ENGR 1200U

ENGR 1200U
Lecture 01
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Copyright 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Computer Security: Principles and Practice, 3/e, by William Stallings and Lawrie Brown
Objectives
Introduce computing and engineering problem solving, including:
A brief history
Recent engineering achievements

A discussion of Numbering Systems
A discussion of hardware and software

A five-step problem-solving methodology
Historical Perspective
What is a computer?
Augusta Ada Byron

(1815-1852, below)
wrote the first
computer program.
Charles Babbage,
(1792-1871, above)
designed the
Analytical Engine
(left) to process
decimal numbers.
Charles Babbage, Esq. 1792-1871
English mathematician
Designed the Analytical Engine in the early 1800s

Analytical Engine:
Performs only simple mathematical operations
Read instructions from punched cards and carried them out

Designed to process base ten numbers.
Consisted of four parts:
Storage unit (memory)
Processing unit (computation unit)
Input device (punched card reader)
Output device (punched and printed output)
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Analytical Engine:
Luigi F. Menabrea, French engineer and mathematician, described
Babbages vision of a machine capable of solving any problem using:
Inputs
Outputs
Programs written on punch cards

Published a paper Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charges
Babbage, Esq
Augusta Ada Byron 1815-1852
Wrote the English translation of Menabreas Sketch of the Analytical
Engine
Envisioned the multidisciplinary potential of the Analytical Engine
Wrote detailed instructions for performing numerical computations using
the Analytical Engine
Digital Computers
ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer)
Developed at Iowa State University between 1939 and 1942 by John
Atanasoff and Clifford Berry.
Weighed 700 pounds.
Executed one instruction every 15 seconds.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)
Developed by research team lead by John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert during the early 1940s
Consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 1500 relays
Weight: 30 tons, 6000 switches, many jumper cables
Consumed: 140 kilowatts of power
Executed hundreds of instructions every second
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ENIAC vs. Intel Pentium 4
Todays
processors
execute trillions
of operations per
second and
weigh ounces.
ENIAC executes hundreds of operations per second (30 tons)
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1.2 Recent Engineering Achievements

Advances of the digital computer has facilitated many significant engineering
achievements over the past five decades
Achievements illustrate how engineering has improved our lives and
expanded possibilities of the future
Some of the major achievements
Exploration of space
1996: Mars Global Surveyor: a spacecraft developed by NASA
for collecting scientific data while in orbit
Application Satellites
Used to provide weather information, relay communication
signals, maps, and environmental updates. Example: GPS
Computer Simulations
Allow for experimentation that may not be possible (due to size,
speed, dangers to health and safety, etc)
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1.3 Computing Systems

What Is Programming?
Many people use computers for everyday tasks such as electronic banking
or writing a term paper
Computers are good for such tasks
C++ is a powerful computer programming language thats appropriate for
technically oriented people to use in building substantial information
systems
In use today are more than a billion general-purpose computers and
billions more cell phones, smartphones and handheld devices (such as
tablet computers)
The number of mobile Internet users will reach approximately 150 million
by 2015
The smartphone applications market is exceeded $40 billion, which is
creating significant opportunities for programming mobile applications
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What Is Programming?
Computers can carry out a wide range of tasks because they execute
different programs, each of which directs the computer to work on a
specific task
The computer itself is a machine that stores data (numbers, words,
pictures), interacts with devices (the monitor, the sound system, the
printer), and executes programs
A computer program tells a computer, in minute detail, the sequence of
steps that are needed to fulfill a task
A computing system is a complete working system that includes:
Hardware: The physical computer and peripheral devices are
collectively called the hardware
Software: The programs the computer executes are called the
software
Programming: is the act of designing and implementing computer
programs
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Computer Hardware
von Neumann Computing Model:
In 1946, John von Neumann proposed a computing model that is still used
today in the design of most digital computers
Hardware refers to the physical
parts off the computing system that
have mass (i.e. they can actually be
touched):
Computer
Display
Mouse
Printer

The von Neumann Computing Model
13

Computer Hardware
von Neumann Computing Model:
Input device(s)
Output device(s)
Memory Unit
CPU (Central Processing
Unit) consisting of:
Control Unit
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
The von Neumann Computing Model

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Computer Hardware
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Computer Hardware
The CPU (central processing unit)
Heart of the computer
Executes one operation at a time
Performs program control and data processing
Carries out arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
Fetches data from external memory or devices and stores data back
All data must travel through the CPU whenever it is moved from one
location to another
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Computer Hardware
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs arithmetic and logic operations
ALU is a fundamental block for CPU of a computer
All CPUs and Graphical Processing Units (GPUs) all have complex
ALUs
Accumulator: used for temporary storage of values and results
Memory
The computer stores data and programs in memory
Primary memory - memory chips
Random access memory (RAM) (read-write memory)
Read-only memory (ROM)
Secondary storage devices

Disk drives
DVDs
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Computer Hardware
Control Unit
Controls the transfer and processing of data
Retrieves and interprets instructions stored in memory
Accepts data from an input device (i.e. keyboard or mouse),
Sends data to a specified output device (i.e. printer or display)
Stores data in the memory unit
Peripheral Devices
The computer transmits information (called output) to the user
through a display screen, speakers, and printers
The user can enter information (called input) for the computer by
using a keyboard or a pointing device such as a mouse
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Computer Software
Refers to programs that reside and execute electronically on the hardware.
Compilers: Translate source code
Operating systems: Provide the HCI (Human Computer Interface)
Application programs: Provide problem solutions, written by using a
computer language
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Computer Software
Operating systems:
Operating Systems typically comes with the computer hardware when
purchased
OS provides an interface between the user and the hardware (allows
user to select and execute software)
OS contain a group of programs called utilities that allow the user to
perform functions such as printing files, copying files, etc
OS simplify the interface with the OS by using icons and menus
(Examples: Windows)
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Computer Software
Application Software:
Common Applications
Purpose: Perform common operations
Examples: word processors, text editors, spreadsheet
Database management software
Purpose: Efficiently store and retrieve larges amounts of data
Examples: MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft SQL
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Purpose: Define objects and manipulate them graphically
Examples: AutoCAD, Architectural Desktop, Civil 3D
Mathematical Computation Software
Purpose: Powerful mathematical commands & generate graphs
Examples: Matlab, Mathematica, Maple
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Computer Software
Computer Languages:
Computer languages can be described in terms of levels
Programmers write instructions in various programming languages,
some directly understandable by computers and others requiring
intermediate translation steps.
These may be divided into three general types:
Machine languages
Assembly languages
High-level languages
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Computer Software
Computer Languages:
Low-level languages (or machine languages)
Most primitive and are tied closely to the design of the hardware
(instructions are encoded)
Generally consist of strings of numbers (ultimately reduced to 1s
and 0s)
Machine dependenta particular machine language can be used
on only one type of computer
Machine language differs from one machine to another (i.e. Sun
versus HP computer)
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Computer Software
Computer Languages:
Assembly language
Instructions are written in symbolic statements instead of binary
Also unique to a specific computer design
Usually have limited set of statements
Makes task of writing programs very tedious
Translator programs called assemblers convert assemblylanguage programs to machine language
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Computer Software
Computer Languages:
High-level language
Have English-like commands and instructions
Examples: C, C++, Java, VB.NET, C#, etc
Independent of the processor type and hardware
Writing programs in high-level language is much easier than
machine or assembly
Contain large number of commands and an extensive set of
syntax (or grammar) rules
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Building a Program
Computers only understand machine language
High-level languages like C++ must be translated to machine language for
execution
Compiler
A special computer program that translates higher-level programs into
machine instructions for a particular processor
Key Terms
Source Program: printable/Readable Program file
Object Program: nonprintable machine readable file
Executable Program: nonprintable executable code
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Building a Program
Errors in Programs:
Syntax/Parse Errors
Mistakes with the language
Always reported by the compiler
Linking Errors
Missing pieces prevent the final assembly of an executable
program
Run-time Errors
Occur when program is executing
May or may not be reported
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Building a Program
Logic Errors
Can be difficult to find
Debugging can be time consuming
Better tools for finding bugs
It is important to carefully check the output of your programs for
errors
Even programs that appear to work correctly may have bugs!
Debugging
Process of eliminating logic errors (i.e. bugs) from programs
User-friendly programming environments such as Microsoft Visual
C++ integrate the compiler with
text processors and code editors
special tools to help find bugs in programs (debugger)
testing tools
and much more
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The Programming Environment
You will need to know how to log in (if needed), and, how to start your
C++ development environment
An IDE (integrated development environment) is where you will most
likely work
Use an editor to type your C++ programs into the IDE
Your program is called a source program (file)
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You will need to learn how to compile and run your program in the IDE
Theres a lot going

on behind the
scenes in the IDE
that you dont
normally see
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You will need to know your computers file system: files, folders, and
extensions
C++ program files typically have the extension: .cpp (or .cc or .cxx or
even .C)
You should be organized by creating folders for organizing your files
The following IDEs are available:
Microsoft Visual Studio (C++)
NetBeans
Eclipse
Dev C++
CodeLite
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The compiler translates C++ programs into machine code
The linker combines machine code with library code into an executable
program
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The Edit-Compile-Run Loop
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Finite-Precision Numbers: Overview

While performing arithmetic, one usually gives little thought on the question:
How many decimal digits it takes to represent a number?
Physicists can calculate that there are 1078 electrons in the universe without
being bothered by the fact that it requires 79 decimal digits to write that
number out in full
Example
Calculating value of a function to six/seven/eight significant digits (using
pencil and paper)
The problem of the paper not being wide enough for seven-eight digit
numbers never arises!
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Finite-Precision Numbers
With computers, its quite different!
On most computers, amount of memory available for storing a number is
fixed at the time that the computer is designed
With a certain amount of effort, programmer can represent numbers two,
or three or even many times larger than this fixed amount
Challenge: fixed amount of memory
Finite nature of the computer forces us to deal only with numbers that can
be represented in a fixed number of digits finite-precision numbers
Example: set of positive integers representable by three decimal digits
(no decimal or sign)
Set has exactly 1000 members: 000, 001, 002, , 999
Since computers have finite memories (then it must perform arithmetic on
finite-precision numbers), the results of certain calculations will be just
plain wrong (from a mathematical perspective)
Algebra of finite-precision numbers is different from normal algebra
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Associative Law Example
Associative law (can group numbers in any way without changing the
answer)
a + (b - c) = (a + b) c
for a = 700, b = 400, c = 300
Left side: 800
right side: overflow
associative law does not hold (overflow in the infinite arithmetic of threedigit integers)
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Distributive Law Example
Distribution law (distribute pieces as you separate or break it into parts)
a (b c) = a b a c
for a = 5, b = 210, c = 195
Left side: 5 x 15=75
right side: overflow
a b causes an overflow: 5 x 210 = 1050
distributive law does not hold (overflow in the infinite arithmetic of threedigit integers)
Conclusion: Are computers suitable for doing arithmetic? Yes
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1.4 Data representation and Storage

Why binary
Original computers were mainly designed to perform calculations (i.e.
calculator)
Designers used electronic components available at the time
Designers soon realized they could use a simple coding system (the binary
system) to represent numbers
All information inside a computer can be represented using binary system:
Numbers
00110101001001001010101111101110
Letters of alphabet
10101011111011100011010100100100
Microprocessor instructions
11000110110101011111001001001010
Graphics/Video, Sound,
Arithmetic used by computers differs in some ways from the arithmetic
used by people:
Computers perform operations on finite precision numbers
Computers use the binary system, not decimal, for representing
numbers
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Binary System:
Digital computers store information as a sequence of bits (binary digits).
The value or state of a bit at any given time can be 0 or 1 (off or on).
Data is stored as a sequence of bytes.
A nibble is a sequence of 4 bits.
A byte is a sequence of 8 bits.
Binary numbers can be stored in memory as sequence of bits, called word

Example
The right most bit of a byte represents the ones position
The next bit represents the twos position
The next bit represents the fours position
The left most bit represents 2n-1
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Binary System:
The number of words available in memory is referred to as the memory
space, or address space
Address
Sixteen Bit Word
Memory Diagram:
000
0000101011011101
Address Space 8
001
1010001011010100
Word Size
16
010
1011010010100101
Double Word 32
011
0101001101010101
Quad Word 64
010
0101000111001110
010
1100110000111010
110
0100011101001001
111
0101110001001000
Right most bit (RMB) is referred to as the least significant bit (LSB).
Left most bit (LMB) is referred to as the most significant bit (MSB).
Value stored at address 000 is 00001010110111012 = 278110
what does it represent?
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Numbering Systems:
Ordinary decimal number consists of a string of decimal digits and,
possibly, a decimal point
The general form and its usual representation are shown below
In general: radix k number system requires k different symbols to
represent the digits 0 to k -1
Choice of 10 as the base for exponentiation (called the radix) is made

because we are using decimal, or base 10 numbers
Zero is always the first digit of any base
When 1 is added to the largest digit, a sum of zero and a carry of one
results
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Numbering Systems:
When dealing with computers, it is frequently convenient to use radices
other than 10
Most important radices are
2 (binary)
8 (octal)
16 (hexadecimal)
Binary numbers are built-up from two binary digits
01
Octal numbers are built-up from the eight octal digits
01234567
Hexadecimal numbers are built-up from 16 digits
0 12 34 56 78 9ABC D E F
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Numbering Systems:
Decimal number 2001 expressed in binary, octal, and hexadecimal
44

Numbering Systems:
Decimal numbers and their binary, octal, and hexadecimal equivalents
45

Numbering Systems:
Base ten number system
Ten decimal digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)
Each digit multiplies a power of ten
Example: 24510 = 2*102 + 4*101 + 5*100
Base two (binary) number system

Two binary digits (0,1)
Each digit multiplies a power of two
Example:
101102 = 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 1*21 + 0*20

= 1*16 + 0*8 + 1*4 + 1*2 + 0*1
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0
= 2210
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Numbering Systems:
Base eight number system
Eight octal digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
Each digit multiplies a power of eight
Example:
2458 = 2*82 + 4*81 + 5*80

= 2*64 + 4*8 + 5*1
= 128 + 32 + 5
= 1658
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Numbering Systems:
Base sixteen number system
Sixteen hex digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F)
Each digit multiplies a power of sixteen
Example:
2FB16 = 2*162 + F*161 + B*160

= 2*256 + F*16 + B*1
= 512 + 240 + 11
= 76310
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Numbering Systems:
Practice with Number Systems
1002 = ?8
37168 = ?2
1101001112 = ?10
3A1B16 = ?2
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Conversion From One Radix to Another:
Each octal digit can be represented as a group of 3-bit binary number
Each hexadecimal digit can be represented as a group of 4-bit binary
number
50

Conversion From Binary to Decimal:
Binary numbers can be converted to decimal by summing up the powers
of 2 corresponding to the 1 bits in the number
1 0 1 1 0 24 + 22 + 21 = 16 + 4 + 2 = 22
Conversion From Decimal to Binary: two ways:

Repeated Subtraction
Repeated Division
Both methods produce the same result and you should use whichever
method you are most comfortable with
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Conversion From Decimal to Binary: Repeated Subtraction
Largest power of 2 smaller than the number is subtracted from the number
STEP 1: Write down all of the binary place values in order until you get to the
first binary place value that is GREATER THAN the decimal number you are
trying to convert. Example: 485
512
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
STEP 2: Mark out the largest place value (this will tell us how many place
values we will need)
512
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
STEP 3: Subtract the largest place value from the decimal number. Then, place a
1 under the place value
STEP 4: Repeat step 3 until all of the place values are processed: 485 256 = 229
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
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1

Conversion From Decimal to Binary: Repeated Subtraction
485 256 = 229

256
128
1
229 128 = 101
256
128
1
1
101 64 = 37
256
128
1
1
37 32 = 5
256
128
1
1
5 16 = X
256
128
1
1
..
256
1
128
1
64
32
16
64
32
16
64
1
32
16
64
1
32
1
16
64
1
32
1
16
0
64
1
32
1
16
0
8
0
4
1
2
0
1
1
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Conversion From Decimal to Binary:
Repeated Division for integers only
Dividing the number by 2
The quotient is written directly beneath the original number and the
remainder, 0 or 1, is written next to the quotient
The quotient is then considered and the process is repeated until the
number 0 has been reached
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STEP 1: Divide the decimal by 2 in a regular long division until you
have a final remainder
STEP 2: Use the remainder as the LEAST SIGNIFICANT DIGIT of
the binary number
STEP 3: Divide the quotient from the first division until you have final
remainder
STEP 4: Use the remainder as the next digit of the binary number
STEP 5: Repeat steps 3 and 4 as many times as necessary until you
have a quotient that can not be divided by 2
STEP 6: Use the remainder (one you cant divide by 2) as the MOST
SIGNIFICANT DIGIT
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Performing the same example of 485
485 / 2
242 / 2
121 / 2
60 / 2
30 / 2
15 / 2
7 /2
3 /2
1 /2
= 242
= 121
= 60
= 30
= 15
=7
=3
=1
=X
rem 1
rem 0
rem 1
rem 0
rem 0
rem 1
rem 1
rem 1
rem 1
Least Significant Digit
111100101
Most Significant Digit

56

Practice Exercises
Textbook: Page 20:
Practice exercises 1-10
Textbook: Page 22:
Textbook: Page 32
57
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1.4 Data Representation and Storage

Octal Numbers
Prefix oct (octo) stands for eight

Octal number system is a base 8 number system
There are 8 symbols: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Each place value in an octal number is a power of 8
Each group of 3 binary digits can be represented by a single octal digit
Conversion From Binary Numbers to Octal:
Start with the LEAST SIGNIFICANT digit, mark out the digits in
groups of 3
Convert each group of three digits to its octal digit (or symbol)
Example
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
5
6
7
The last group on the

left can have
anywhere from 1 to 3
binary digit group
59

Octal Numbers
Conversion From Octal Numbers to Binary:
Converting octal numbers to binary is just the reverse operation of
converting binary to octal
Simply convert each octal digit to its three-bit binary pattern. The
resulting set of 1s and 0s is the binary equivalent of the octal number
Example
5
6
7
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
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Octal Numbers
Conversion From Decimal Numbers to Octal: two methods:
Do a decimal-to-binary conversion, and then a binary-to-octal
conversion
Do a direct conversion using the repeated division method
Since this is a conversion to octal, 8 is the divisor each time
Example: Performing the same example of 485
485 / 8
= 60
rem 5
Least Significant Digit
60 / 8
=7
rem 4
7 /8
=X
rem 7
Most Significant Digit
=745
Since we are dividing by 8 in the repeated division, you may end up
with remainders of anywhere from 0 to 7
61

Octal Numbers
Example:
Given octal number 7501, what is the equivalent decimal value?
83
512
82
64
81
8
80
1
62

Octal Numbers
Conversion From Octal Numbers to Decimal:
Multiply each digit of the octal number by its place value and add the
results
Example: 7501
7 x 512
5 x 64
0x 8
1x 1
= 3584
= 320
=
0
= + 1
3905
63

Hexadecimal Numbers
Prefix hexa stands for 6 and the prefix deci stands for 10
Hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system
There are 16 symbols: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Each place value in a hexadecimal number is a power of 16
Each group of 4 binary digits can be represented by a single
hexadecimal digit
64

Hexadecimal Numbers
Conversion From Binary Numbers to Hexadecimal:
Start with the LEAST SIGNIFICANT digit, mark out the digits in
groups of 4
Convert each group of four digits to is hexadecimal digit (or symbol)
Example
The last group
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
on the left can
1
7
7
have anywhere
from 1 to 4
binary digit
group
65

Hexadecimal Numbers
Conversion From Hexadecimal Numbers to Binary:
Converting hexadecimal numbers to binary is just the reverse operation
of converting binary to hexadecimal
Simply convert each hexadecimal digit to its four-bit binary pattern.
The resulting set of 1s and 0s is the binary equivalent of the
hexadecimal number
Example: Given hexadecimal number 2EC3, what is the equivalent
decimal value?
163
162
161
160
4096
256
16
3
66

Hexadecimal Numbers
Conversion From Hexadecimal Numbers to Decimal:
Multiply each digit of the hexadecimal number by its place value and
add the results
Example: AB87
10 x 4096
11 x 256
8 x 16
7 x 1
= 40960
= 2816
=
128
= + 7
43911
67

Electronic Prefixes
There are a set of terms used in electronics which are used to represent
different powers of ten
There is also a set of terms used to represent large whole numbers and a set
of terms used to represent small fractional numbers
gigabyte (GB)=230 bytes

megabyte (MB)=220= 1,048,576 bytes
kilobyte (KB)=210=1,024 bytes
68

Data Types and Storage
When data is represented in memory, it is represented as a sequence of bits
This sequence may represent:
An instruction,
A numeric value,
A character,
A portion of an image, digital signal, or some other type of data
69

Data Types and Storage: Code for Letters and Symbols:
Computers use a standard binary code to represent letters of the alphabet,
numerals, punctuation marks, and other special characters
The code is referred to as American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Based on a previous encoding scheme called (ASCII) American
Standard Code for Information Interchange
Currently, there are 256 code combinations in the ANSI format
ASCII had 128 code combinations
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71

Data Types and Storage: Code for Letters and Symbols:
Examples of ASCII Representation:
Character
_________
Code
_____
HEX
____
0100 0010
42
0110 0010
62
&
0010 0110
26
0000 1000
[BACKSPACE]
72

Data Types and Storage:
Two basic data types:
integer
floating
point
73

Data Types and Storage: Integer
Integer data is often stored in memory using 4 bytes, or 32 bits
Left most bit is reserved for the sign of the number
Remaining 31 bits represent the magnitude of the number
Representation of data affects the efficiency of arithmetic and logic
operations
For efficiency, negative integers are often represented in their 2s
complement form
The 2s complement of an integer is formed by negating all of the bits
and adding one
74

Ones Complement
Has a sign bit with 0 used for plus and 1 for minus.
To negate a number, replace each 1 by a 0 and each 0 by a 1.
This holds for the sign bit as well.
Ones complement is obsolete

Switch all 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s
Binary #
10110011
1s complement
01001100
75

Twos Complement
Has a sign bit that is 0 for plus and 1 for minus.
To negate a number, it is done in a two step process:
Each 1 is replaced by a 0 and each 0 is replaced by a 1 (just as in the
ones complement)
1 is added to the result.
Binary addition is the same as decimal addition except that a carry
is generated if the sum is greater than 1 rather than greater than 9
Example:
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 (+6)
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 (-6 in ones complement)
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 (-6 in twos complement)
A signed number has the range:
-2n-1 to 2n-1 -1
An unsigned number has the range: 0 to 2n-1

76

Data Types and Storage: Floating Point
Floating point types represent real numbers, such as 12.25, that include a
decimal point
Digits to the right of the decimal point form the fractional part of the
number
Digits to the left of the decimal point form the integral part of the
number
Example: Convert 12.2510 to binary
First convert the integer part: 1210=11002
Then repeatedly multiply the fractional part by 2:
.25*2=0.5 C0
.50*2=1.0 C1
Therefore: 12.2510 =1100.012
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Example 1:
What does the decimal value of 124 stand for?
102
1
124
101 100
2
4
x100 + x10 + x1
base
rightmost place
answer
124
What is the decimal value of the binary value of 110?
22
1
110
x4
21
1
+ x2 +
20
0
base
rightmost place
x1
answer
6
78

Example 1:
What is the decimal value of the octal value 176?
176
82
81
80
base
rightmost place
answer
x64 + x8 +
x1
126
What is the decimal value of the hexadecimal value of B29?
B29
162
161
160
x256 + x16 +
x1
base
rightmost place
answer
2857
79

Example 2: (Binary-to-Decimal Conversion Table)
80

Example 3a: Binary to Decimal
Convert: 1012 = ?10
Begin with rightmost bit (ones place).
The next bit is the twos place, then the fours place, and so on
22
21
20
x4 + x2 + x1
81

Example 3b: Binary to Decimal
Convert: 10102 = ?10

The next bit is the twos place, then the fours place, and so on
23
22
21
20
10
x8 + x4 + x2 + x1
82

Example 3c: Octal to Decimal
Convert: 2708 = ?10

The next bit is the eights place, then the sixty-fours place, and so
on
82
81
80
184
x64+ x8 + x1
83

Example 3d: Hexadecimal to Decimal
Convert: 112A16 = ?10

The next bit is the 16s place, then the 256s place, and so on
163
162
161
160
4394
x4096 + x256 + x16 + x1
84
85

Example 4a: Decimal to Binary
Convert: 2410 = ?2
86

Example 4b: Decimal to Binary
Convert: 28.62510 = ?2
24
23
22
21
20
2-1
16
0.5 0.25 0.125
16
28.62510
2-2
0.5
0
2-3
0.125
0
= 11100.1012
87

Example 4c: Octal to Binary
Convert: 53358 = ?2
88

Example 4d: Binary to Octal
Convert: 1010110111012 = ?8
89

Example 4e: Hexadecimal to Binary
Convert: 1A8416 = ?2
90

Data Inside Computers
Computers use electricity for data processing and storage
Electricity can flow through switches
If switch is closed, electricity flows
If switch is open, electricity does not flow
Computers have switches to represent data

Switches have only two states: ON and OFF
Binary has two digits: 0 and 1
1 for the ON state, 0 for the OFF state
91

Computer manufacturers express capacity of memory in terms of bytes
One byte can represent many different kinds of data
This depends on how the computer creates the byte
65
0
64
ASCII A
92

0
66
64
ASCII B
1
67
64
ASCII C
93

Picture and Graphics Data
Digital photographs are composed of a grid of colored dots
A grid of pixels represents graphic data
Examples: pictures, frames of a movie, animations
Pixel is short for Picture Element
In simple graphics, a byte can represent a single pixel
1 byte can hold 256 different integers (0 255)
10000000
01111100
11111010
11001100
94

Data Inside Computers: Picture and Graphics Data
Several graphic standard formats

Bitmap (.bmp) store every pixel of image
JPEG & GIF compressed formats
Instead of storing every pixel, store a pattern of pixels
Size of image is important particularly when sending pictures via email,

downloading them over the Web, etc
Primary goal of using these compressed formats is to shrink size of

image files without altering the quality of the image
A compression ratio is commonly adjusted to make graphic file size smaller
95

Example: uncompressed, 84 kilobytes (JPEG)
96

Example: 20% compression, 37 kilobytes (JPEG)
97

98

99

100

101
1.5 Engineering Problem Solving Methodology

Analyzing First Program C++ Program Structure
1. State the problem clearly
2. Describe the input and output information clearly
3. Work the problem by hand (or calculator) for a simple set of
data
4. Develop a solution and convert it to a computer program
5. Test the solution with a variety of data
102

Example:
Compute the distance between two points in a plane
103

1.
Compute the straight-line distance between two

points in a plane
2.
I/O diagram
(x1,y1)
(x2,y2)
3.
Hand example
4.
Algorithm and development:
5.
Processing
(program)
1.
Give values to two points
2.
Compute the length of the two sides of the right triangle
3.
Compute the distance (= length of hypotenuse of the triangle)
4.
Print the distance
Testing
D (distance)
104

/*-------------------------------------------------------* Program chapter1_1
* This program computes the distance between two points.
*/
#include <iostream> // Required for cout, endl.
#include <cmath>
// Required for sqrt()
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declare and initialize objects.
double x1(1), y1(5), x2(4), y2(7),
side1, side2, distance;
// Compute sides of a right triangle.
side1 = x2 - x1;
side2 = y2 - y1;
distance = sqrt(side1*side1 + side2*side2);
// Print distance.
cout << "The distance between the two points is "
<< distance << endl;
// Exit program.
return 0;
}
//--------------------------------------------------------
105

/*-------------------------------------------------------* Program chapter1_1
* This program computes the distance between two points.
*/
#include <iostream> // Required for cout, endl.
#include <cmath>
// Required for sqrt()
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declare and initialize objects.
double x1(1), y1(5), x2(4), y2(7),
Comments:
side1, side2, distance;
Document the
// Compute sides of a right triangle.
programs purpose
side1 = x2 - x1;
Help the human
side2 = y2 - y1;
reader understand the
distance = sqrt(side1*side1 + side2*side2);
program
// Print distance.
Are ignored by the
compiler
cout << "The distance between the two points is "
// comments to end-of
<< distance << endl;
line
// Exit program.
/* starts a comment
return 0;
block ending with */
}
106
//--------------------------------------------------------
107
108
109
110
111
112

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ENGR 1200U

Recent engineering achievements

A discussion of hardware and software

Augusta Ada Byron

Designed the Analytical Engine in the early 1800s

Read instructions from punched cards and carried them out

Programs written on punch cards

1.2 Recent Engineering Achievements

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

The von Neumann Computing Model

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

Secondary storage devices

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

Theres a lot going

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

1.3 Computing Systems

Finite-Precision Numbers: Overview

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

Binary numbers can be stored in memory as sequence of bits, called word

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

Choice of 10 as the base for exponentiation (called the radix) is made

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

Base two (binary) number system

101102 = 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 1*21 + 0*20

1.4 Data representation and Storage

2458 = 2*82 + 4*81 + 5*80

1.4 Data representation and Storage

2FB16 = 2*162 + F*161 + B*160

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

1.4 Data representation and Storage

Conversion From Decimal to Binary: two ways:

1.4 Data representation and Storage

101102 = 124 + 023 + 122 + 121 + 0*20

2458 = 282 + 481 + 5*80

2FB16 = 2162 + F161 + B*160