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Bernoulli's principle
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This article is about Bernoulli's principle and Bernoulli's equation in fluid dynamics. For
Bernoulli's theorem in probability, see law of large numbers. For an unrelated topic in
ordinary differential equations, see Bernoulli differential equation.
energy.
Bernoulli's principle is named after the
Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli who published his
principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.[3]
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types
of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as
Bernoulli's equation. In fact, there are different
forms of the Bernoulli equation for different types of
flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is valid
for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and
also for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at
low Mach numbers. More advanced forms may in
some cases be applied to compressible flows at
higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the
Bernoulli equation).
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the
principle of conservation of energy. This states that,
in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of mechanical
energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline. This requires that the sum
of kinetic energy and potential energy remain
constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid
occurs proportionately with an increase in both its
dynamic pressure and kinetic energy, and a
decrease in its static pressure and potential energy.
If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of
all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines
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Continuum mechanics
BernoullisLawDerivationDiagram.svg
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Fluid mechanics
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Fluids
Fluid statics
Fluid dynamics
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Bernoulli's principle
Buoyancy
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Contents
1 Incompressible flow equation
1.1 Simplified form
1.2 Applicability of incompressible flow
equation to flow of gases
1.3 Unsteady potential flow
2 Compressible flow equation
2.1 Compressible flow in fluid dynamics
2.2 Compressible flow in thermodynamics
3 Derivations of Bernoulli equation
4 Applications
5 Misunderstandings about the generation of
lift
6 Misapplications of Bernoulli's principle in
common classroom demonstrations
7 See also
8 References
9 Notes
10 Further reading
11 External links
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Scientists
Bernoulli
Boyle
Cauchy
Charles
Euler
Gay-Lussac
Hooke
Pascal
Newton
Navier
Stokes
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v
t
e
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The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms
of total head or energy head H:
H\, =\, z\, +\, \frac{p}{\rho g}\, +\, \frac{v^2}{2\,g}\, =\, h\, +\, \frac{v^2}{2\,g},
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even
higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of
negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to
be valid before zero pressure is reached. In liquids when the pressure becomes too low
cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the
changes in mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is
invalid.
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number 0.3.
It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar
equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored
for a particular application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli's equation and all rely on
nothing more than the fundamental principles of physics such as Newton's laws of motion or
the first law of thermodynamics.
where:
p is the pressure
is the density
v is the flow speed
is the potential associated with the conservative force field, often the gravitational
potential
In engineering situations, elevations are generally small compared to the size of the Earth,
and the time scales of fluid flow are small enough to consider the equation of state as
adiabatic. In this case, the above equation becomes
\frac {v^2}{2}+ gz+\left(\frac {\gamma}{\gamma-1}\right)\frac {p}{\rho} =
\text{constant} [18]
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Another useful form of the equation, suitable for use in thermodynamics and for (quasi)
steady flow, is:[2][19]
{v^2 \over 2} + \Psi + w =\text{constant}
[20]
Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass, which is also often written as h (not to be confused
with "head" or "height").
Note that w = \epsilon + \frac{p}{\rho} where is the thermodynamic energy per unit
mass, also known as the specific internal energy.
The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b.
For steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is
constant along any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it
still proves a useful parameter, related to the "head" of the fluid (see below).
When the change in can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:
{v^2 \over 2}+ w = w_0
where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal gas, the enthalpy is
directly proportional to the temperature, and this leads to the concept of the total (or
stagnation) temperature.
When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and
the flow is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes
in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected.
An exception to this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the
Bernoulli equation, namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.
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pressure decreases along the length of the pipe, dp is negative but the
force resulting in flow is positive along the x axis.
m \frac{\operatorname{d}v}{\operatorname{d}t}= F
\rho A \operatorname{d}x \frac{\operatorname{d}v}
{\operatorname{d}t}= -A \operatorname{d}p
\rho \frac{\operatorname{d}v}{\operatorname{d}t}=
-\frac{\operatorname{d}p}{\operatorname{d}x}
In steady flow the velocity field is constant with respect to time,
v = v(x) = v(x(t)), so v itself is not directly a function of time t. It is only
when the parcel moves through x that the cross sectional area changes:
v depends on t only through the cross-sectional position x(t).
\frac{\operatorname{d}v}{\operatorname{d}t}=
\frac{\operatorname{d}v}{\operatorname{d}x}
\frac{\operatorname{d}x}{\operatorname{d}t} =
\frac{\operatorname{d}v}{\operatorname{d}x}v=\frac{d}
{\operatorname{d}x} \left( \frac{v^2}{2} \right).
With density constant, the equation of motion can be written as
\frac{\operatorname{d}}{\operatorname{d}x} \left( \rho
\frac{v^2}{2} + p \right) =0
by integrating with respect to x
\frac{v^2}{2} + \frac{p}{\rho}= C
where C is a constant, sometimes referred to as the Bernoulli constant.
It is not a universal constant, but rather a constant of a particular fluid
system. The deduction is: where the speed is large, pressure is low and
vice versa.
In the above derivation, no external work-energy principle is invoked.
Rather, Bernoulli's principle was inherently derived by a simple
manipulation of the momentum equation.
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Therefore,
the work done by the forces in the fluid = increase in kinetic
energy.
The system consists of the volume of fluid, initially between the crosssections A 1 and A 2. In the time interval t fluid elements initially at the
inflow cross-section A1 move over a distance s1 = v1 t, while at the
outflow cross-section the fluid moves away from cross-section A2 over a
distance s2 = v2 t. The displaced fluid volumes at the inflow and
outflow are respectively A 1 s1 and A 2 s2. The associated displaced fluid
masses are when is the fluid's mass density equal to density times
volume, so A 1 s1 and A 2 s2. By mass conservation, these two masses
displaced in the time interval t have to be equal, and this displaced
mass is denoted by m:
\begin{align} \rho A_1 s_1 &= \rho A_{1} v_{1} \Delta t = \Delta
m, \\ \rho A_2 s_2 &= \rho A_{2} v_{2} \Delta t = \Delta m.
\end{align}
The work done by the forces consists of two parts:
The work done by the pressure acting on the areas A1 and A 2
W_\text{pressure}=F_{1,\text{pressure}}\; s_{1}\, -\,
F_{2,\text{pressure}}\; s_2 =p_1 A_1 s_1 - p_2 A_2 s_2 =
\Delta m\, \frac{p_1}{\rho} - \Delta m\, \frac{p_2}{\rho}. \;
The work done by gravity: the gravitational potential energy in the
volume A 1 s1 is lost, and at the outflow in the volume A2 s2 is
gained. So, the change in gravitational potential energy
Epot,gravity in the time interval t is
\Delta E_\text{pot,gravity} = \Delta m\, g z_2 - \Delta m\, g
z_1. \;
Now, the work by the force of gravity is opposite to the change in
potential energy, Wgravity = Epot,gravity : while the force of
gravity is in the negative z-direction, the workgravity force times
change in elevationwill be negative for a positive elevation
change z = z2 z1, while the corresponding potential energy
change is positive.[23] So:
W_\text{gravity} = -\Delta E_\text{pot,gravity} = \Delta m\, g
z_1 - \Delta m\, g z_2. \;
And the total work done in this time interval \Delta t is
W = W_\text{pressure} + W_\text{gravity}. \,
The increase in kinetic energy is
\Delta E_\text{kin} = \frac{1}{2} \Delta m\,
v_{2}^{2}-\frac{1}{2} \Delta m\, v_{1}^{2}.
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(Eqn. 2a)
The middle term, z, represents the potential energy of the fluid due to
its elevation with respect to a reference plane. Now, z is called the
elevation head and given the designation zelevation.
A free falling mass from an elevation z > 0 (in a vacuum) will reach a
speed
v=\sqrt{{2 g}{z}}, when arriving at elevation z = 0. Or when we
rearrange it as a head: h_v =\frac{v^2}{2 g}
The term v2 / (2 g) is called the velocity head, expressed as a length
measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid due to its
motion.
The hydrostatic pressure p is defined as
p=p_0-\rho g z \,, with p0 some reference pressure, or when we
rearrange it as a head: \psi=\frac{p}{\rho g}
The term p / (g) is also called the pressure head, expressed as a length
measurement. It represents the internal energy of the fluid due to the
pressure exerted on the container.
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When we combine the head due to the flow speed and the head due to
static pressure with the elevation above a reference plane, we obtain a
simple relationship useful for incompressible fluids using the velocity
head, elevation head, and pressure head.
h_{v} + z_\text{elevation} + \psi = C\,
(Eqn. 2b)
(Eqn. 3)
We note that the pressure of the system is constant in this form of the
Bernoulli Equation. If the static pressure of the system (the far right
term) increases, and if the pressure due to elevation (the middle term) is
constant, then we know that the dynamic pressure (the left term) must
have decreased. In other words, if the speed of a fluid decreases and it
is not due to an elevation difference, we know it must be due to an
increase in the static pressure that is resisting the flow.
All three equations are merely simplified versions of an energy balance
on a system.
Bernoulli equation for compressible fluids
The derivation for compressible fluids is similar.
Again, the derivation depends upon (1)
conservation of mass, and (2) conservation of
energy. Conservation of mass implies that in the
above figure, in the interval of time t, the amount
of mass passing through the boundary defined by
the area A 1 is equal to the amount of mass passing
outwards through the boundary defined by the
area A 2:
0= \Delta M_1 - \Delta M_2 = \rho_1 A_1 v_1 \,
\Delta t - \rho_2 A_2 v_2 \, \Delta t.
Conservation of energy is applied in a similar
manner: It is assumed that the change in energy of
the volume of the streamtube bounded by A 1 and
A2 is due entirely to energy entering or leaving
through one or the other of these two boundaries.
Clearly, in a more complicated situation such as a
fluid flow coupled with radiation, such conditions
are not met. Nevertheless, assuming this to be the
case and assuming the flow is steady so that the
net change in the energy is zero,
0= \Delta E_1 - \Delta E_2 \,
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[edit] Applications
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force.
Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a
wing is known, the lift forces can be calculated (to a good approximation) using
Bernoulli's equations[26] established by Bernoulli over a century before the rst
man-made wings were used for the purpose of ight. Bernoulli's principle does not
explain why the air ows faster past the top of the wing and slower past the underside.
To understand why, it is helpful to understand circulation, the Kutta condition, and the
KuttaJoukowski theorem.
The Dyson Bladeless Fan (or Air Multiplier) is an implementation that takes advantage
of the Venturi eect, Coand eect and Bernoulli's Principle.[27]
The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a
region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the
incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and
therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
The Pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the
aircraft. These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator which determines
the dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the
difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is
used to calibrate the airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed
appropriate to the dynamic pressure.[28]
The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or an
orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow.
For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid,
the reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently
Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the
reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be
calculated directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the
square root of the height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that
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Torricelli's law is compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain
rate. This is reflected in the discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds
number and the shape of the orifice.[29]
In open-channel hydraulics, a detailed analysis of the Bernoulli theorem and its
extension were recently (2009) developed.[30] It was proved that the depth-averaged
specific energy reaches a minimum in converging accelerating free-surface flow over
weirs and flumes (also[31][32]). Further, in general, a channel control with minimum
specific energy in curvilinear flow is not isolated from water waves, as customary state
in open-channel hydraulics.
The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-contact adhesive force
between a surface and the gripper.
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the paper using Bernoullis equation since the air above and below are different flow fields
and Bernoulli's principle only applies within a flow field.[49][50][51][52]
As the wording of the principle can change its implications, stating the principle correctly
is important.[53] What Bernoulli's principle actually says is that within a flow of constant
energy, when fluid flows through a region of lower pressure it speeds up and vice versa.[54]
Thus, Bernoulli's principle concerns itself with changes in speed and changes in pressure
within a flow field. It cannot be used to compare different flow fields.
A correct explanation of why the paper rises would observe that the plume follows the
curve of the paper and that a curved streamline will develop a pressure gradient
perpendicular to the direction of flow, with the lower pressure on the inside of the curve.
[55][56][57][58]
[edit] References
1. ^ Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Chapter
3.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Education, http://www.iop.org/EJ/article
/0031-9120/38/6/001/pe3_6_001.pdf
6. ^ "Acceleration of air is caused by
pressure gradients. Air is accelerated
in direction of the velocity if the
pressure goes down. Thus the decrease
of pressure is the cause of a higher
velocity." Weltner, Klaus; IngelmanSundberg, Martin, Misinterpretations of
Bernoulli's Law, http://user.unifrankfurt.de/~weltner/Mis6/mis6.html
7. ^ " The idea is that as the parcel moves
along, following a streamline, as it
moves into an area of higher pressure
there will be higher pressure ahead
(higher than the pressure behind) and
this will exert a force on the parcel,
slowing it down. Conversely if the
parcel is moving into a region of lower
pressure, there will be an higher
pressure behind it (higher than the
pressure ahead), speeding it up. As
always, any unbalanced force will cause
a change in momentum (and velocity),
as required by Newtons laws of
motion." See How It Flies John S.
Denker http://www.av8n.com/how/htm
/airfoils.html
ab
8. ^
Batchelor, G.K. (1967), 5.1, p.
265.
9. ^ Mulley, Raymond (2004). Flow of
Industrial Fluids: Theory and
Equations. CRC Press.
ISBN 0-8493-2767-9., 410 pages. See
pp. 4344.
10. ^ Chanson, Hubert (2004). Hydraulics
of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction.
Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 0-7506-5978-5., 650 pages. See
p. 22.
11. ^ Oertel, Herbert; Prandtl, Ludwig;
Bhle, M.; Mayes, Katherine (2004).
Prandtl's Essentials of Fluid Mechanics.
Springer. pp. 7071.
ISBN 0-387-40437-6.
12. ^ "Bernoulli's Equation". NASA Glenn
Research Center.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K12/airplane/bern.htm. Retrieved
2009-03-04.
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46.
47.
48.
49.
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53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
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DEMONSTRATION FACILITY
http://www.physics.umd.edu/lecdem
/services/demos/demosf5/f5-03.htm
68. ^ "Although the Bernoulli effect is often
used to explain this demonstration, and
one manufacturer sells the material for
this demonstration as "Bernoulli bags,"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli's_principle
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 5.5 ("When a stream of air flows past an airfoil,
there are local changes in flow speed round the airfoil, and consequently changes in
static pressure, in accordance with Bernoulli's Theorem. The distribution of pressure
determines the lift, pitching moment and form drag of the airfoil, and the position of its
centre of pressure.")
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