5.

INTRODUCTION OF POWER SERIES

5.1
Power Series [1] [2] [3] [8]
In general, an infinite series form

ak ( xc )k =a 0+ a1 ( x c )+ a2 ( xc )2+
k=0

a
a
a
a
is called a power series in (xc ) . The number 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , are
the coefficients of the series. If c=0 , the series has the form

ak ( x)k =a0 +a 1 ( x ) +a2 ( x )2+

k=0

Convergence of a power series [1] [3]

ak ( x)k

For a power series,

k=0

There are three possibilities:

1. The series converges absolutely for all

x ( , ) and the radius of

convergence is r= ;
2. The series converges only for

x=c

(and diverges for all other values of

x ) and the radius of convergence is r=0 ;

3. The converges absolutely for all

x< cr

and for

x (cr ,c +r ) and diverges for

x> c+ r , for some number r

with 0<r < .

Ratio Test [1] [3]

In order to determine where a power series converges, a method called Ratio Test
where
lim

| |

ak +1
=L
ak

L= limit, given that

a k ,a k 0 for all k
k=1

Hence,

2. If

L<1 , the series converges absolutely,

L>1 , (or L= ), the series diverges and

3. If

L=1 , there no conclusion.

1. If

To further explain how the Ratio Test in finding the interval and radius of
convergence of a power series, for example:

k
k
( x1)
10
k=0 k !
By applying Ratio Test,
a
10 k+1 ( x1 )k
k!
lim k +1 = lim
k
a
(
k
+1
)
!
k
k
10 ( x1 )k
k

| | |

10| x1| lim

k

10| x1| lim

k!
(k + 1)k !

1
=0<1
k+1

This indicates that the series converges absolutely for all

x . Hence, the interval of

convergence series is (, ) and radius of convergence is r= .

There are many types of interval convergence for power series such as:
a) Half-open interval of convergence, if the power series converges absolutely
for

x (cr ,c +r ) and diverges for

x< cr

as and its radius of convergence, r

or

x> c+ r , and denoted

is always a integer.

b) A power series that converges at only one point if a power series only
converges to one value of

x and its radius of convergence, r=0 , and

the series diverges for other value of

x .

c) Open interval of convergence, if the power series converges absolutely for all
x ( , ) and the radius of convergence is r= .

Taylor Series [1] [3] [6] [7]

Suppose that f has derivatives of all orders in the interval (cr , c +r ) , for some
5.2

R n ( x )=0
r >0 and nlim

, for all
for f

expanded about

f ( x )=
k=0

for all

x=c

x in (cr , c +r ) . Then, the Taylor series

converges to f (x) , that is,

f (k ) ( c )
( xc) k
k!

x in (cr , c +r ) .

To explain Taylor series, let f ( x )=ln x

at c=1

f ( x )=ln x
f ' ( x )=

f ( 1 )=0

1
x

'
f ( 1 )=1

f ' ' (1 ) =1

1
x2
f ' ' ' ( 1 )=
1
1
2
6
2
3
4
ln x=0+ ( x1 ) ( x1 ) + ( x1 ) ( x 1 ) +
1! '''
22!
3!
4!
f ( x )= 3
f 4 (1 )=6
x
1
1
1
( x1 ) ( x1 )2 + ( x1 )3 ( x1 )4 +
2
3
4
''

f ( x )=

k1

Suppose f

(1 )k +1( x 1)k
k

is a function that is infinitely differentiable at c . Now we have two

mathematical quantities, f

and its Taylor series. There are several possibilities:

1. The Taylor series of f may converge to f on the interval of absolute
| xc|
convergence, R< xc <R < R).

2. The Taylor series may converge only at

does not represent f

x=c , in which case it certainly

on any interval containing c .

3. The Taylor series of f

may have a positive radius of convergence (even

R= , but it may converge to a function

g that does not equal f

on

the interval |xc|< R .

Maclaurin Series [1] [3] [7]

5.3

Suppose there is an open interval

f

containing c

throughout which the function

and all its derivatives exist. Then the power series

f (c )+

'
''
'' '
(c )
f (c )
f (c )
2 f
( xc ) +
( xc )3 +
( xc ) +
1!
2!
3!

is called the Taylor series of f

at c . The special case where c=0

is called

the Maclaurin series of:

'
''
' ''
f ( 0)
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
f ( 0 )+
x+
x +
x +
1!
2!
3!
The uniqueness theorem may be summarized by saying that the Taylor series of f
at c

is the only

represent f

on

power series of the form

I . However, if f

a k ( xc )k

that can possibly

has a power series representation, then its

representation must have the Taylor form.

Example:

Find the Maclaurin series for f ( x )=cos x

First, note that f

infinitely differentiable at

f ( 0 )=1

f ( x )=cos x

f ' ( 0 )=0

'

f ( x )=sin x
f ' ' ( x )=cos x
f ' ' ' ( x )=sin x

x=0 . We find

''
f ( 0 )=1

8
f ' ' ' ( 0 ) = 0

Thus, by using the definition of Maclaurin series, we have

x=1

5.4

(1)k x2 k
x2 x 4 x 6
+ + =
2! 4 ! 6 !
(2 k ) !
k=0
cos

Differentiation of a Power Series [3] [4] [5]

Term-by-term differentiation of a power series

A power series with radius of convergence r >0 can be differentiated term by term
on its interval of convergence. More specifically, if

f ( u ) = a k uk
k=0

for |u|< r , then for |u|< r , we have

f ( u )= k ak uk1=a 1+ 2a 2 u+3 a 3 u2 + 4 a 4 u3 +
'

k=1

Example:

Differentiating the Maclaurin series for sin x term by term,

Solution:
3
7
d
[ sin x ] = d x x + x x +
dx
dx
3! 5! 7!

13
1

x
x
x
+5 7 +
3!
5!
7!

x 2 x4 x6
+ +
2! 4 ! 6 !
= cos x

If a function is represented by a power series,

f ( x )= c k ( xa)k
k=0

where the series has a nonzero radius of convergence

(a) The series of differentiated terms

dxd [ c k ( xa )k ]= k c k ( xa )k1
k=0
k=1
has radius of convergence

R .

R , then :

(b) The function f

every

is differentiable on the interval ( aR , a+ R ), and for

in this interval

f ( x ) =
'

k=0

d
k
c k ( xa ) ]
[
dx

Integration of power series [3] [4] [5]

5.5

Term-by-term Integration of a power series

In general, a power series can be integrated by using term-by-term integration of
power series which can be expressed:

f ( u ) du=
Example:

k=0

k=0

a k uk du= ( a k u k du )=
k=0

ak k +1
u +c
k +1

Integrate cos x by using Maclaurin series, show that

cos x dx=sin x +C
Solution:

cos xdx = 1

] [

sin x+C

The characteristic of an integrated power series, for instance,

f ( x )= c k ( xa )

k=0

Where the series has a nonzero radius of convergence R, then:

a) The series of integrated terms

k=0

k=0

] [

x2 x4 x6
x3
x5
x7
x3 x5 x7
+ + dx= x
+

+ +C= x + +
2! 4 ! 6 !
3! 5! 7!
3 ( 2 !) 5 ( 4 !) 7 ( 6 !)

k
k +1
(xa)
[ c k ( xa )k dx ]= k +1

has radius of convergence R.

10

b) The function f
x

is continuous on the interval ( aR , a+ R ) and for all

in this interval.

f ( x ) dx= [ c k ( xa )k dx ] +C
k=0

c) For all

and

c k ( xa )k dx
k=0

in the interval ( aR , a+ R ), the series

Converges absolutely and

f ( x ) dx= c k ( xa)k dx

k=0

11