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Submarine
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Asubmarineisawatercraftcapableofindependent
operationunderwater.Itdiffersfromasubmersible,which
hasmorelimitedunderwatercapability.Thetermmost
commonlyreferstoalarge,crewed,autonomousvessel.It
isalsosometimesusedhistoricallyorcolloquiallytorefer
toremotelyoperatedvehiclesandrobots,aswellas
mediumsizedorsmallervessels,suchasthemidget
submarineandthewetsub.Usedasanadjectiveinphrases
suchassubmarinecable,submarinemeans"underthesea".
Thenounsubmarineevolvedasashortenedformof
submarineboat(andisoftenfurthershortenedtosub).[1]
Forreasonsofnavaltradition,submarinesareusually
referredtoas"boats"ratherthanas"ships",regardlessof
theirsize.

ARussianNavyTyphoonclasssubmarine
underway.Alsoknownas"Project941",theyare
thelargestsubmarineseverbuilt.

Althoughexperimentalsubmarineshadbeenbuiltbefore,
submarinedesigntookoffduringthe19thcentury,andthey
wereadoptedbyseveralnavies.SubmarineswerefirstwidelyusedduringWorldWarI(19141918),andnow
figureinmanynavieslargeandsmall.Militaryusageincludesattackingenemysurfaceships(merchantand
military),submarines,aircraftcarrierprotection,blockaderunning,ballisticmissilesubmarinesaspartofa
nuclearstrikeforce,reconnaissance,conventionallandattack(forexampleusingacruisemissile),andcovert
insertionofspecialforces.Civilianusesforsubmarinesincludemarinescience,salvage,explorationand
facilityinspectionandmaintenance.Submarinescanalsobemodifiedtoperformmorespecializedfunctions
suchassearchandrescuemissionsorunderseacablerepair.Submarinesarealsousedintourism,andfor
underseaarchaeology.
Mostlargesubmarinesconsistofacylindricalbodywithhemispherical(orconical)endsandavertical
structure,usuallylocatedamidships,whichhousescommunicationsandsensingdevicesaswellasperiscopes.
Inmodernsubmarines,thisstructureisthe"sail"inAmericanusage,and"fin"inEuropeanusage.A"conning
tower"wasafeatureofearlierdesigns:aseparatepressurehullabovethemainbodyoftheboatthatallowed
theuseofshorterperiscopes.Thereisapropeller(orpumpjet)attherear,andvarioushydrodynamiccontrol
fins.Smaller,deepdivingandspecialtysubmarinesmaydeviatesignificantlyfromthistraditionallayout.
Submarineschangetheamountofwaterandairintheirballasttankstodecreasebuoyancyforsubmergingor
increaseitforsurfacing.
Submarineshaveoneofthewidestrangesoftypesandcapabilitiesofanyvessel.Theyrangefromsmall
autonomousexamplesandoneortwopersonvesselsthatoperateforafewhours,tovesselsthatcanremain
submergedforsixmonthssuchastheRussianTyphoonclass,thebiggestsubmarineseverbuilt.Submarines
canworkatgreaterdepthsthanaresurvivableorpracticalforhumandivers.[2]Moderndeepdivingsubmarines
derivefromthebathyscaphe,whichinturnevolvedfromthedivingbell.

Contents
1 History
1.1 EarlyModernera
1.1.1 Earlysubmersibles
1.2 Latemodernera
1.2.1 18thcenturysubmarines
1.2.2 19thcenturysubmarines
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1.2.2 19thcenturysubmarines
1.2.2.1 Mechanicalpower
1.2.3 20thcenturysubmarines
1.2.3.1 WorldWarI
1.2.3.2 WorldWarII
1.2.3.3 ColdWarmilitarymodels
1.2.4 21stcenturysubmarines
2 Usage
2.1 Military
2.2 Civilian
2.3 Polaroperations
3 Technology
3.1 Submersionandtrimming
3.2 Hull
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Singleanddoublehulls
3.2.3 Pressurehull
3.3 Propulsion
3.3.1 Electric
3.3.1.1 Dieselelectric
3.3.2 Airindependentpropulsion
3.3.3 Nuclearpower
3.3.4 Alternativepropulsion
3.4 Armament
3.5 Sensors
3.6 Navigation
3.7 Communication
3.8 Lifesupportsystems
4 Crew
4.1 Women
4.2 Abandoningthevessel
5 Seealso
5.1 Bycountry
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 Externallinks

History
EarlyModernera
Earlysubmersibles
AccordingtoareportinOpusculumTaisnieripublishedin1562:
TwoGreekssubmergedandsurfacedintheriverTagusnear
theCityofToledoseveraltimesinthepresenceofThe
HolyRomanEmperorCharlesV,withoutgettingwetand
withtheflametheycarriedintheirhandsstillalight.[3]
In1578,theEnglishmathematicianWilliamBournerecordedinhis
bookInventionsorDevisesoneofthefirstplansforanunderwater
navigationvehicle.AfewyearslatertheScottishmathematicianand
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Drebbel,thefirstnavigable
submarine
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theologianJohnNapierwroteinhisSecretInventions(1596)thefollowing:"Theseinventionsbesidesdevises
ofsaylingunderwaterwithdivers,otherdevisesandstrategemsforharmingoftheenemyesbytheGraceof
GodandworkeofexpertCraftsmenIhopetoperform."It'sunclearwhetherheevercarriedouthisidea.[4]
Thefirstsubmersibleofwhoseconstructionthereexistsreliableinformationwasdesignedandbuiltin1620by
CorneliusDrebbel,aDutchmanintheserviceofJamesIofEngland.Itwaspropelledbymeansofoars.The
precisenatureofthissubmarineisunclear,itmaybepossiblethatitresembledabelltowedbyaboat.[5]Inhis
autobiographyof1651,ConstantijnHuygensreportsaboutDrebbel'sfirstsubmarineexcursion:
'Worthalltherestputtogetheristhelittleship,inwhichhecalmlydivedunderthewater,whilehe
keptthekingandseveralthousandLondonersinthegreatestsuspense.Thegreatmajorityofthese
alreadythoughtthatthemanwhohadverycleverlyremainedinvisibletothemforthreehours,as
rumourhasithadperished,whenhesuddenlyrosetothesurfaceaconsiderabledistancefrom
wherehehaddiveddown,bringingwithhimtheseveralcompanionsofhisdangerousadventureto
witnesstothefactthattheyhadexperiencednotroubleorfearunderthewater,buthadsatonthe
bottom,whentheysodesired,andhadascendedwhentheywishedtodosothattheyhadsailed
whithersoevertheyhadamind,risingasmuchnearerthesurfaceoragaindivingasmuchdeeperas
itpleasedthemtodo,withoutevenbeingdeprivedoflightyea,eventhattheyhaddoneinthe
bellyofthatwhaleallthethingspeopleareusedtodointheair,andthiswithoutanytrouble.From
allthisitisnothardtoimaginewhatwouldbetheusefulnessofthisboldinventionintimeofwar,
ifinthismanner(athingwhichIhaverepeatedlyheardDrebbelassert)enemyshipslyingsafelyat
anchorcouldbesecretlyattackedandsunkunexpectedlybymeansofabatteringraman
instrumentofwhichhideoususeismadenowadaysinthecapturingofthegatesandbridgesof
towns.'[6]

Latemodernera
18thcenturysubmarines
Bythemid18thcentury,overadozenpatentsforsubmarines/submersibleboatshadbeengrantedinEngland.
In1747,NathanielSymonspatentedandbuiltthefirstknownworkingexampleoftheuseofaballasttankfor
submersion.Hisdesignusedleatherbagsthatcouldfillwithwatertosubmergethecraft.Amechanismwas
usedtotwistthewateroutofthebagsandcausetheboattoresurface.In1749,theGentlemen'sMagazine
reportedthatasimilardesignhadinitiallybeenproposedbyGiovanniBorelliin1680.Bythispointof
development,furtherimprovementindesignnecessarilystagnatedforoveracentury,untilnewindustrial
technologiesforpropulsionandstabilitycouldbeapplied.[7]
ThefirstmilitarysubmarinewastheTurtle(1775),ahandpoweredacornshapeddevicedesignedbythe
AmericanDavidBushnelltoaccommodateasingleperson.[8]Itwasthefirstverifiedsubmarinecapableof
independentunderwateroperationandmovement,andthefirsttousescrewsforpropulsion.[9]
19thcenturysubmarines
In1800,FrancebuiltahumanpoweredsubmarinedesignedbyAmericanRobertFulton,theNautilus.The
Frencheventuallygaveupontheexperimentin1804,asdidtheBritishwhentheylaterconsideredFulton's
submarinedesign.
In1864,lateintheAmericanCivilWar,theConfederatenavy'sH.L.Hunleybecamethefirstmilitary
submarinetosinkanenemyvessel,theUnionsloopofwarUSSHousatonic.Intheaftermathofitssuccessful
attackagainsttheship,theHunleyalsosank,possiblybecauseitwastooclosetoitsownexplodingtorpedo.

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In1866,thefirstsubmarinethatsuccessfullydived,madeacontrolled
underwatercruiseandemergedtothesurfaceagainallbyitsownwas
theSubMarineExploreroftheGermanAmericanJuliusH.Kroehl(in
German,Krhl),whichincorporatedmanytechnologiesthatarestill
essentialtomodernsubmarines.[10]
Mechanicalpower

Thefirstsubmarinenotrelyingonhumanpowerforpropulsionwasthe
FrenchPlongeur(Diver),launchedin1863,whichusedcompressedair
at180psi(1241kPa).[11]TherearealsoclaimsthatCosmeGarcaSez
producedaviablesubmersibledesigninthesameepoch.
Thefirstairindependentandcombustionpoweredsubmarinewas
IctineoII,designedbytheCatalanintellectual,artistandengineer
NarcsMonturiol.LaunchedinBarcelonain1864,itwasoriginally
humanpowered,butin1867Monturiolinventedanairindependent
enginetopoweritunderwater.The14m(46ft)longcraftwasdesigned
foracrewoftwo,performeddivesof30m(98ft)andremained
underwaterfortwohours.BothIctineoIandIctineoIIweredouble
hulledvesselsthatsolvedpressureandbuoyancycontrolproblemsthat
hadtroubledandlimitedthefunctionalityofearliersubmarines.

1806illustrationbyRobertFulton
showinga"plungingboat"

TheFrenchsubmarinePlongeur

ThesubmarinebecameapotentiallyviableweaponwiththedevelopmentoftheWhiteheadtorpedo,thefirst
practicalselfpropelledor'locomotive'torpedo.Thespartorpedothathadbeendevelopedearlierbythe
Confederatenavywasconsideredtobeimpracticable,asitwasbelievedtohavesunkbothitsintendedtarget,
andprobablyH.L.Hunley,thesubmarinethatdeployedit.TheWhiteheadtorpedowasdesignedin1866by
BritishengineerRobertWhitehead.His'mineship'wasan11foot(3.4m)long,14inch(36cm)diameter
torpedopropelledbycompressedair,carryinganexplosivewarhead.Thedevicehadaspeedof7knots
(13km/h8.1mph)anditcouldhitatarget700yards(640m)away.[12]
DiscussionsbetweentheEnglishclergymanandinventorGeorgeGarrettandtheSwedishindustrialistThorsten
Nordenfeltledtothefirstpracticalsteampoweredsubmarines,armedwithtorpedoesandreadyformilitary
use.ThefirstwasNordenfeltI,a56tonne,19.5metre(64ft)vesselsimilartoGarret'sillfatedResurgam
(1879),witharangeof240kilometres(130nmi150mi),armedwithasingletorpedo,in1885.
LikeResurgam,NordenfeltIoperatedonthesurfacebysteam,thenshut
downitsenginetodive.Whilesubmergedthesubmarinereleased
pressuregeneratedwhentheenginewasrunningonthesurfaceto
providepropulsionforsomedistanceunderwater.Greece,fearfulofthe
returnoftheOttomans,purchasedit.NordenfeltthenbuiltNordenfeltII
(AbdlHamid)in1886andNordenfeltIII(AbdlMecid)in1887,apair
TheNordenfeltdesigned,Ottoman
of30metre(98ft)submarineswithtwintorpedotubes,fortheOttoman
submarineAbdlHamid
navy.AbdlHamidbecamethefirstsubmarineinhistorytofirea
torpedosubmerged.[13]Nordenfelt'seffortsculminatedin1887with
NordenfeltIV,whichhadtwinmotorsandtwintorpedoes.ItwassoldtotheRussians,butprovedunstable,ran
aground,andwasscrapped.
Areliablemeansofpropulsionforthesubmergedvesselwasonlymadepossibleinthe1880swiththeadvent
ofthenecessaryelectricbatterytechnology.ThefirstelectricallypoweredboatswerebuiltbyJamesFranklin
WaddingtoninEngland,DupuydeLmeandGustaveZdinFrance,andIsaacPeralinSpain.[14]

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Waddington'sPorpoisewassimilarinsizetoResurgamanditspropulsionsystemconsistedof45accumulator
cellswithacapacityof660amperehourseach.Thesewerecoupledinseriestoamotordrivingapropellerat
about750rpm,givingtheshipasustainedspeedof8milesperhour(13km/h)foratleast8hours.Theboat
wasarmedwithtwoexternallymountedtorpedoesaswellasaminetorpedothatcouldbedetonated
electrically.Althoughtheboatperformedwellattrials,Waddingtonwasunabletoattractfurthercontractsand
wentbankrupt.[15]
TheSpanishPeralwaslaunchedin1888,andhadthree14inch(360mm)Schwarzkopftorpedoesandone
torpedotubeinthebow,newairsystems,hullshape,propeller,andcruciformexternalcontrolsanticipating
laterdesigns.Peralwasanallelectricalpoweredsubmarine.[16]Aftertwoyearsoftrialstheprojectwas
scrappedbynavalofficialswhocited,amongotherreasons,concernsoveritslimitedrange.
ThesubmarineGymnotewaslaunchedbytheFrenchNavyinthesameyear.Gymnotewasalsoanelectrically
poweredandfullyfunctionalmilitarysubmarine.Itcompletedover2,000successfuldivesusinga204cell
battery.[17]AlthoughtheGymnoteprojectwasterminatedduetothevessel'slimitedrange,itssidehydroplanes
becamethestandardforfuturesubmarinedesigns.
20thcenturysubmarines
Submarineswerenotputintoserviceforanywidespreadorroutineuseby
naviesuntiltheearly1900s.Thiseramarkedapivotaltimeinsubmarine
development,andseveralimportanttechnologiesappeared.Anumberof
nationsbuiltandusedsubmarines.Dieselelectricpropulsionbecamethe
dominantpowersystemandequipmentsuchastheperiscopebecame
standardized.Countriesconductedmanyexperimentsoneffectivetacticsand
weaponsforsubmarines,whichledtotheirlargeimpactinWorldWarI.

Akula(launchedin1907)
wasthefirstRussian
submarineabletocruiselong
distances.Wrecknear
Hiiumaa,Estonia.

TheIrishinventorJohnPhilipHolland
builtamodelsubmarinein1876anda
fullscaleversionin1878,followedbya
numberofunsuccessfulones.In1896he
designedtheHollandTypeVI
submarine,whichusedinternal
combustionenginepoweronthesurface
andelectricbatterypowerunderwater.
Launchedon17May1897atNavyLt.
LewisNixon'sCrescentShipyardin
USSPlunger,launchedin1902
Elizabeth,NewJersey,theHollandVI
waspurchasedbytheUnitedStates
Navyon11April1900,becomingtheNavy'sfirstcommissionedsubmarine,

christenedUSSHolland.[18]
CommissionedinJune1900,theFrenchsteamandelectricNarvalemployedthenowtypicaldoublehull
design,withapressurehullinsidetheoutershell.These200tonshipshadarangeofover100miles(160km)
underwater.TheFrenchsubmarineAigrettein1904furtherimprovedtheconceptbyusingadieselratherthana
gasolineengineforsurfacepower.Largenumbersofthesesubmarineswerebuilt,withseventysixcompleted
before1914.
TheRoyalNavycommissionedfiveHollandclasssubmarinesfromVickers,BarrowinFurness,underlicence
fromtheHollandTorpedoBoatCompanyfrom1901to1903.Constructionoftheboatstooklongerthan
anticipated,withthefirstonlyreadyforadivingtrialatseaon6April1902.Althoughthedesignhadbeen
purchasedentirefromtheUScompany,theactualdesignusedwasanuntestedimprovementtotheoriginal
Hollanddesignusinganew180hppetrolengine.[19]
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ThesetypesofsubmarineswerefirstusedduringtheRussoJapaneseWarof190405.Duetotheblockadeat
PortArthur,theRussianssenttheirsubmarinestoVladivostok,whereby1January1905therewereseven
boats,enoughtocreatetheworld'sfirst"operationalsubmarinefleet".Thenewsubmarinefleetbeganpatrols
on14February,usuallylastingforabout24hourseach.ThefirstconfrontationwithJapanesewarships
occurredon29April1905whentheRussiansubmarineSomwasfireduponbyJapanesetorpedoboats,but
thenwithdrew.[20]
WorldWarI

MilitarysubmarinesfirstmadeasignificantimpactinWorldWarI.
ForcessuchastheUboatsofGermanysawactionintheFirstBattleof
theAtlantic,andwereresponsibleforsinkingRMSLusitania,which
wassunkasaresultofunrestrictedsubmarinewarfareandisoftencited
amongthereasonsfortheentryoftheUnitedStatesintothewar.[21]
TheGermansubmarineSMU9,
AttheoutbreakofwarGermanyhadonly20submarinesimmediately
whichsankthreeBritishcruisersin
availableforcombat,althoughtheseincludedvesselsofthediesel
lessthananhourinSeptember1914
enginedU19classwiththerange(5,000miles)andspeed(eightknots)
tooperateeffectivelyaroundtheentireBritishcoast.[22]Bycontrastthe
RoyalNavyhadatotalof74submarines,thoughofmixedeffectiveness.InAugust1914,aflotillaoftenU
boatssailedfromtheirbaseinHeligolandtoattackRoyalNavywarshipsintheNorthSeainthefirstsubmarine
warpatrolinhistory.[23]

TheUboats'abilitytofunctionaspracticalwarmachinesreliedonnewtactics,theirnumbers,andsubmarine
technologiessuchascombinationdieselelectricpowersystemdevelopedintheprecedingyears.More
submersiblesthantruesubmarines,Uboatsoperatedprimarilyonthesurfaceusingregularengines,
submergingoccasionallytoattackunderbatterypower.Theywereroughlytriangularincrosssection,witha
distinctkeeltocontrolrollingwhilesurfaced,andadistinctbow.DuringWorldWarImorethan5,000Allied
shipsweresunkbyUboats.[24]
WorldWarII

DuringWorldWarII,Germanyusedsubmarinestodevastatingeffectin
theBattleoftheAtlantic,whereitattemptedtocutBritain'ssupply
routesbysinkingmoremerchantshipsthanBritaincouldreplace.
(ShippingwasvitaltosupplyBritain'spopulationwithfood,industry
withrawmaterial,andarmedforceswithfuelandarmaments.)While
Uboatsdestroyedasignificantnumberofships,thestrategyultimately
failed.AlthoughtheUboatshadbeenupdatedintheinterwaryears,the
majorinnovationwasimprovedcommunications,encryptedusingthe
famousEnigmaciphermachine.Thisallowedformassattacknaval
tactics(Rudeltaktik,commonlyknownas"wolfpack"),butwasalso
ultimatelytheUboats'downfall.Bytheendofthewar,almost3,000
Alliedships(175warships,2,825merchantmen)hadbeensunkbyU
boats.[25]

TheImperialJapaneseNavy'sI400
classsubmarine,thelargestsubmarine
typeofWWII

TheImperialJapaneseNavyoperatedthemostvariedfleetof
AmodelofGntherPrien'sU47,
submarinesofanynavy,includingKaitencrewedtorpedoes,midget
GermanWWIITypeVIIdiesel
submarines(TypeAKohyotekiandKairyuclasses),mediumrange
electrichunter
submarines,purposebuiltsupplysubmarinesandlongrangefleet
submarines.Theyalsohadsubmarineswiththehighestsubmerged
speedsduringWorldWarII(I201classsubmarines)andsubmarinesthatcouldcarrymultipleaircraft(I400
classsubmarines).Theywerealsoequippedwithoneofthemostadvancedtorpedoesoftheconflict,the
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oxygenpropelledType95.Nevertheless,despitetheirtechnicalprowess,Japanchosetoutilizeitssubmarines
forfleetwarfare,andconsequentlywererelativelyunsuccessful,aswarshipswerefast,maneuverableandwell
defendedcomparedtomerchantships.
ThesubmarineforcewasthemosteffectiveantishipweaponintheAmericanarsenal.Submarines,though
onlyabout2percentoftheU.S.Navy,destroyedover30percentoftheJapaneseNavy,including8aircraft
carriers,1battleshipand11cruisers.USsubmarinesalsodestroyedover60percentoftheJapanesemerchant
fleet,cripplingJapan'sabilitytosupplyitsmilitaryforcesandindustrialwareffort.Alliedsubmarinesinthe
PacificWardestroyedmoreJapaneseshippingthanallotherweaponscombined.Thisfeatwasconsiderably
aidedbytheImperialJapaneseNavy'sfailuretoprovideadequateescortforcesforthenation'smerchantfleet.
DuringWorldWarII,314submarinesservedintheUSNavy,ofwhichnearly260weredeployedtothe
Pacific.[26]WhentheJapaneseattackedHawaiiinDecember1941,111boatswereincommission203
submarinesfromtheGato,Balao,andTenchclasseswerecommissionedduringthewar.Duringthewar,52US
submarineswerelosttoallcauses,with48directlyduetohostilities.[27]USsubmarinessank1,560enemy
vessels,[26]atotaltonnageof5.3milliontons(55%ofthetotalsunk).[28]
TheRoyalNavySubmarineServicewasusedprimarilyintheclassicAxisblockade.Itsmajoroperatingareas
werearoundNorway,intheMediterranean(againsttheAxissupplyroutestoNorthAfrica),andintheFar
East.Inthatwar,Britishsubmarinessank2milliontonsofenemyshippingand57majorwarships,thelatter
including35submarines.Amongtheseistheonlydocumentedinstanceofasubmarinesinkinganother
submarinewhilebothweresubmerged.ThisoccurredwhenHMSVenturerengagedtheU864theVenturer
crewmanuallycomputedasuccessfulfiringsolutionagainstathreedimensionallymaneuveringtargetusing
techniqueswhichbecamethebasisofmoderntorpedocomputertargetingsystems.SeventyfourBritish
submarineswerelost,[29]themajority,42,intheMediterranean.
ColdWarmilitarymodels

Thefirstlaunchofacruisemissile(SSMN8Regulus)froma
submarineoccurredinJuly1953,fromthedeckofUSSTunny,aWorld
WarIIfleetboatmodifiedtocarrythemissilewithanuclearwarhead.
Tunnyanditssisterboat,Barbero,weretheUnitedStates'firstnuclear
deterrentpatrolsubmarines.Inthe1950s,nuclearpowerpartially
replaceddieselelectricpropulsion.Equipmentwasalsodevelopedto
extractoxygenfromseawater.Thesetwoinnovationsgavesubmarines
theabilitytoremainsubmergedforweeksormonths.[30][31]Mostofthe
navalsubmarinesbuiltsincethattimeintheUS,theSovietUnion,
Britain,andFrancehavebeenpoweredbynuclearreactors.

HMASRankin,aCollinsclass
submarineatperiscopedepth

In19591960,thefirstballisticmissilesubmarineswereputintoservice
byboththeUnitedStates(GeorgeWashingtonclass)andtheSovietUnion(Golfclass)aspartoftheColdWar
nucleardeterrentstrategy.
DuringtheColdWar,theUSandtheSovietUnionmaintainedlargesubmarinefleetsthatengagedincatand
mousegames.TheSovietUnionlostatleastfoursubmarinesduringthisperiod:K129waslostin1968(apart
ofwhichtheCIAretrievedfromtheoceanfloorwiththeHowardHughesdesignedshipGlomarExplorer),K8
in1970,K219in1986,andKomsomoletsin1989(whichheldadepthrecordamongmilitarysubmarines
1000m).ManyotherSovietsubs,suchasK19(thefirstSovietnuclearsubmarine,andthefirstSovietsubto
reachtheNorthPole)werebadlydamagedbyfireorradiationleaks.TheUSlosttwonuclearsubmarines
duringthistime:USSThresherduetoequipmentfailureduringatestdivewhileatitsoperationallimit,and
USSScorpionduetounknowncauses.

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DuringtheIndoPakistaniWarof1971,thePakistanNavy'sHangorsankthe
IndianfrigateINSKhukri.Thiswasthefirstsinkingbyasubmarinesince
WorldWarII.[32]Duringthesamewar,theGhazi,aTenchclasssubmarineon
loantoPakistanfromtheUS,wassunk.Itwasthefirstsubmarinecombatloss
sinceWorldWarII.[33]In1982duringtheFalklandsWar,theArgentinecruiser
GeneralBelgranowassunkbytheBritishsubmarineHMSConqueror,thefirst
sinkingbyanuclearpoweredsubmarineinwar.
21stcenturysubmarines

Usage
USSCharlotte,aLos
Angelesclasssubmarineruns
withsubmarinesfrom
partnernationsduring
RIMPAC2014.

Military
BeforeandduringWorldWarII,theprimaryroleofthesubmarinewasanti
surfaceshipwarfare.Submarineswouldattackeitheronthesurface,usingdeck
gunsorsubmerged,usingtorpedoes.Theywereparticularlyeffectiveinsinking
AlliedtransatlanticshippinginbothWorldWars,andindisruptingJapanese
supplyroutesandnavaloperationsinthePacificinWorldWarII.

Minelayingsubmarineswere
developedintheearlypartofthe
20thcentury.Thefacilitywas
usedinbothWorldWars.
Submarineswerealsousedfor
insertingandremovingcovert
agentsandmilitaryforces,for
GermanUC1classWorldWarI
intelligencegathering,andto
submarine.Thewiresrunningup
rescueaircrewduringairattacks
fromthebowtotheconningtower
onislands,wheretheairmen
aretheJumpingwires
wouldbetoldofsafeplacesto
crashlandsothesubmarines
couldrescuethem.Submarinescouldcarrycargothroughhostilewaters
oractassupplyvesselsforothersubmarines.

EMLLembitintheSeaplaneHangars
oftheEstonianMaritimeMuseum.
TheLembitistheonlyminelayer
submarineofitsseriesleftinthe
world. [34]

Submarinescouldusuallylocateandattackothersubmarinesonlyon
thesurface,althoughHMSVenturermanagedtosinkU864withafour
torpedospreadwhilebothweresubmerged.TheBritishdevelopeda
specializedantisubmarinesubmarineinWWI,theRclass.AfterWWII,
withthedevelopmentofthehomingtorpedo,bettersonarsystems,and
nuclearpropulsion,submarinesalsobecameabletohunteachother
effectively.
Thedevelopmentofsubmarinelaunchedballisticmissileand
submarinelaunchedcruisemissilesgavesubmarinesasubstantialand
longrangedabilitytoattackbothlandandseatargetswithavarietyof
weaponsrangingfromclusterbombstonuclearweapons.

Retractable7.5cmsubmarinegun
producedbytheKruppcompany
circa1900

Theprimarydefenseofasubmarineliesinitsabilitytoremainconcealedinthedepthsoftheocean.Early
submarinescouldbedetectedbythesoundtheymade.Waterisanexcellentconductorofsound(muchbetter
thanair),andsubmarinescandetectandtrackcomparativelynoisysurfaceshipsfromlongdistances.Modern
submarinesarebuiltwithanemphasisonstealth.Advancedpropellerdesigns,extensivesoundreducing
insulation,andspecialmachineryhelpasubmarineremainasquietasambientoceannoise,makingthem
difficulttodetect.Ittakesspecializedtechnologytofindandattackmodernsubmarines.
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Activesonarusesthereflectionofsoundemittedfromthesearchequipmenttodetectsubmarines.Ithasbeen
usedsinceWWIIbysurfaceships,submarinesandaircraft(viadroppedbuoysandhelicopter"dipping"arrays),
butitrevealstheemitter'sposition,andissusceptibletocountermeasures.
Aconcealedmilitarysubmarineisarealthreat,andbecauseofitsstealth,canforceanenemynavytowaste
resourcessearchinglargeareasofoceanandprotectingshipsagainstattack.Thisadvantagewasvividly
demonstratedinthe1982FalklandsWarwhentheBritishnuclearpoweredsubmarineHMSConquerorsank
theArgentinecruiserGeneralBelgrano.AfterthesinkingtheArgentineNavyrecognizedthattheyhadno
effectivedefenseagainstsubmarineattack,andtheArgentinesurfacefleetwithdrewtoportfortheremainder
ofthewar,thoughanArgentinesubmarineremainedatsea.

Civilian
Althoughthemajorityoftheworld'ssubmarinesaremilitary,thereare
someciviliansubmarines,whichareusedfortourism,exploration,oil
andgasplatforminspections,andpipelinesurveys.Somearealsoused
inillegalactivities.

TheMsoscapheAugustePiccard
(modelpictured),builtbyJacques
Piccardforthe1964Swissnational
exhibition,isthefirsttourism
submarineinhistory.Ittransported
some33,000touriststhroughthe
depthsofLakeGenevaduring1964
65.

TheSubmarineVoyagerideopenedatDisneylandin1959,butalthough
itranunderwateritwasnotatruesubmarine,asitranontracksand
wasopentotheatmosphere.[35]ThefirsttouristsubmarinewasAuguste
Piccard,whichwentintoservicein1964atExpo64.[36]By1997there
were45touristsubmarinesoperatingaroundtheworld.[37]Submarines
withacrushdepthintherangeof400500feet(120150m)are
operatedinseveralareasworldwide,typicallywithbottomdepths
around100to120feet(30to37m),withacarryingcapacityof50to
100passengers.

Inatypicaloperationasurface
vesselcarriespassengerstoan
offshoreoperatingareaandloads
themintothesubmarine.Thesubmarinethenvisitsunderwaterpointsof
interestsuchasnaturalorartificialreefstructures.Tosurfacesafely
withoutdangerofcollisionthelocationofthesubmarineismarkedwith
anairreleaseandmovementtothesurfaceiscoordinatedbyanobserver
inasupportcraft.
Arecentdevelopmentisthedeploymentofsocallednarcosubmarines
bySouthAmericandrugsmugglerstoevadelawenforcement
detection.[38]Althoughtheyoccasionallydeploytruesubmarines,most
areselfpropelledsemisubmersibles,whereaportionofthecraft
remainsabovewateratalltimes.InSeptember2011,Colombian
authoritiesseizeda16meterlongsubmersiblethatcouldholdacrewof
5,costingabout$2million.ThevesselbelongedtoFARCrebelsand
hadthecapacitytocarryatleast7tonnesofdrugs.[39]

Interiorofthetouristsubmarine
Atlantiswhilstsubmerged

TouristsubmarineAtlantisonthe
surface

Polaroperations
1903SimonLakesubmarineProtectorsurfacedthroughiceoffNewport,RhodeIsland.[40]
1930USSO12operatedundericenearSpitsbergen.[40]
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1937SovietsubmarineKrasnogvardeyetsoperatedundericein
theDenmarkStrait.[40]
194145GermanUboatsoperatedundericefromtheBarents
SeatotheLaptevSea.[40]
1946USSAtuleusedupwardbeamedfathometerinOperation
NanookintheDavisStrait.[40]
194647USSSennetusedundericesonarinOperationHigh
JumpintheAntarctic.[40]
1947USSBoarfishusedupwardbeamedechosounderunder
USNavyattacksubmarine
packiceintheChukchiSea.[40]
USSAnnapolisrestsintheArctic
1948USSCarpdevelopedtechniquesformakingvertical
Oceanaftersurfacingthroughthree
ascentsanddescentsthroughpolynyasintheChukchiSea.[40]
feetoficeduringIceExercise2009
1952USSRedfishusedanexpandedupwardbeamedsounder
on21March2009.
arrayintheBeaufortSea.[40]
1957USSNautilusreached87degreesnorthnear
Spitsbergen.[40]
3August1958NautilususedaninertialnavigationsystemtoreachtheNorthPole.[40]
17March1959USSSkatesurfacedthroughtheiceatthenorthpole.[40]
1960USSSargotransited900miles(1,400km)undericeovertheshallow(125to180feetor38to55
metresdeep)BeringChukchishelf.[40]
1960USSSeadragontransitedtheNorthwestPassageunderice.[40]
1962SovietNovemberclasssubmarineK3LeninskyKomsomolreachedthenorthpole.[40]
1970USSQueenfishcarriedoutanextensiveunderseamappingsurveyoftheSiberiancontinental
shelf.[41]
1971HMSDreadnoughtreachedtheNorthPole.[40]
USSGurnardconductedthreePolarExercises:1976(withUSactorCharltonHestonaboard)1984joint
operationswithUSSPintadoand1990jointexerciseswithUSSSeahorse.[42]
6May1986USSRay,USSArcherfishandUSSHawkbillmeetandsurfacetogetherattheGeographic
NorthPole.FirstmultisubmarinesurfacingatthePole.
19May1987HMSSuperbjoinedUSSBillfishandUSSSeaDevilattheNorthPole.ThefirstBritish
andAmericanmeetingattheNorthPole.
March2007USSAlexandriaparticipatedintheJointUSNavy/RoyalNavyIceExercise2007(ICEX
2007)intheArcticOceanwiththeTrafalgarclasssubmarineHMSTireless.
March2009USSAnnapolistookpartinIceExercise2009totestsubmarineoperabilityandwar
fightingcapabilityinArcticconditions.

Technology
Submersionandtrimming
Allsurfaceships,aswellassurfaced
submarines,areinapositively
buoyantcondition,weighinglessthan
thevolumeofwatertheywould
displaceiffullysubmerged.To
submergehydrostatically,ashipmust
havenegativebuoyancy,eitherby
increasingitsownweightor
decreasingitsdisplacementofwater.
Anillustrationshowingsubmarinecontrols
Tocontroltheirdisplacement,
submarineshaveballasttanks,which
canholdvaryingamountsofwaterandair.
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USSSeawolf(SSN21)ShipControl
Panel,withyokesforcontrolsurfaces
(planesandrudder),andBallast
ControlPanel(background),to
controlthewaterintanksandship's
trim

SubmarineWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Forgeneralsubmersionorsurfacing,submarinesusetheforwardandaft
tanks,calledMainBallastTanks(MBT),whicharefilledwithwaterto
submergeorwithairtosurface.Submerged,MBTsgenerallyremain
flooded,whichsimplifiestheirdesign,andonmanysubmarinesthese
tanksareasectionofinterhullspace.Formorepreciseandquickcontrol
ofdepth,submarinesusesmallerDepthControlTanks(DCT)also
calledhardtanks(duetotheirabilitytowithstandhigherpressure),or
trimtanks.Theamountofwaterindepthcontroltankscanbecontrolled
tochangedepthortomaintainaconstantdepthasoutsideconditions
(chieflywaterdensity)change.Depthcontroltanksmaybelocated
eithernearthesubmarine'scenterofgravity,orseparatedalongthe
submarinebodytopreventaffectingtrim.

Whensubmerged,thewaterpressureonasubmarine'shullcanreach
4MPa(580psi)forsteelsubmarinesandupto10MPa(1,500psi)for
titaniumsubmarineslikeK278Komsomolets,whileinteriorpressure
remainsrelativelyunchanged.Thisdifferenceresultsinhullcompression,whichdecreasesdisplacement.Water
densityalsomarginallyincreaseswithdepth,asthesalinityandpressurearehigher.[43]Thischangeindensity
incompletelycompensatesforhullcompression,sobuoyancydecreasesasdepthincreases.Asubmerged
submarineisinanunstableequilibrium,havingatendencytoeithersinkorfloattothesurface.Keepinga
constantdepthrequirescontinualoperationofeitherthedepthcontroltanksorcontrolsurfaces.[44][45]
Submarinesinaneutralbuoyancyconditionarenotintrinsicallytrimstable.Tomaintaindesiredtrim,
submarinesuseforwardandafttrimtanks.Pumpscanmovewaterbetweenthetanks,changingweight
distributionandpointingthesubupordown.Asimilarsystemissometimesusedtomaintainstability.
Thehydrostaticeffectofvariableballasttanksisnottheonlywayto
controlthesubmarineunderwater.Hydrodynamicmaneuveringisdone
byseveralsurfaces,whichcanbemovedtocreatehydrodynamicforces
whenasubmarinemovesatsufficientspeed.Thesternplanes,located
nearthepropellerandnormallyhorizontal,servethesamepurposeas
thetrimtanks,controllingthetrim,andarecommonlyused,whileother
controlsurfacesmaynotbepresentonallsubmarines.Thefairwater
planesonthesailand/orbowplanesonthemainbody,bothalso
horizontal,areclosertothecenterofgravity,andareusedtocontrol
depthwithlesseffectonthetrim.[46]
Whenasubmarineperformsanemergencysurfacing,alldepthandtrim
methodsareusedsimultaneously,togetherwithpropellingtheboat
upwards.Suchsurfacingisveryquick,sothesubmayevenpartially
jumpoutofthewater,potentiallydamagingsubmarinesystems.

SailoftheFrenchnuclearsubmarine
Casabiancanotethedivingplanes,
camouflagedmasts,periscope,
electronicwarfaremasts,hatch,and
deadlight.

Hull
Overview
Modernsubmarinesarecigarshaped.Thisdesign,visibleinearlysubmarinesissometimescalleda"teardrop
hull".Itreducesthehydrodynamicdragwhensubmerged,butdecreasestheseakeepingcapabilitiesand
increasesdragwhilesurfaced.Sincethelimitationsofthepropulsionsystemsofearlysubmarinesforcedthem
tooperatesurfacedmostofthetime,theirhulldesignswereacompromise.Becauseoftheslowsubmerged
speedsofthosesubs,usuallywellbelow10kt(18km/h),theincreaseddragforunderwatertravelwas
acceptable.LateinWorldWarII,whentechnologyallowedfasterandlongersubmergedoperationand

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increasedaircraftsurveillanceforcedsubmarinestostaysubmerged,
hulldesignsbecameteardropshapedagaintoreducedragandnoise.On
modernmilitarysubmarinestheouterhulliscoveredwithalayerof
soundabsorbingrubber,oranechoicplating,toreducedetection.
Theoccupiedpressurehullsofdeepdivingsubmarinessuchas
DSVAlvinaresphericalinsteadofcylindrical.Thisallowsamoreeven
distributionofstressatthegreatdepth.Atitaniumframeisusually
affixedtothepressurehull,providingattachmentforballastandtrim
systems,scientificinstrumentation,batterypacks,syntacticflotation
foam,andlighting.

TheUSNavyLosAngelesclass
USSGreenevilleindrydock,
showingcigarshapedhull

Araisedtowerontopofasubmarineaccommodatestheperiscopeand
electronicsmasts,whichcanincluderadio,radar,electronicwarfare,andothersystemsincludingthesnorkel
mast.Inmanyearlyclassesofsubmarines(seehistory),thecontrolroom,or"conn",waslocatedinsidethis
tower,whichwasknownasthe"conningtower".Sincethen,theconnhasbeenlocatedwithinthehullofthe
submarine,andthetowerisnowcalledthe"sail".Theconnisdistinctfromthe"bridge",asmallopenplatform
inthetopofthesail,usedforobservationduringsurfaceoperation.
"Bathtubs"arerelatedtoconningtowersbutareusedonsmallersubmarines.Thebathtubisametalcylinder
surroundingthehatchthatpreventswavesfrombreakingdirectlyintothecabin.Itisneededbecausesurfaced
submarineshavelimitedfreeboard,thatis,theylielowinthewater.Bathtubshelppreventswampingthe
vessel.
Singleanddoublehulls
Modernsubmarinesandsubmersibles,aswellastheoldestones,
usuallyhaveasinglehull.Largesubmarinesgenerallyhavean
additionalhullorhullsectionsoutside.Thisexternalhull,which
actuallyformstheshapeofsubmarine,iscalledtheouterhull(casingin
theRoyalNavy)orlighthull,asitdoesnothavetowithstandapressure
difference.Insidetheouterhullthereisastronghull,orpressurehull,
whichwithstandsseapressureandhasnormalatmosphericpressure
inside.

U995,TypeVIIC/41UBoatof
WWII,showingthetypical
combinationofshiplikenon
watertightouterhullwithbulky
stronghullbelow

AsearlyasWorldWarI,itwasrealizedthattheoptimalshapefor
withstandingpressureconflictedwiththeoptimalshapeforseakeeping
andminimaldrag,andconstructiondifficultiesfurthercomplicatedthe
problem.Thiswassolvedeitherbyacompromiseshape,orbyusing
twohullsinternalforholdingpressure,andexternalforoptimalshape.
UntiltheendofWorldWarII,mostsubmarineshadanadditionalpartialcoveronthetop,bowandstern,built
ofthinnermetal,whichwasfloodedwhensubmerged.GermanywentfurtherwiththeTypeXXI,ageneral
predecessorofmodernsubmarines,inwhichthepressurehullwasfullyenclosedinsidethelighthull,but
optimizedforsubmergednavigation,unlikeearlierdesignsthatwereoptimizedforsurfaceoperation.
AfterWorldWarII,approachessplit.TheSovietUnionchangeditsdesigns,basingthemonGerman
developments.AllpostWorldWarIIheavySovietandRussiansubmarinesarebuiltwithadoublehull
structure.AmericanandmostotherWesternsubmarinesswitchedtoaprimarilysinglehullapproach.Theystill
havelighthullsectionsinthebowandstern,whichhousemainballasttanksandprovideahydrodynamically
optimizedshape,butthemaincylindricalhullsectionhasonlyasingleplatinglayer.Doublehullsarebeing
consideredforfuturesubmarinesintheUnitedStatestoimprovepayloadcapacity,stealthandrange.[47]
Pressurehull

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Thepressurehullisgenerally
constructedofthickhigh
strengthsteelwithacomplex
structureandhighstrength
reserve,andisseparatedwith
watertightbulkheadsintoseveral
compartments.Therearealso
examplesofmorethantwohulls
TypeXXIUBoat,lateWWII,with
inasubmarine,likethe
pressurehullalmostfullyenclosed
Typhoonclass,whichhastwo
insidethelighthull
mainpressurehullsandthree
smalleronesforcontrolroom,
torpedoesandsteeringgear,withthemissilelaunchsystembetweenthe
mainhulls.
Thedivedepthcannotbeincreasedeasily.Simplymakingthehull
thickerincreasestheweightandrequiresreductionofonboard
equipmentweight,ultimatelyresultinginabathyscaphe.Thisis
acceptableforcivilianresearchsubmersibles,butnotmilitary
submarines.

In1960,JacquesPiccardandDon
Walshwerethefirstpeopletoexplore
thedeepestpartoftheworld'socean,
andthedeepestlocationonthe
surfaceoftheEarth'scrust,inthe
BathyscapheTriestedesignedby
AugustePiccard.

WWIsubmarineshadhullsofcarbonsteel,witha100metre(330ft)maximumdepth.DuringWWII,high
strengthalloyedsteelwasintroduced,allowing200metre(660ft)depths.Highstrengthalloysteelremainsthe
primarymaterialforsubmarinestoday,with250400metre(8201,310ft)depths,whichcannotbeexceeded
onamilitarysubmarinewithoutdesigncompromises.Toexceedthatlimit,afewsubmarineswerebuiltwith
titaniumhulls.Titaniumcanbestrongerthansteel,lighter,andisnotferromagnetic,importantforstealth.
TitaniumsubmarineswerebuiltbytheSovietUnion,whichdevelopedspecializedhighstrengthalloys.Ithas
producedseveraltypesoftitaniumsubmarines.Titaniumalloysallowamajorincreaseindepth,butother
systemsmustberedesignedtocope,sotestdepthwaslimitedto1,000metres(3,300ft)fortheSoviet
submarineK278Komsomolets,thedeepestdivingcombatsubmarine.AnAlfaclasssubmarinemayhave
successfullyoperatedat1,300metres(4,300ft),[48]thoughcontinuousoperationatsuchdepthswouldproduce
excessivestressonmanysubmarinesystems.Titaniumdoesnotflexasreadilyassteel,andmaybecomebrittle
duringmanydivecycles.Despiteitsbenefits,thehighcostoftitaniumconstructionledtotheabandonmentof
titaniumsubmarineconstructionastheColdWarended.Deepdivingciviliansubmarineshaveusedthick
acrylicpressurehulls.
Thedeepestdeepsubmergencevehicle(DSV)todateisTrieste.On5October1959,TriestedepartedSan
DiegoforGuamaboardthefreighterSantaMariatoparticipateinProjectNekton,aseriesofverydeepdivesin
theMarianaTrench.On23January1960,TriestereachedtheoceanfloorintheChallengerDeep(thedeepest
southernpartoftheMarianaTrench),carryingJacquesPiccard(sonofAuguste)andLieutenantDonWalsh,
USN.[49]Thiswasthefirsttimeavessel,mannedorunmanned,hadreachedthedeepestpointintheEarth's
oceans.Theonboardsystemsindicatedadepthof11,521metres(37,799ft),althoughthiswaslaterrevisedto
10,916metres(35,814ft)andmoreaccuratemeasurementsmadein1995havefoundtheChallengerDeep
slightlyshallower,at10,911metres(35,797ft).
Buildingapressurehullisdifficult,asitmustwithstandpressuresatitsrequireddivingdepth.Whenthehullis
perfectlyroundincrosssection,thepressureisevenlydistributed,andcausesonlyhullcompression.Ifthe
shapeisnotperfect,thehullisbent,withseveralpointsheavilystrained.Inevitableminordeviationsare
resistedbystiffenerrings,butevenaoneinch(25mm)deviationfromroundnessresultsinover30percent
decreaseofmaximalhydrostaticloadandconsequentlydivedepth.[50]Thehullmustthereforebeconstructed
withhighprecision.Allhullpartsmustbeweldedwithoutdefects,andalljointsarecheckedmultipletimes
withdifferentmethods,contributingtothehighcostofmodernsubmarines.(Forexample,eachVirginiaclass
attacksubmarinecostsUS$2.6billion,overUS$200,000pertonofdisplacement.)

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Propulsion
Thefirstsubmarineswerepropelledbyhumans.Thefirstmechanically
drivensubmarinewasthe1863FrenchPlongeur,whichused
compressedairforpropulsion.Anaerobicpropulsionwasfirstemployed
bytheSpanishIctineoIIin1864,whichusedasolutionofzinc,
manganesedioxide,andpotassiumchloratetogeneratesufficientheatto
powerasteamengine,whilealsoprovidingoxygenforthecrew.A
similarsystemwasnotemployedagainuntil1940whentheGerman
Navytestedahydrogenperoxidebasedsystem,theWalterturbine,on
theexperimentalV80submarineandlateronthenavalU791andtype
XVIIsubmarines.[51]

HMCSWindsor,aRoyalCanadian
NavyVictoriaclassdieselelectric
hunterkillersubmarine

Untiltheadventofnuclearmarinepropulsion,most20thcentury
submarinesusedbatteriesforrunningunderwaterandgasoline(petrol)
ordieselenginesonthesurface,andforbatteryrecharging.Earlysubmarinesusedgasoline,butthisquickly
gavewaytokerosene(paraffin),thendiesel,becauseofreducedflammability.Dieselelectricbecamethe
standardmeansofpropulsion.Thedieselorgasolineengineandtheelectricmotor,separatedbyclutches,were
initiallyonthesameshaftdrivingthepropeller.Thisallowedtheenginetodrivetheelectricmotorasa
generatortorechargethebatteriesandalsopropelthesubmarine.Theclutchbetweenthemotorandtheengine
wouldbedisengagedwhenthesubmarinedived,sothatthemotorcoulddrivethepropeller.Themotorcould
havemultiplearmaturesontheshaft,whichcouldbeelectricallycoupledinseriesforslowspeedandin
parallelforhighspeed(theseconnectionswerecalled"groupdown"and"groupup",respectively).
Electric
Dieselelectric

Earlysubmarinesusedadirectmechanicalconnectionbetweentheengineandpropeller,switchingbetween
dieselenginesforsurfacerunning,andbatterydrivenelectricmotorsforsubmergedpropulsion.
In1928,theUnitedStatesNavy'sBureauofEngineeringproposedadieselelectrictransmission.Insteadof
drivingthepropellerdirectlywhilerunningonthesurface,thesubmarine'sdieseldroveageneratorthatcould
eitherchargethesubmarine'sbatteriesordrivetheelectricmotor.Thismadeelectricmotorspeedindependent
ofdieselenginespeed,sothedieselcouldrunatanoptimumandnoncriticalspeed.Oneormorediesel
enginescouldbeshutdownformaintenancewhilethesubmarinecontinuedtorunontheremainingengineor
batterypower.TheUSpioneeredthisconceptin1929,intheSclasssubmarinesS3,S6,andS7.Thefirst
productionsubmarineswiththissystemwerethePorpoiseclassofthe1930s,anditwasusedonmost
subsequentUSdieselsubmarinesthroughthe1960s.Noothernavyadoptedthesystembefore1945,apartfrom
theRoyalNavy'sUclasssubmarines,thoughsomesubmarinesoftheImperialJapaneseNavyusedseparate
dieselgeneratorsforlowspeedrunning.[52]
Otheradvantagesofsuchanarrangementwerethatasubmarinecouldtravelslowlywiththeenginesatfull
powertorechargethebatteriesquickly,reducingtimeonthesurfaceoronsnorkel.Itwasthenpossibleto
isolatethenoisydieselenginesfromthepressurehull,makingthesubmarinequieter.Additionally,diesel
electrictransmissionsweremorecompact.
DuringWorldWarIItheGermansexperimentedwiththeideaoftheschnorchel(snorkel)fromcapturedDutch
submarines,butdidn'tseetheneedforthemuntilratherlateinthewar.Theschnorchelwasaretractablepipe
thatsuppliedairtothedieselengineswhilesubmergedatperiscopedepth,allowingtheboatstocruiseand
rechargetheirbatterieswhilemaintainingadegreeofstealth.Itwasfarfromaperfectsolution,however.There
wereproblemswiththedevice'svalvestickingshutorclosingasitdunkedinroughweathersincethesystem
usedtheentirepressurehullasabuffer,thedieselswouldinstantaneouslysuckhugevolumesofairfromthe
boat'scompartments,andthecrewoftensufferedpainfulearinjuries.Speedwaslimitedto8knots(15km/h),
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lestthedevicesnapfromstress.Theschnorchelalsohadtheeffectofmakingtheboatessentiallynoisyand
deafinsonarterms.Finally,Alliedradareventuallybecamesufficientlyadvancedthattheschnorchelmast
couldbedetectedbeyondvisualrange.
Whilethesnorkelrendersasubmarinefarlessdetectable,itisnotperfect.Inclearweather,dieselexhaustcan
beseenonthesurfacetoadistanceofaboutthreemiles,[53]while'periscopefeather'(thewavecreatedbythe
snorkelorperiscopemovingthroughthewater),isvisiblefromfaroffincalmseaconditions.Modernradaris
alsocapableofdetectingasnorkelincalmseaconditions.[54]
Theproblemofthedieselscausingavacuuminthesubmarinewhentheheadvalveissubmergedstillexistsin
latermodeldieselsubmarines,butismitigatedbyhighvacuumcutoffsensorsthatshutdowntheengines
whenthevacuumintheshipreachesapresetpoint.Modernsnorkelinductionmastsuseafailsafedesign
usingcompressedair,controlledbyasimpleelectricalcircuit,toholdthe"headvalve"openagainstthepullof
apowerfulspring.Seawaterwashingoverthemastshortsoutexposedelectrodesontop,breakingthecontrol,
andshuttingthe"headvalve"whileitissubmerged.
Airindependentpropulsion
DuringWorldWarII,GermanTypeXXIsubmarines(alsoknownas
"Elektroboote")werethefirstsubmarinesdesignedtooperate
submergedforextendedperiods.Initiallytheyweretocarryhydrogen
peroxideforlongterm,fastairindependentpropulsion,butwere
ultimatelybuiltwithverylargebatteriesinstead.AttheendoftheWar,
theBritishandSovietsexperimentedwithhydrogenperoxide/kerosene
(paraffin)enginesthatcouldrunsurfacedandsubmerged.Theresults
werenotencouraging.ThoughtheSovietUniondeployedaclassof
submarineswiththisenginetype(codenamedQuebecbyNATO),they
wereconsideredunsuccessful.

GermanTypeXXIsubmarine

TheUnitedStatesalsousedhydrogenperoxideinanexperimental
midgetsubmarine,X1.Itwasoriginallypoweredbyahydrogen
peroxide/dieselengineandbatterysystemuntilanexplosionofher
hydrogenperoxidesupplyon20May1957.X1waslaterconvertedto
usedieselelectricdrive.[55]
Todayseveralnaviesuseair
independentpropulsion.Notably
SwedenusesStirlingtechnology
ontheGotlandclassand
AmericanX1MidgetSubmarine
Sdermanlandclasssubmarines.
TheStirlingengineisheatedby
GermanType212submarinewith
burningdieselfuelwithliquidoxygenfromcryogenictanks.Anewer
AIPpropulsion
developmentinairindependentpropulsionishydrogenfuelcells,first
usedontheGermanType212submarine,withnine34kWortwo
120kWcellsandsoontobeusedinthenewSpanishS80classsubmarines.[56]
Nuclearpower
Steampowerwasresurrectedinthe1950swithanuclearpoweredsteamturbinedrivingagenerator.By
eliminatingtheneedforatmosphericoxygen,thetimethatasubmarinecouldremainsubmergedwaslimited
onlybyitsfoodstores,asbreathingairwasrecycledandfreshwaterdistilledfromseawater.Moreimportantly,
anuclearsubmarinehasunlimitedrangeattopspeed.Thisallowsittotravelfromitsoperatingbasetothe

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combatzoneinamuchshortertimeandmakesitafarmoredifficult
targetformostantisubmarineweapons.Nuclearpoweredsubmarines
havearelativelysmallbatteryanddieselengine/generatorpowerplant
foremergencyuseifthereactorsmustbeshutdown.

HMSAstuteisamongthe
mostadvancednuclear
submarines. [57]

Nuclearpowerisnowusedinalllarge
submarines,butduetothehighcostand
largesizeofnuclearreactors,smaller
submarinesstillusedieselelectric
propulsion.Theratiooflargertosmaller
Batterywellcontaining126cellson
submarinesdependsonstrategicneeds.
USSNautilus,thefirstnuclear
TheUSNavy,FrenchNavy,andthe
poweredsubmarine
BritishRoyalNavyoperateonlynuclear
submarines,[58][59]whichisexplainedby
theneedfordistantoperations.Othermajoroperatorsrelyonamixofnuclear
submarinesforstrategicpurposesanddieselelectricsubmarinesfordefense.
Mostfleetshavenonuclearsubmarines,duetothelimitedavailabilityof
nuclearpowerandsubmarinetechnology.

Dieselelectricsubmarineshaveastealthadvantageovertheirnuclear
counterparts.Nuclearsubmarinesgeneratenoisefromcoolantpumpsandturbomachineryneededtooperate
thereactor,evenatlowpowerlevels.[60]SomenuclearsubmarinessuchastheAmericanOhioclasscanoperate
withtheirreactorcoolantpumpssecured,makingthemquieterthanelectricsubs.Aconventionalsubmarine
operatingonbatteriesisalmostcompletelysilent,theonlynoisecomingfromtheshaftbearings,propeller,and
flownoisearoundthehull,allofwhichstopswhenthesubhoversinmidwatertolisten,leavingonlythenoise
fromcrewactivity.Commercialsubmarinesusuallyrelyonlyonbatteries,sincetheyoperateinconjunction
withamothership.
Severalseriousnuclearandradiationaccidentshaveinvolvednuclearsubmarinemishaps.[61][62]TheSoviet
submarineK19reactoraccidentin1961resultedin8deathsandmorethan30otherpeoplewereoverexposed
toradiation.[63]TheSovietsubmarineK27reactoraccidentin1968resultedin9fatalitiesand83other
injuries.[61]TheSovietsubmarineK431accidentin1985resultedin10fatalitiesand49otherradiation
injuries.[62]
Alternativepropulsion
OilfiredsteamturbinespoweredtheBritishKclasssubmarines,builtduringWorldWarIandlater,togive
themthesurfacespeedtokeepupwiththebattlefleet.TheKclasssubswerenotverysuccessful,however.
Towardtheendofthe20thcentury,somesubmarinessuchastheBritishVanguardclassbegantobefitted
withpumpjetpropulsorsinsteadofpropellers.Thoughtheseareheavier,moreexpensive,andlessefficient
thanapropeller,theyaresignificantlyquieter,providinganimportanttacticaladvantage.
Magnetohydrodynamicdrive(MHD)wasportrayedastheoperatingprinciplebehindthetitularsubmarine's
nearlysilentpropulsionsysteminthefilmadaptationofTheHuntforRedOctober.However,inthenovelthe
RedOctoberdidnotuseMHD,butrathersomethingmoresimilartotheabovementionedpumpjet.

Armament
Thesuccessofthesubmarineisinextricablylinkedtothedevelopmentofthetorpedo,inventedbyRobert
Whiteheadin1866.Hisinventionisessentiallythesamenowasitwas140yearsago.Onlywithselfpropelled
torpedoescouldthesubmarinemaketheleapfromnoveltytoaweaponofwar.Untiltheperfectionofthe
guidedtorpedo,multiple"straightrunning"torpedoeswererequiredtoattackatarget.Withatmost20to25
torpedoesstoredonboard,thenumberofattackswaslimited.ToincreasecombatendurancemostWorldWarI
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submarinesfunctionedassubmersiblegunboats,usingtheirdeckgunsagainstunarmedtargets,anddivingto
escapeandengageenemywarships.Theimportanceofgunsencouragedthedevelopmentoftheunsuccessful
SubmarineCruisersuchastheFrenchSurcoufandtheRoyalNavy'sX1andMclasssubmarines.Withthe
arrivalofAntisubmarinewarfare(ASW)aircraft,gunsbecamemorefordefensethanattack.Amorepractical
methodofincreasingcombatendurancewastheexternaltorpedotube,loadedonlyinport.
Theabilityofsubmarinestoapproachenemyharbourscovertlyledto
theiruseasminelayers.MinelayingsubmarinesofWorldWarIand
WorldWarIIwerespeciallybuiltforthatpurpose.Modernsubmarine
laidmines,suchastheBritishMark5StonefishandMark6SeaUrchin,
canbedeployedfromasubmarine'storpedotubes.
AfterWorldWarII,boththeUSandtheUSSRexperimentedwith
submarinelaunchedcruisemissilessuchastheSSMN8Regulusand
P5Pyatyorka.Suchmissilesrequiredthesubmarinetosurfacetofire
itsmissiles.Theyweretheforerunnersofmodernsubmarinelaunched
TheforwardtorpedotubesinHMS
cruisemissiles,whichcanbefiredfromthetorpedotubesofsubmerged
Ocelot
submarines,forexampletheUSBGM109TomahawkandRussian
RPK2Viyugaandversionsofsurfacetosurfaceantishipmissiles
suchastheExocetandHarpoon,encapsulatedforsubmarinelaunch.Ballisticmissilescanalsobefiredfroma
submarine'storpedotubes,forexamplemissilessuchastheantisubmarineSUBROC.Withinternalvolumeas
limitedaseverandthedesiretocarryheavierwarloads,theideaoftheexternallaunchtubewasrevived,
usuallyforencapsulatedmissiles,withsuchtubesbeingplacedbetweentheinternalpressureandouter
streamlinedhulls.
ThestrategicmissionoftheSSMN8andtheP5wastakenupbysubmarinelaunchedballisticmissile
beginningwiththeUSNavy'sPolarismissile,andsubsequentlythePoseidonandTridentmissiles.
GermanyisworkingonthetorpedotubelaunchedshortrangeIDASmissile,whichcanbeusedagainstASW
helicopters,aswellassurfaceshipsandcoastaltargets.

Sensors
Asubmarinecanhaveavarietyofsensors,dependingonitsmissions.Modernmilitarysubmarinesrelyalmost
entirelyonasuiteofpassiveandactivesonarstolocatetargets.Activesonarreliesonanaudible"ping"to
generateechoestorevealobjectsaroundthesubmarine.Activesystemsarerarelyused,asdoingsorevealsthe
sub'spresence.Passivesonarisasetofsensitivehydrophonessetintothehullortrailedinatowedarray,
generallyseveralhundredfeetlong.ThetowedarrayisthemainstayofNATOsubmarinedetectionsystems,as
itreducestheflownoiseheardbyoperators.Hullmountedsonarisemployedtobackupthetowedarray,andin
confinedwaterswhereobstaclescouldfoulatowedarray.
Submarinesalsocarryradarequipmenttodetectsurfaceshipsandaircraft.Submarinecaptainsaremorelikely
touseradardetectiongearthanactiveradartodetecttargets,asradarcanbedetectedfarbeyonditsownreturn
range,revealingthesubmarine.Periscopesarerarelyused,exceptforpositionfixesandtoverifyacontact's
identity.
Civiliansubmarines,suchastheDSVAlvinortheRussianMirsubmersibles,relyonsmallactivesonarsets
andviewingportstonavigate.Thehumaneyecannotdetectsunlightbelowabout300feet(91m)underwater,
sohighintensitylightsareusedtoilluminatetheviewingarea.

Navigation
Earlysubmarineshadfewnavigationaids,butmodernsubshaveavarietyofnavigationsystems.Modern
militarysubmarinesuseaninertialguidancesystemfornavigationwhilesubmerged,butdrifterrorunavoidably
buildsovertime.Tocounterthis,thecrewoccasionallyusestheGlobalPositioningSystemtoobtainan
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accurateposition.Theperiscopearetractabletubewithaprismsystem
thatprovidesaviewofthesurfaceisonlyusedoccasionallyin
modernsubmarines,sincethevisibilityrangeisshort.TheVirginia
classandAstuteclasssubmarinesusephotonicsmastsratherthanhull
penetratingopticalperiscopes.Thesemastsmuststillbedeployedabove
thesurface,anduseelectronicsensorsforvisiblelight,infrared,laser
rangefinding,andelectromagneticsurveillance.Onebenefittohoisting
themastabovethesurfaceisthatwhilethemastisabovethewaterthe
entiresubisstillbelowthewaterandismuchhardertodetectvisually
orbyradar.

Communication

Thelargersearchperiscope,andthe
smaller,lessdetectableattack
periscopeonHMSOcelot

Militarysubmarinesuseseveralsystemstocommunicatewithdistant
commandcentersorotherships.OneisVLF(VeryLowFrequency)radio,whichcanreachasubmarineeither
onthesurfaceorsubmergedtoafairlyshallowdepth,usuallylessthan250feet(76m).ELF(ExtremelyLow
Frequency)canreachasubmarineatgreaterdepths,buthasaverylowbandwidthandisgenerallyusedtocall
asubmergedsubtoashallowerdepthwhereVLFsignalscanreach.Asubmarinealsohastheoptionoffloating
along,buoyantwireantennatoashallowerdepth,allowingVLFtransmissionsbyadeeplysubmergedboat.
Byextendingaradiomast,asubmarinecanalsousea"bursttransmission"technique.Abursttransmission
takesonlyafractionofasecond,minimizingasubmarine'sriskofdetection.
Tocommunicatewithothersubmarines,asystemknownasGertrudeisused.Gertrudeisbasicallyasonar
telephone.Voicecommunicationfromonesubmarineistransmittedbylowpowerspeakersintothewater,
whereitisdetectedbypassivesonarsonthereceivingsubmarine.Therangeofthissystemisprobablyvery
short,andusingitradiatessoundintothewater,whichcanbeheardbytheenemy.
Civiliansubmarinescanusesimilar,albeitlesspowerfulsystemstocommunicatewithsupportshipsorother
submersiblesinthearea.

Lifesupportsystems
Withnuclearpowerorairindependentpropulsion,submarinescanremainsubmergedformonthsatatime.
Conventionaldieselsubmarinesmustperiodicallyresurfaceorrunonsnorkeltorechargetheirbatteries.Most
modernmilitarysubmarinesgeneratebreathingoxygenbyelectrolysisofwater(usingadevicecalledan
"ElektrolyticOxygenGenerator").AtmospherecontrolequipmentincludesaCO2scrubber,whichusesan
amineabsorbenttoremovethegasfromairanddiffuseitintowastepumpedoverboard.Amachinethatusesa
catalysttoconvertcarbonmonoxideintocarbondioxide(removedbytheCO2scrubber)andbondshydrogen
producedfromtheship'sstoragebatterywithoxygenintheatmospheretoproducewater,isalsoused.An
atmospheremonitoringsystemsamplestheairfromdifferentareasoftheshipfornitrogen,oxygen,hydrogen,
R12andR114refrigerants,carbondioxide,carbonmonoxide,andothergases.Poisonousgasesareremoved,
andoxygenisreplenishedbyuseofanoxygenbanklocatedinamainballasttank.Someheaviersubmarines
havetwooxygenbleedstations(forwardandaft).Theoxygenintheairissometimeskeptafewpercentless
thanatmosphericconcentrationtoreducefiredanger.
Freshwaterisproducedbyeitheranevaporatororareverseosmosisunit.Theprimaryuseforfreshwateristo
providefeedwaterforthereactorandsteampropulsionplants.Itisalsoavailableforshowers,sinks,cooking
andcleaningoncepropulsionplantneedshavebeenmet.Seawaterisusedtoflushtoilets,andtheresulting
"blackwater"isstoredinasanitarytankuntilitisblownoverboardusingpressurizedairorpumpedoverboard
byusingaspecialsanitarypump.Theblackwaterdischargesystemisdifficulttooperate,andtheGermanType
VIICboatU1206waslostwithcasualtiesbecauseofhumanerrorwhileusingthissystem.[64]Waterfrom
showersandsinksisstoredseparatelyin"greywater"tanksanddischargedoverboardusingdrainpumps.
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TrashonmodernlargesubmarinesisusuallydisposedofusingatubecalledaTrashDisposalUnit(TDU),
whereitiscompactedintoagalvanizedsteelcan.AtthebottomoftheTDUisalargeballvalve.Aniceplugis
setontopoftheballvalvetoprotectit,thecansatoptheiceplug.Thetopbreechdoorisshut,andtheTDUis
floodedandequalizedwithseapressure,theballvalveisopenedandthecansfalloutassistedbyscrapiron
weightsinthecans.TheTDUisalsoflushedwithseawatertoensureitiscompletelyemptyandtheballvalve
isclearbeforeclosingthevalve.

Crew
Atypicalnuclearsubmarinehasacrewofover80conventionalboats
typicallyhavefewerthan40.Theconditionsonasubmarinecanbe
difficultbecausecrewmembersmustworkinisolationforlongperiods
oftime,withoutfamilycontact.Submarinesnormallymaintainradio
silencetoavoiddetection.Operatingasubmarineisdangerous,evenin
peacetime,andmanysubmarineshavebeenlostinaccidents.

Women
Mostnaviesprohibitedwomenfromservingonsubmarines,evenafter
theyhadbeenpermittedtoserveonsurfacewarships.TheRoyal
NorwegianNavybecamethefirstnavytoallowfemalesonits
submarinecrewsin1985.TheRoyalDanishNavyallowedfemale
submarinersin1988.[65]OthersfollowedsuitincludingtheSwedish
Navy(1989),[66]theRoyalAustralianNavy(1998),theGermanNavy
(2001)andtheCanadianNavy(2002).In1995,SolveigKreyofthe
RoyalNorwegianNavybecamethefirstfemaleofficertoassume
commandonamilitarysubmarine,HNoMSKobben.[67]

TheinteriorofaBritishEclass
submarine.Anofficersupervises
submergingoperations,c.1914
1918.

On8December2011,BritishDefenceSecretaryPhilipHammond
announcedthattheUK'sbanonwomeninsubmarineswastobelifted
from2013.[68]Previouslytherewerefearsthatwomenweremoreatrisk
fromabuildupofcarbondioxideinthesubmarine.Butastudyshowed
Midshipmenlearntopilotthe
nomedicalreasontoexcludewomen,thoughpregnantwomenwould
submarineaboardUSSWestVirginia.
stillbeexcluded.[68]Similardangerstothepregnantwomanandher
fetusbarredfemalesfromsubmarineserviceinSwedenin1983,when
allotherpositionsweremadeavailableforthemintheSwedishNavy.Today,pregnantwomenarestillnot
allowedtoserveonsubmarinesinSweden.However,thepolicymakersthoughtthatitwasdiscriminatorywith
ageneralbananddemandedthatfemalesshouldbetriedontheirindividualmeritsandhavetheirsuitability
evaluatedandcomparedtoothercandidates.Further,theynotedthatafemalecomplyingwithsuchhigh
demandsisunlikelytobecomepregnant.[66]InMay2014,threewomenbecametheRN'sfirstfemale
submariners.[69]
WomenhaveservedonUSNavysurfaceshipssince1993,andasof20112012,beganservingonsubmarines
forthefirsttime.Untilpresently,theNavyonlyallowedthreeexceptionstowomenbeingonboardmilitary
submarines:femaleciviliantechniciansforafewdaysatmost,womenmidshipmenonanovernightduring
summertrainingforNavyROTCandNavalAcademy,andfamilymembersforonedaydependentcruises.[70]
In2009,seniorofficials,includingthenSecretaryoftheNavyRayMabus,JointChiefofStaffAdmiral
MichaelMullen,andChiefofNavalOperationsAdmiralGaryRoughead,begantheprocessoffindingawayto
implementfemalesonsubmarines.[71]TheUSNavyrescindedits"nowomenonsubs"policyin2010.[72]

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BoththeUSandBritishnaviesoperatenuclearpoweredsubmarinesthatdeployforperiodsofsixmonthsor
longer.Othernaviesthatpermitwomentoserveonsubmarinesoperateconventionallypoweredsubmarines,
whichdeployformuchshorterperiodsusuallyonlyforafewmonths.[73]PriortothechangebytheUS,no
nationusingnuclearsubmarinespermittedwomentoserveonboard.[74]
In2011,thefirstclassoffemalesubmarineofficersgraduatedfromNavalSubmarineSchool'sSubmarine
OfficerBasicCourse(SOBC)attheNavalSubmarineBaseNewLondon.[75]Additionally,moreseniorranking
andexperiencedfemalesupplyofficersfromthesurfacewarfarespecialtyattendedSOBCaswell,proceeding
tofleetBallisticMissile(SSBN)andGuidedMissile(SSGN)submarinesalongwiththenewfemalesubmarine
lineofficersbeginninginlate2011.[76]Bylate2011,severalwomenwereassignedtotheOhioclassballistic
missilesubmarineUSSWyoming.[77]On15October2013,theUSNavyannouncedthattwoofthesmaller
Virginiaclassattacksubmarines,USSVirginiaandUSSMinnesota,wouldhavefemalecrewmembersby
January2015.[72]

Abandoningthevessel
Inanemergency,submarinescantransmitasignaltootherships.ThecrewcanuseSubmarineEscape
ImmersionEquipmenttoabandonthesubmarine.[78]Thecrewcanpreventalunginjuryfromthepressure
changeknownaspulmonarybarotraumabyexhalingduringtheascent.[79]Followingescapefromapressurized
submarine,thecrewisatriskofdevelopingdecompressionsickness.[80]Analternativeescapemeansisviaa
DeepSubmergenceRescueVehiclethatcandockontothedisabledsubmarine.[81][82]

Seealso
Autonomousunderwatervehicle
Coastalsubmarine
Depthcharge
Category:Fictionalsubmarines
Flyingsubmarine
Listofshipssunkbysubmarinesbydeathtoll
Listofsubmarineactions
Listofsubmarineclasses
Listofsubmarinemuseums
ListofsubmarinesoftheSecondWorldWar
Listofsunkennuclearsubmarines
Merchantsubmarine
Nuclearnavy
Submarinefilms
Submarinepowercable
Submarinesimulator,acomputergamegenre

DeepFlightSuperFalcon,an
experimentalsubwith
hydrofoilsin2004

Bycountry
Listofsubmarineoperators
AustraliaCollinsclasssubmarine
BritainListofsubmarinesoftheRoyalNavy,ListofsubmarineclassesoftheRoyalNavy
ChinaSubmarinesofthePeople'sLiberationArmyNavy
GermanyListofUboatsofGermany
IndiaSubmarinesoftheIndianNavy
IsraelDolphinclasssubmarine
JapanImperialJapaneseNavysubmarines,ListofcombatantshipclassesoftheJapanMaritimeSelf
DefenseForce#SS:Submarine
PakistanListofactivePakistanNavyships#Submarines
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RussiaListofSovietandRussiansubmarineclasses
SovietUnionListofshipsoftheSovietNavy#Submarines
SpainListofsubmarinesintheSpanishNavy
TurkeyListofsubmarinesoftheTurkishNavy
UnitedStatesSubmarinesintheUSNavy,ListofsubmarinesoftheUSNavy,ListofUSsubmarine
classes,NavalSubmarineMedicalResearchLaboratory

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Externallinks
U.S.Patent708,553(https://www.google.com/patents/US708553)
Submarineboat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine

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