slabs, the loads
are transferred to the beam. The loads coming from the slabs onto the beam
may be trapezoidal or triangular. Depending on this, the beam may be
designed. Thereafter, the loads (mainly shear) from the beams are taken by
the columns. For designing columns, it is necessary to know the moments
they are subjected to. For this purpose, frame analysis is done by Moment
Distribution Method. After this, the designing of columns is taken up
depending on end conditions, moments, eccentricity and if it is a short or
slender column. Most of the columns designed in this mini project were
considered to be axially loaded with uniaxial bending. Finally, the footings
are designed based on the loading from the column and also the soil bearing
capacity value for that particular area. Most importantly, the sections must
be checked for all the four components with regard to strength and
serviceability.
Overall, the concepts and procedures of designing the basic components of a
multistory building are described. Apart from that, the planning of the
building with regard to appropriate directions for the respective rooms,
choosing position of beams and columns are also properly explained. The

future of structure engineering mainly depends on better and more effective

methods of designing the structures so that they serve better and are also
economical. The advancement of innovative and environmentally friendly
building materials are also coming up. They can give a new direction to the
structural engineering field as the availability of concrete and steel is not
only decreasing but also they are harmful to the environment. Hence, eco
friendly materials which are economical and more effective methods of
designing will decide the future of structure engineering.

STAAD

A. Set up
X
Z

1. Global coordinate for Structure : X : as x axis as usual

Y : as y axis as usual
Z : perpendicular to paper to top
2. Local coordinate for individual member along the length of the member is taken as local X
axis
Two methods of creating
Structure Data
Using command file
2. Using Graphical user
Interface (GUI)

B. Members & Nodes

1. Creation of Geometry
2. General parameters to be fixed
3. Analysis
4. Design
Geometry
Node: co ordinate of all the points of the plan is to be calculated as
Node
X
Y
1
aaa
000
2
ccc
000
3
File New

Indian design code - check

New project <enter>
File Name < > / location < >
Length unit , Force Unit - check
Space - check
Next
<enter>
Finish
<enter>

Node
Give Data for nodes
Views available for
Front, back, top & isometric
Rt. Click - labels - node no apply OK
Edit ( Top menu bar ) to edit data
Add Beam :
to add beam or to connect two nodes
Add beam from left to right & top to bottom.

Z
bbb
ddd

STAAD Screen
Menu bar
- on top
Tool bar
on top
Page control - left side
Data area
-Right side
Main drawing
area
- center
*After Add beam, grid will
appear (/ or from snap node
beam)
Create ( in Data area)
Use linear / Radial /
irregular
Use plane / constr. line etc.

Node crusher / Beam crusher : for selection of node or beam

Rt. Click - labels - Beam no / beam orientation apply OK
Chage to Isometric view / top
Node crusher <enter>
Select node
( use ctrl key for multiple selection)
For column to repeat for floors
Geometry ( Top menu bar ) - Translation repeat <enter>
Global direction Y <check>
No of steps xxx

Node beam Leble

View Structure Diagram Leble

To change Input Unit

Input unit Icon /
Tool set current input unit
Node beam Leble
View Structure Diagram Leble

Step spacing xxx

Link step - - check (if required)
Ok <enter>
For beams to repeat for floors
Change to front view
Beam crusher <select>
Select beams to be copied by rubber band method / picking etc.
Geometry ( Top menu bar ) - Translation repeat <enter>
Global direction Y <check>
No of steps xxx
Step spacing xxx
Link step - - check (if required)
Ok <enter>
For foundation
Similar to above, but y is ve.
Select section
General ( left side of screen)
Property
Define
Type of section
Material of section
For column : Local z = Global z
Local x = Global y i.e length of column
Local y = other side.
For Beam :
Local y = Global y
Local x = Global y i.e length of beam
Local z = other side i.e. width of beam.
Column section
Y

Member Offset
Beam crusher (select)
Specification page icon /
General Spec. page
Use both start & end point

To get Member information

Select by all all beams
Command pre analysis
print member property
To View3D model
Rt. Click structure - /
View Structure diagram
menu
To edit input file
Edit input file /
STAAD editor

Beam section
Z

Z
Y
Give data <enter>
add < enter >
.
.
close < enter>
After selecting the specific section in the property box, the same is assigned to the members.
Ctrl Select member assign - save <enter >
To see the shape and size of column.
Rt. Click - labels - structure section out line - apply OK
For center line
Rt. Click - labels - structure section out line - none OK
To check the property of any section is missing?
Select ( top menu bar) missing attributes missing property <enter>
Adding support
General ( left side of screen)
Support
Create ( left side box)

Fixed end
Add <enter>
Front view
Node crusher <active>
Select the supporting nodes
Assign
To view whole structure
On top menu bar
<enter>
Loading
Definition
(Seismic definition)
General
Load Definition new
Code IS 1893 2002
Zone - (for Zone 3) 0.16
Response Factor 5
Importance Factor 1
Soil factor - 1- hard soil
2- medium soft soil
3- soft soil
Add
Self weight

***
Add
Close
(Wind definition)
Wind Definition
Type 1, Comment Wind 1
Add
Type 1
Add
Intensity

Height

1.8

Add, Exposure factor 0

Close
Load case detail
*( Load case for seismic load)
Load case detail
Add
Number 1, Loading Type : Seismic ,Title load case 1, S in X dir
Add
Close
Load case 1,

Add
Seismic load,
X direction, Factor :1
Add
Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 2, Loading Type : Seismic ,Title load case 2, S in (-)X dir
Add
Close
Load case 2,
Add
Seismic load,
X direction, Factor : -1
Add
Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 3, Loading Type : Seismic, Title load case 3, S in Z dir
Add
Close
Load case 3,
Add
Seismic load,
Z direction, Factor : 1
Add Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 4, Loading Type : Seismic , Title load case 4, S in (-)Z dir
Add
Close
Load case 4,
Add
Seismic load,
Z direction, Factor : -1
Add Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 4, Title load case 4, S in (-)Z dir
Add
Close
Load case 4,
Add
Seismic load,
Z direction, Factor : -1
Add Close
________________________________________________________________
*( Load case for Wind load)
Load case detail

Add
Number 5, Title load case 5, Wind in X dir
Add
Close
Load case 5,
Add
Wind load,
Direction X (check)
Define y range
Minimum Value ( Give data minimum may be 2.1 m)
Maximum value (give data)
Factor 1
Add
Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 6, Title load case 6, Wind in (-)X dir
Add
Close
Load case 6,
Add
Wind load,
Direction X (check)
Define y range
Minimum Value ( Give data minimum may be 2.1 m)
Maximum value (give data)
Factor (-1)
Add
Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 7, Title load case 7, Wind in Z dir
Add
Close
Load case 7,
Add
Wind load,
Direction Z (check)
Define y range
Minimum Value ( Give data minimum may be 2.1 m)
Maximum value (give data)
Factor 1
Add
Close
Load case detail
Add
Number 8, Title load case 8, Wind in (-)Z dir
Add
Close
Load case 8,

Add
Wind load,
Direction Z (check)
Define y range
Minimum Value ( Give data minimum may be 2.1 m)
Maximum value (give data)
Factor (-1)
Add
Close
________________________________________________________________
*( Load case for Dead load)
Load case detail
Add
Number 9, Title load case 9, Dead Load
Add
Close
Load case 9,
Add
Floor Load
Pressure = (-) 3.5 KN/ m2
Y range (Give minimum and Maximum value as per floor condition.)
Direction : Global Y
Add
Close
Load case 9,
Add
Self weight
Add
Close
Assign
________________________________________________________________
*( Load case for Live load)
Load case detail
Add
Number 10, Title load case 10, Live Load
Add
Close
Load case 10,
Add
Floor Load
Pressure = (-) 2 KN/ m2
Y range (Give minimum and Maximum value as per floor condition.)
Direction : Global Y
Add
Close
** (X range and Z range may be changed as per requirement under Load case 10 according to
floor size.)
________________________________________________________________
*( Load case for Wall load)
Load case detail

Add
Number 11, Title load case 11, Wall Load
Add
Close
Load case 11,
Add
Member Load
Uniform force
W1 : (-) 15 KN/m.
Direction GY
Add
Close
Select
Assign
** (Load may be according to height and thick ness of wall,
For stairs , the load may be calculated and the d1 , d2 value may be given.
The load is assigne after selecting beams in each floor)
Load case 11,
Add
Member Load
Uniform force
W1 : (-) 4.5 KN/m.
Direction GY
Add
Close
Select
Assign
** (For parapets)
Load case 11,
Add
Member Load
Uniform force
W1 : (-) 12 KN/m.
Direction GY
Add
Close
Select
Assign
** (For Stairs)
________________________________________________________________
*( Load Combination)
*Load case detail
Add
Define combination
Name : Combination Load Case 12: 1(DL + LL)
Normal
Factor : 1
Transfer dead & live loads to right (i.e. case 9, 10, 11 here i.e dead load, live load, wall load)
Add

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

close
*Load case detail
Add
Define combination
Name : Combination Load Case 13: 1.5 (DL + LL)
Normal
Factor : 1.5
Transfer dead & live loads to right (i.e. case 9, 10, 11 here i.e dead load, live load, wall load)
Add
Close
*Load case detail
Add
Define combination
Name : Combination Load Case 14: 1.2 (DL + LL+ S in X)
Normal
Factor : 1.5
Transfer dead & live loads to right (i.e. case 9, 10, 11,1 here i.e dead load, live load, wall load &
Seismic in X direction)
Add
Close
*Load case detail
Add
Define combination
Name : Combination Load Case 15: 1.2 (DL + LL+ S in (-)X)
Normal
Factor : 1.5
Transfer dead & live loads to right (i.e. case 9, 10, 11,2 here i.e dead load, live load, wall load &
Seismic in (-)X direction)
Add
Close
Similarly combine loads for Seismic in both Z dir, Wind in both X & zZ direction, i.e Load case
16- 21)
(** Seismic Definition for Spro : 04 & onwards
In the seismic definition below self weight
The member load copied and pasted with load changing to weight
The ve sign changed to + ve sign, GY to be deleted
Also, the Floor load copied and pasted with load changing to weight
The ve sign changed to + ve sign GY to be deleted
The live load may be reduced to 0.5 instead of 2 )
________________________________________________________________

*( Analysis )
Analysis ( from left side menu bar)

Perform analysis
No print
OK
Pre print active
Define command ( Rt. Side of screen)
Support information <active>
Add
Close
Node crusher <active>
? Print support information < active>
Select Supports
Assign
Close
Post print <active>
Define command ( Rt. Side of screen)
Load List <active>
Transfer load list 12 ( as foundation is generally designed for LL & DL with Factor of sefty 1)
Support Reaction <active>
Add
Close
Node crusher <active>
? Print support reaction < active>
Select Supports
Assign
Close
(PERFORM ANALYSIS
PRINT SUPPORT INFORMATION
LOAD LIST 12
PRINT SUPPORT REACTION )
________________________________________________________________
*( Design )
Post print <active>
Define command ( Rt. Side of screen)
Load List <active>
Transfer load list 13-21
Add close
Design
(left side menu bar)
Concrete
(left side menu bar)
Code : IS 456 (right side menu bar)
Select parameter
Transfer all parameters to left
Transfer following parameters to right
Fc
Fy main
Fy Secondary
Max Main
Min Main
Min Secondary
Ok
Change unit to Newton & mm

Click on the fig on top menu bar

Or,
Tool Set current input unit
Define Parameter
Active Fc : 20 N/ m2 Add Close
Fy Main : 415 N/ m2 Add Close
Fy Seco. : 415 N/ m2 Add Close
Max Main : 20mm Add Close
Max Sec : 10mm Add Close
Min Main : 12 mm Add Close
Min Sec : 8mm
Add Close
Select the structure
Assign the above parameters one by one
Yes
Command
Design Beam
Add
Design Column
Add
Close
Design Column <Active>
Select column ( Beams parallel to Y axis )
Assign
Yes
Design Beam <Active>
Select Beam ( Beams parallel to X & Z axis )
Assign
Yes
Analyze
Run Analysis
View out put file
Done
Result
_______________________________________________________________
Fail
To see whether any member fails in the output fie
Click on the Find (binocular figure)
Fail
- find next / Mark all for beams
ADE (adequate)
- find next / Mark all for columns
*( For Printing)
Edit
Take picture
Picture 1
Title ( eg. Support nodes)
Ok
File
Report Setup
Pictures
Picture 1 pass to right

Picture album
Full page
Ok
File
Print purview report Edit
Take picture
Picture 2
Continue .
Copy out put file to wordn fie
Select
Copy
Paste in word file
_______________________________________________________________
*( To view output file latter )
Dont save after run analysis / viewing the output file
*( Beam Level)
View Option
Beam level
1.
Horizontal alignment
2.
Vertical alignment
3.
Font
*( Node Level)
View Option
Beam level
1. Horizontal alignment
2. Vertical alignment
3. Font
*( For use of torsion)
Design
Define Parameter
Torsion to be option selected
*( For merge beam)
Select the two consecutive members to be merged
Tool merge selected members
Merge
Close yes
*( To copy a node / member)
Select the element
Right click
Copy
Paste
Giving coordinate of X Y Z
*( Beta angle) For orientation along Global X axis
*( Release)
_______________________________________________________________

*( ID from Auto cad Plan in FPS system)

Draw the center line

Move
Select object
Specify the base point of displacement as top left corner
Destination as origin
Format
Units
Engineering to decimal
Scale
Select object
Origin 0.0254 (to convert to meter)
For coordinates
Command
ID <enter>
9( or tools
inquiry
ID)
Select point
()ve Y considered as positive Z
_______________________________________________________________
*( Wall weight)
10 thick wall
Weight: 0.28 (wall thickness + plaster)* 1* (3-0.3) * 19.2 Kn / m2 = 14.5 Kn / m
(Floor height beam height)
For parapets generally ; 2 Kn. / m at roof top and balcony
*( Seismic Parameter)
Code IS 1983
Zone = 0.16 (for zone III)
Importance factor
RF
SS

ST

=1

For ordinary residential building

=2

For hospital building

=3

For ordinary construction

=5

For specific construction

=1

Soil Standard for hard soil

=2

Soil Standard for medium soil

=3

Soil Standard for soft soil

=1

Structure Type for RCC frame

=2

Structure Type for Steel frame

=3

Structure Type for Other

***
Member weight no sign
50% wall load of ground floor for plinth beams

50% wall load of ground floor and 50% load of first floor for ground floor roof beams and so on
Floor weight
Dead load full
Live load 25% , if LL < 3Kn/sqm
Live load 50% , if LL > 3Kn/sqm