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Introduction
Thischapterondisplacementsanddeformationsistheheartofcontinuummechanics.Andthispage
andthenext,whichcoverthedeformationgradient,arethecenterofthatheart.Thedeformation
gradientisusedtoseparaterigidbodytranslationsandrotationsfromdeformations,whicharethe
sourceofstresses.
Thediscussionbelowbeginswitha
definitionofthedeformationgradient,
thenproceedsinthefollowingorder:(i)
rigidbodytranslations,(ii)
rigidbodyrotations,and(iii)combined
deformationsandrotations.Ateach
step,agradientofthedisplacement
fieldisappliedtoanalyzethesituation.
Theexamplesarepresentedin2Dto
makeiteasiertograsptheconcepts.
Asistheconventionincontinuummechanics,thevectorX isusedtodefinetheundeformed
referenceconfiguration,andx definesthedeformedcurrentconfiguration.Ineachcase,imaginethat
the(almost)squaregridonthepotatoisdisplaced,rotated,and/ordeformed.
DeformationGradient
ThedeformationgradientFisthederivativeofeachcomponentofthedeformedx vectorwith
respecttoeachcomponentofthereferenceX vector.Forx = x(X),then
Fij
xi,j
xi
Xj
x1
x1
x1
X1
X2
X3
x2
x2
x2
X1
X2
X3
x3
x3
x3
X1
X2
X3
Aslightlyalteredcalculationispossiblebynotingthatthedisplacementu ofanypointcanbedefined
as
u = x X
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DeformationGradient
andthisleadstox
= X + u
,and
X
(X + u)
u
+
u
=
I +
X
Intensornotation,thisiswrittenas
Fij = ij + ui,j
RigidBodyDisplacements
Anexampleofarigidbodydisplacementis
x = X + 5
y = Y
+ 2
Inthiscase,F = I ,isindicativeofalackof
deformations.Aswillbeshownnext,itisalsoindicative
ofalackofrotations.Clearlyrigidbodydisplacements
donotappearinthedeformationgradient.Thisisgood
becauserigidbodydisplacementsdon'tcontributeto
stress,strain,etc.
RigidBodyRotations
Anexampleofarigidbodyrotationis
x = X cos Y sin
y = X sin + Y cos
Theseequationsrotateanobjectcounterclockwise
aboutthezaxis.Noticehowtheminussignisnowin
the(1, 2) slotinsteadofthe(2, 1) slotaswasthe
caseforcoordinatetransformations.Seethispageon
rotationmatricesforanexplanation.
Inthiscase,Fis
F = [
F
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cos
sin
sin
cos
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DeformationGradient
RotationsalterthevalueofFsothatitisnolongerequaltoI eventhoughnodeformationsare
present.Thiscanleadtomisinterpretationsinwhichrigidbodyrotationsaremistakenfor
deformationsandstrain.Thisisthemaincomplicatingfactorinfinitedeformationmechanics.
Unfortunately,itwillgetevenworsewhenrotationsanddeformationsarepresentatthesametime.
SimpleDeformations
Case1Stretching
Startwithstretchinginthexandydirections.These
equationsdescribea100%elongationinthex
directionanda50%elongationintheydirection.
x = 2.0X + 0.0 Y
y = 0.0X + 1.5 Y
Thedeformationgradientis
F = [
2.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
Notethatalloffdiagonalcomponentsarezero.F11 reflectsstretchinginthexdirectionandF22
reflectsstretchingintheydirection.
Case2Shear(withRotation)
Theseequationsshearthesquareasshown.
x = 1.0X + 0.0 Y
y = 0.5X + 1.0 Y
Thedeformationgradientis
F = [
1.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
Thenonzerooffdiagonalvaluereflectsshear.The
figurealsoshowsthatthesquaretendstorotatecounterclockwise.Thisisreflectedinthe
deformationgradientbythefactthatitisnotsymmetric.
Case3PureShear
Theseequationsshearthesquarewithzeronetrotation.
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DeformationGradient
x = 1.0X + 0.5 Y
y = 0.5X + 1.0 Y
Thedeformationgradientis
F = [
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
Thenonzerooffdiagonalvaluesmeanthatshearingis
present.ThefactthatFissymmetricreflectsthatthere
isnonetrotation.Thezeronetrotationarisesfromthe
factthatwhilethelowerrightareaofthesquaretends
torotatecounterclockwise,theupperleftareatendstorotateclockwiseatthesametime.Therefore,
thenetrotationforthesquareasawholeiszero.
GeneralDeformations
Considertheexamplewhereanobjectis
transformedfromasquaretothepositionshownin
thefigure.Theequationstodothisare
x = 1.300X 0.375 Y
y = 0.750X + 0.650 Y
andthecorrespondingdeformationgradientis
F = [
1.300
0.375
0.750
0.650
Theobjecthasclearlybeenstretchedandrotated.Butbyhowmuch?Therotationdoesn'tcontribute
tostress,butthedeformationdoes.SoitisnecessarytopartitionthetwomechanismsoutofFin
ordertodeterminethestressandstrainstate.
Thenextpageonpolardecompositionswillshowhowtodothis.Butfornow,justacceptthatthe
followingtwostepprocessofdeformationfollowedbyrigidbodyrotationgetsyouthere...
Thefirststepisa50%stretchinthexdirectionanda25%compressionintheydirection.Thisgets
usfromtheX referencecoordinatestotheintermediatex coordinates.
x
y
= 1.50X
+ 0.00 Y
= 0.00X
+ 0.75 Y
cos(
)
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sin(
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DeformationGradient
x
x cos(30 ) y sin(30 )
x sin(30 )
+ y cos(30 )
1.300X 0.375 Y
0.750X + 0.650 Y
Inmatrixform,
x
{
} = [
y
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
x
]{
y
x
}
and
{
y
} = [
1.50
0.00
0.00
0.75
]{
andthedeformationgradientcanbewrittenastheproductoftwomatrices:arotationmatrix,anda
symmetricmatrixdescribingthedeformation.
1.300
0.375
0.750
0.650
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
][
1.50
0.00
0.00
0.75
Itiseasytoseethattherotationmatrixcorrespondstoa30rotation.Thematrixproductis
commonlywrittenas
F = R U
OrAlternatively...
Thedeformedandrotatedstatecouldequallywell
bearrivedatbyrotatingitfirst,andthendeformingit
second.Inthiscase,thereferenceconfiguration,X ,
isfirstrotatedbythesame30angletoarriveatan
intermediateconfiguration,x .
x
y
X cos(30 ) Y sin(30 )
X sin(30 ) + Y cos(30 )
Andthentheintermediateconfigurationisdeformed
toarriveatthefinal,deformedstate
1.313x
0.325x
+ 0.325 y
+ 0.938 y
Theoffdiagonalvaluesreflectthattheobjectisbeingshearedinadditiontobeing
stretched/compressed.
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DeformationGradient
Thedeformationgradientcanbewrittenas
1.300
0.375
0.750
0.650
1.313
0.325
0.325
0.938
][
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
Thisiscommonlywrittenas
F = V R
RelationshipBetweenVandU
Itisrelativelyeasytodeveloparelationship
betweenV andU .
SinceF
= V R
andF
= R U
,then
V R = R U
andpostmultiplyingthroughbyR gives
T
V R R
ButsinceR R
= I
= R U R
,thisleaves
V = R U R
astherelationshipbetweenV andU .
Alternatively,solvingforU gives
U = R
V R
VerifyingRelationshipBetweenVandU
Recallthat
V = [
1.313
0.325
0.325
0.938
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R = [
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
U = [
1.500
0.0
0.0
0.750
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DeformationGradient
EvaluatingR U R gives
T
R U R
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
1.313
0.325
0.325
0.938
][
1.500
0.0
0.0
0.750
][
0.866
0.500
0.500
0.866
whichconfirmsthatR U R isindeedequaltoV .
T
CoordinateMappingExampleHourglassing
Findthedeformation
gradientforthedeformation
showninthefigure.
Aftermuchtrialanderror...
theequationsrelating
undeformedanddeformed
statesare
1
x = X +
XY + 5
4
y = Y + 4
Theseequationscanbe
checkedbysubstitutingthecoordinatesofanyofthefourcornersoftheundeformed
squaretoarriveatthedeformedcoordinates.
Oncethemappingequationsareavailable,thedeformationgradientiseasy
1 +
1
4
1
4
F =
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DeformationGradient
F = [
whichistheidentitymatrix.Thisindicatesthatthereisnodeformationatallatthecenterof
thesquareeventhoughitisclearlydeformingateveryotherlocation.
ThiseffectisknownashourglassinginFEanalysesandarisesin2Dquadrilateraland3D
brickelementsundergoingreducedintegration.Insuchcases,elementdeformationsare
onlyevaluatedatthecenteroftheelement.Asaresult,hourglassdeformationsarenot
detectedandcangrowuncontrollably.
VandUforDifferentRigidBodyRotations
Foranobjectthatisstretchedby100%alongthexaxis,butnotrotated,thedeformation
gradientandpolardecompositionsare
F = R U
] = [
cos 0
sin 0
- sin 0
cos 0
][
AndtheV R polardecompositionis
F = V R
2
0
0
1
] = [
2
0
0
1
][
cos 0
sin 0
- sin 0
cos 0
Yes,whenthereisnorotation,U ,V ,andFareallthesame.Theymustbe.
Iftheobjectisstretched100%alongthedirectionthatwasoriginallyparalleltothexaxis,
andalsorotated90,thenthedeformationgradientandpolardecompositionsare
x
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DeformationGradient
F = R U
0
2
-1
] = [
cos 90
- sin 90
sin 90
cos 90
][
AndtheV R polardecompositionis
F = V R
-1
] = [
][
cos 90
sin 90
- sin 90
cos 90
TheU stretchtensorhasn'tchangedbetweenthe0and90rotationexample,however
theV stretchtensorhas(aswellasF).V 'scomponentsalwayscorrespondto
deformationsthataredescribedaftertherotationtakesplace.
Discussion
Sowhathavewelearnedhere?Thatanydeformed
statecanbedescribedin(atleast)twodifferent
ways.Inthefirst,theobjectisdeformed,then
rotated.Inthesecond,itisrotated,thendeformed.
Sowhichismorecorrect?Theanswerisneither.
Bothareperfectlyvalid.Infact,itismorelikelythat
theobjectrotatesanddeformssimultaneously.But
ifallyouhaveisthefinaldeformedstatefroma
calculation,probablyFEA,thenallyoucandois
applyapolardecomposition.
Everyonealwayswantstoknow,"Butwhichone,
R U orV R shouldIuse?"Again,neitheris
moreorlesscorrectthantheother.Bothdescribe
theexactsamedeformedstate.Theusual
determiningfactoriswhetheronepreferstothinkof
thedeformationsasoccurringinthereference
orientation,orinthefinalrotatedstate.Nevertheless,theusualpreferenceistouseF = R U
becauseitisnormallyeasiertorelatethestrainsbacktotheundeformedorientation.Thisleadsto
theGreenstraindefinitionthatispopularintiremechanicsandwillbediscussedinafewmore
pages.
Onelastexample:Onecouldassumethatanobjectisstretchedinthexdirection,andthenrotated
90.Inthiscase,thexx strainisnonzero.Alternatively,onecouldjustaswellassumethatthe
objectwasrotated90first,thenstretchedintheverticaldirection,givinganonzeroyy strain.Ifall
you'vegotisthefinaldeformedshapetoworkwith,theneitherpathworks.
Andonelastnote:Allthishintsatalargerissue.Itisthequestion,"Ofallthedefinitionsofstrain,
whichisthebest?"Theansweris,"Neitherisnecessarilymoreorlesscorrectthananyother."Some
arejustmoreconvenientthanothersforagivenapplication.Wewillcomebacktothistopiclater.
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DeformationGradient
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TableofContents
Deformation&Strain
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PolarDecompositions
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