Enlightenment through

Romantic
16TH CENTURY 19TH CENTURY

Where are we coming from?

Brainstorm!

Lets remind ourselves about yesterday.

Where did we leave off in history?

What was happening politically?

What was music like? Was it taught in schools?

Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther, 1517

Significant beliefs about music and education:

People develop their own faith by reading the bible to themselves, therefore everyone
needs to be able to read!

Luther on music:

Close to the same amount of influence on people as theology

Makes good and skillful people of those who study it

All teachers must be musicians, all students must study it

16th century music

Who are the major composers?

What types of music existed?

Music changes during the 16th century

Most happens in guilds or apprenticeships

1537 first music orphanages established in Venice and Naples

What important composer worked in one of these orphanages in the 17th century?

Expansion: more choirs, bigger organs, more instruments and instrumentalists

New genres: madrigal, pastorale

First signs of polyphony!

Humanist influence keeps focus on Ancient Greek plays where the music needs to
be transparent enough to understand the words

This argument between polyphony and drama leads to what new genre?

Reformation: Important developments

Teacher Education

First emphasis on teacher preparation

Role of Arts and Sciences

Certification, supervising, examination

1694 St. Jean Baptiste de La Salle

establishes the Institute of the Brothers
of the Christian Schools

Sciences: develop new tools for

navigation, ship building, telescope,
microscope

Literacy more common

Arts: not serious part of instruction, but

more secular music making and very
important to aristocratic societies

New instruments: keyboard, violin

New genres: opera, oratorio

More important developments

Vernacular schools
for poor children

Education for
Upper Class

Newer teaching
methods

Established for all religious groups

All religious groups believed

Classical curriculum is best for
training church and state leaders

Realism:

Laws established requiring

children to go to school or learn a
trade
School subjects: reading, writing,
arithmetic, religion, music, history,
physical education

learning by doing

Curriculum standardized by
religious group, music only a small
role

direct observation

Special schools developed for

children of nobility

simple to complex

curriculum includes: dueling,

music, geography, history,
math, science, vernacular
languages

scientific method

student interest

Important early 17th century

Philosophers
Rene Descartes
(1596-1650)

Richard Mulcaster
(1531-1611)

John Amos Comenius

(1592-1670)

Richard Mulcaster

Elementarie (1582) dictionary without definitions attempt to organize

English language

Headmaster of Merchant Taylors School (London)

Early humanist

Curriculum included music, phys ed, drama, play

Student interests and abilities

Rene Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician

Dualism: Universe is made up of mind and matter

Mind: spiritual, all logical thinking, morals

Matter: all material substances of the physical world

Education considers them separately-educating mind is more important than

physical body

Rationalism: man learns though his mind because experience is limited to

physical objects

Religious leaders agreed with this philosophy as well

John Amos Comenius

Educational Beliefs

Curriculum follows childs natural development

Simple to complex

Experience with objects, learning by doing

Problem solving

Preschool

Universal education based on ability not class

Arousing interest

Education prepares people for vocation,

citizenship, and morality

Levels of Schooling

0-6 School of the Mothers Knee

6-12 Vernacular school

Read, write, math, sing, religion, morals, history

12-18 Classical school

Moral, play, games, music, doing, religion

Language, grammar, logic, art, math, science

University

Less progressive, religion-based at first

17th Century
Age of
Absolutism
Letat cest moi
(I am the State)
-King Louis XIV

Changes in society

1618-1648 30 years war

Countries recovering, questioning role of religion

King James I, King Charles I divine right of kings

Gaining stability establish national systems of education

Universal education, but not equal education

Separated by class (despite Comenius!)

Real equality not achieved until much later

School codes requiring attendance, raising teacher salaries,

supervised instruction

Humanistic realism: renewed interest in Classics

17th Century Science

Newton: gravity, 3 laws of motion

Galilei: telescope

Kepler: laws of planetary motion

Harvey: blood circulation

Torricelli: mercury barometer

17th century music

What do we know?

Name of time period?

Main composers?

Style?

Genres?

Instruments?

17th Century Realism

Humanistic Realism

Social Realism

Sense Realism

Interest in Greek/Roman writings,

philosophy, society, arts

Pragmatic, social affairs like

politics, history, living languages

Direct study through the senses

(Locke)
Classics worth studying because
they contained the highest
achievements of the human mind
liberating
understanding yourself
influence morals

Why study the classics? The best

preparation for public life is to
study and participate in public life
now
Prepare students for public life,
not to be a scholar removed from
public affairs (ivory tower?)

Nature is the only dependable

basis for knowledge and
education
Who does this sound like? (future)

John Locke (1632-1704)

Isms

Rationalism reflection, thought

important

Empiricism value of reflective sense

experience

Pragmatism (later) subjects mostly

utilitarian

Because his views fit with so many

theories, he was more influential

Beliefs

Tabula rasa

Ideas are either simple (sensed) or

complex (developed through
reflection)

Truth is direct experience

Education should focus on things

useful to future life

Social contract

Locke on Education

Education for all, divided into types by class

How is this different from Comenius?

Upper morals, virtue, citizenship, knowledge contributes to a good life

Lower skills training, apprenticeship

Humanistic curriculum has no practical value intellectual snobbishness

All people have capacity for goodness if they are guided by reason and
sustained by experience

Social philosophy that all men are born equal and changed only with
experience. How does this relate to his beliefs about education?

th
18

Century
The Enlightenment
WHAT DO WE KNOW

ALREADY?

Political and Social Influences

Destruction from territorial and religious wars of 1600s

People questioning traditional values, if all religions are wrong in some respects

Growing faith in common man, scientific discoveries, and human reason

Belief in a social contract (Locke) citizens give authority to government,

in return, government protects citizens natural rights: life, liberty, property

Social unrest eventually leads to what two major political events?

French and American Revolutions

Rise of middle class

Growing need for public representation in government because it is in

charge of their general welfare

Attempts at democratic educational systems

Results are still mostly private with programs designed to give free schooling to poor
children

More people had the opportunity to go to school than any other previous time!

Increase in public information: journals, books, newspapers, museums,

libraries

Enlightenment in Education

Education for citizenship, not for church

Teacher education improves

Elementary schools: literacy-based, bigger role of music (nationalism)

Secondary schools: classical tradition, but added in practical studies as well

Start to see music come back into secondary curriculum

Higher Education:

Germany: emphasis on science/math, specific curriculum replaced by free research

France: Opposite! Conservative religious groups still in charge

England: classics, logic, philosophy, with some implementation of new science and
math

Important Enlightenment Philosophers

and Educators
Jean-Jacques
Rousseau
(1712-1778)

Johann Basedow
(1724-1790)

Immanuel Kant
(1724-1904)

Naturalism Reason must be rooted in natural

emotions and instincts

Rousseau
Even though men
were not prepared to
follow Rousseau in the
new way he had
indicated for them, it
was impossible for
them henceforth to go
back wholeheartedly
to the old.

Because men have become corrupt as more

improvements are made in culture, it is mens
improvements that are causing it

Writings:

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality: Education

produces differences of habit which differentiate
people. This imposes artificial inequalities upon
the primitive natural equalities of men.

The Social Contract: relationship with government,

dangers of social influences

Emile: novel/pedagogy book develops an

education program designed to help children
learn how to not cease to be natural while
becoming social

Major Contrubutions to Education:

Public education controlled by state

Family gives fundamental education*

Successive stages of life (birth to

maturity) and how/what to teach the
child at each stage*

Readiness of child*

Transfer of education to future life*

Lets make
connections!

Teachers most important responsibility

is setting up environment to learn and
treating children humanely*

Natural, meaningful, purposeful

guidance*

Importance of self-education

Learning by doing*

Can you think of any potential weaknesses in his

theories about naturalism and education?

Weaknesses in Rousseaus Theory

Stages in education too definitive, doesnt allow for gradual unfolding

Ignores necessity of social development in early education

Too dichotomous man belongs to society and nature

Children cant learn to be part of society by withdrawing from society

Inequality for women (but remember to consider the time period)

Basedow
Philanthropinum

3 main ideas:

(Dessau, Germany 1774)

Schools should be nonsectarian

Clergy shouldnt be involved in public

learning

Opened to implement Rousseaus

ideas, closed in 1793.

Education reform to match Comenius,

Locke, Rousseau

Major accomplishments:

Biggest influences:

Rousseau: naturalness

Comenius: senses

Socrates: develop reasoning, not

memory

Testing Rousseaus ideas brought

attention to them all over Europe

Followers set up more schools

Children treated as children not

young adults.

Time for play, music, languages,

dance, learning through senses,
education in nature, hands on
learning

Kant

Transcendental categories of the mind

(knowledge is made up of two elements):

Content impressions coming from external world through experience

Form categories of the mind that give organization and order to

experience

What he means:

The external world causes experience, but we cant prove it, and
therefore cant know it. We know only our perceptions as ordered by our
mind.
BUT!

We cannot know what lies beyond our experience, but we can believe it
exists. We cant prove God, immortality, freedom of will, (etc), but if you
morally believe that they should exist, then you can be certain that they
exist.

Inside the mind vs. outside the mind debate there is no debate!

Late 18th century: Conservatories

Roots in medieval church choir schools. Opera companies established in 17th century and
increase in public concerts in the 18th century meant increased demand for musicians

Late 1700s monasteries and church music schools closing, state vs secular split

Government takes control of music education instead of the church

Italian orphanages start admitting convittori fee-paying students in 1667

Germany: Singakademie in Leipzig 1771

English schools based on Italian models

France: Church stays responsible for music education before the Revolution

Later:

1784 Paris conservatory

1800s: Prague, Vienna, Leipzig, Berlin, Oberlin, Royal Academy of Music (London)

Next Generation
Followers of Kant and Rousseau
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
(1746-1827)

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

(1770-1831)

Pestalozzi

Most important contemporary adapter of Rousseaus doctrines

Owned a farm which failed, and opened an

orphanage/school at his house. Being a man who lived like a
beggar, he had learned to make beggars live like men.

Closed after 2 years (financial problems)

Schoolmaster at Swiss orphanage Stanz : believed education is

the only way to elevate the socioeconomic status of peasants

No money for books learning by doing! More

tolerance/understanding, discipline only when absolutely
necessary

Roots of the modern elementary school!

Pestalozzi, continued

Institutes in Burgdorf (1800-1804) and Yverdun (1805-1825)

Boarding schools 6am 9pm

Difficult subjects like math/science in the morning, music, fencing,

etc taught in the afternoon

Singing has close to equal the classroom time as all other subjects!

2 main goals: morality and citizenship

Education of hand, head, and heart simultaneously.

Life is maladjusted if this unity is disturbed.

But, if one must be most important, it is moral life (like Kant).

Morality is even more important than religion because its not

possible to love God without empathy for other humans

Pestalozzis influence on education

Beliefs

Home is primary educational

institution*

Lets make
connections
again!

Influences

Content and methods of elementary

schools

Direct observation/experience

Every child deserves education

regardless of class*

Tax-supported, universal schools for boys

and girls

Natural, progressive education*

Develop all of childs faculties*

Simple to complex (unfortunately, not

always a good judge of what simple
was. Ex: teaching vocab)

Schools copied in France, Germany, and

Oswego NY based on his principles

Education needs to include social

education and participation*

Orderly sequence of lessons increasing

difficulty as child is more ready*

Zurich Singinstitut (1805)

Established 1805 by Hans Georg Nageli

Followed Pestalozzian concepts

Musical elements introduced in curriculum in the natural order in which people

perceive them

Practical singing added later in the institute

Learning by doing

Discovery, investigation, observation not memorization

More schools established in Germany, England, and US as well

Hegel
Kant follower

Studied in school which taught Kants ideas

How is it that the mind naturally understands its surrounding world?

Believed (like Kant) that there is unity between knower and what he knows

Knowledge would be impossible without this

Kant: the knower and what is possible to be known influence each other to build understanding

Hegel: there is no reality until we know it. We exist by virtue of knowing the outside world, but the world
also exists by our virtue of knowing it.

Descartes: I think, therefore I am.

Hegel: My thinking doesnt just prove my existence, it creates my existence.

Ideas create existence and the synthesis between them goes beyond
both, which implies constant progress in the world. Therefore, the only way
we can understand ourselves is through learning about our history

Next-Next Generation
Followers of Pestalozzi and Hegel
Johann Friedrich Herbart
(1776-1841)

Froebel (1782-1852)

Herbart
First systematic attempt to synthesize freedom with discipline, love with authority, observation
with memory, knowledge with activity, feeling with thinking.

Believed Pestalozzi was one-sided

Brilliant wrote treatises and doctrines since his

early teens about psychology, metaphysics,
math

Childs interest (either genuine or inspired by

teacher)

apperception all new ideas are interpreted

through those already resident in the consciousness

Played violin, harp, piano, composed, treatise

on harmony

Curriculum not designed to add knowledge or

become useful, but to increase intellectual activity

Virtue, morality are the most important goals

Not concerned with education of the poor

Ideas are reactions the soul has to outside info. If an

intrusion is similar, it solidifies an idea. If it is
different, it creates a reaction to the combination
of old and new

Attention must be drawn to disturbances for

interaction to occur

Herbart for Teachers

Successful instruction: organized, simple to complex, concrete to abstract,

illustrations/demonstrations, arouses interest, encourages spontaneity,
stimulates mental activity

Teacher must: prepare subject matter, presentation of subject matter,

associations, systematization, and application Blooms Taxonomy?

Collecting and reproducing information is not active learning!

Combine authority and affection for without love authority is negative,

and without authority love tends to weaken respect.

Herbarts important contributions:

Many-sided interest: knowledge is empirical (observation/experience),

speculative (why/how?) and aesthetic (what is good, true, and beautiful)

Formal steps of instruction:

Preparation explain purpose

Clear presentation

Associate/combine knowledge compare with old

Generalization big concepts

Application concepts as rules

1st educator to focus on correlation of studies

Froebel
Based on these ideas, what do you think was
his important contribution?

All education was yet without proper initial foundation

Until the education of the nursery is reformed, nothing solid and worthy can be retained

The aim of education is to realize the innately potential goals of the life of the individual

When we grow, we grow out of some origin and into some goal. The more nearly the
goal approximates the origin, the nearer s the individual to a complete education, and,
conversely, the les the end resembles the beginning, in accordance with the initial law of
divine unity, the less adequate is the education.

What do you think about this?

Taught at a Pestalozzian School, and trained at Yverdon under him

Young children, natural growth, affection and understanding, discovery learning play, song

Child is to develop in harmony, peace, and joy within himself, and with those around him

1816 opened school in Thuringia (Pestalozzian style, plus play and music)

1837 Thuringia: started Kleinkinderbeschaftigungsanstalt

Employment institute for small children changed it to Kindergarten

1849 Starts a kindergarten in Bad Liebenstein

Banned in Switzerland just before his death, but took strong roots in US

1848: German kindergarten Mrs. Carl Schurz

1860: 1st English kindergarten Boston Elizabeth Peabody

1873: 1st tax supported kindergarten St. Louis

Original ideas about kindergarten are still basically in place today in contemporary schools
and have spread to elementary schools as well

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

One of the most important thinkers of his time

Read Darwin, and wrote a book about

survival of the fittest

Ideas about education are very utilitarian:

Individual, social, and racial self-preservation

What has immediate usefulness technical,

vocational, social is more important than
literature, languages, classics

Order of importance:

5 areas of study

Health

Economics (math and science)

Parental (hygiene, psychology, pedagogy)

Social (citizenship, politics, religion)

Aesthetic (taste, natural world)

Directly related to survival

Indirectly related to survival

Self-instruction, freedom, responsibility

Related to raising children

Related to maintaining social/political

relationships

Natural consequences are only punishment

for bad behavior

Miscellaneous leisure activities (music, poetry,

painting)

Tonic Sol-fa
John Curwen, mid 19th century

Developed to improve congregational singing didnt want to

teach by rote

Important part of movement to bring music to all people

Movable do solfege teaching relationships between notes

Tonic Sol-fa college founded 1869

Scaffolding: rhythms, then a-rhythmic pitch, then combined

Pitches: tonic chord first and pitch qualities in relation to it

Dominant, subdominant, then tunes

Then modulation to dominant and subdominant

THEN minor mode chromaticism, and distant modulation

Never implemented with standard notation. If youre trained in it, you can only read
music that has been put into this notation.
Over 39,000 copies of the Tonic Sol-fa edition of Handels Messiah
Used until around the 1920s, but the notation issue made it obsolete
Modified by Kodaly to be system we use today

What does this mean to us as teachers?

Has the importance or value of music shifted through this period?

In society? In education?

What do you think is the current purpose of education in the United

States? Utilitarian or to promote virtue and morality?

Does everyone agree on this? What is supported by documentation?

What is the nature of progress in education in this time period? In

contemporary education? Why?

What other connections can you make?