Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
CALCULATION
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS
George Mather
BA, Dip EE, C Eng, MIEE, AFIMA
CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
Complex Numbers
Linear algebra
Current in an ac circuit
3
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.3
NETWORK ANALYSIS
Kirchhoffs Laws
Network reduction
Millmans Theorem
The Principle of Superposition
Thevenins Theorem
Star - Delta and Delta - Star transformations
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
WORKED EXAMPLES
APPENDICES:
A
B
C
MATRIX ALGEBRA
USE OF SPREADSHEETS
CURRENT IN AN RL CIRCUIT
Page 1 of 85
1.0
Introduction
This book is a supplement to Chapter 3 of the Power Systems
Protection correspondence course (PSPC) provided by the Electricity
Training Association. Fault Calculation in general and Chapter 3 of the
Power System Protection Course in particular have gained over the
years an awesome reputation with some PSPC students. The PSPC was
introduced in the early 1960s and in those days the course was directed
at engineers in the United Kingdom. Nowadays students come from a
wide variety of backgrounds both in academic attainment and
nationality. Sometimes difficulties are exacerbated due to students not
having help available to them locally.
Times have changed since the PSPC course books were written.
Probably all students now have access to a personal computer with
spreadsheet facilities which can make calculations much less tedious.
Used properly, spreadsheets should help students better understand the
basic material. Many early text books in electrical power engineering
concentrated on network reduction because it was a necessary process
when a slide rule was the most advanced tool available. Knowledge of
network reduction is still advantageous however in order to enable
students understand the behaviour of networks. There is also the
question of how much detail electrical engineers should know about
power system calculations when there are many good power system
analysis systems used in electrical utilities nowadays. It is most
important that engineers understand the output from these systems and
that understanding can only come from good theoretical knowledge
and experience.
Performance of protective gear is a very important aspect of power
system operation but safety is equally important and leads to issues
regarding of the make rating and break rating of switchgear. Protective
gear operating times have decreased on transmission systems as relays
based on digital electronics have been introduced. Faults are
sometimes cleared before the direct current component in the
disturbance has decayed to zero. The subject of initial fault conditions
is dealt with in chapter 2 and in appendix C in more detail. The
introduction of small generation plant connected at medium voltages
requires a good understanding of fault calculation by all design
engineers. The first international standard for calculation of fault
current IEC 909 [6] has been issued and this has been implemented in
the United Kingdom as ER G74 [7].
This Supplement has been prepared to give the student a firm basis in
understanding the techniques of network analysis and symmetical fault
calculations. It is a remarkable fact that the course text book contains
only two examples on symmetical faults with one of them being based
upon physical units (ohms and volts). This Supplement recommends
use of per unit quantities but their introduction is delayed until
chapter four after the mathematics and network analysis techniques
have been covered using physical values in chapters two and three.
Page 2 of 85
use of spreadsheets
The first four chapters have self test questions ( exercises to the old
fashioned!) against which understanding can be tested.
Use of the supplement is optional but it will not make sense without the
course text book. It covers completely, with one exception - induction
motors , the fundamentals of symmetrical fault calculation and will
provide a sound basis for further study.
Users of the supplement may omit the following sections of the text
book - but will be recommended by the supplement to read parts of
them - 3.1.4, 3.2, 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.3.7, 3.3.8, 3.3.9 and 3.3.10.
Page 3 of 85
Fundamental Mathematics
The course text book assumes good knowledge of the mathematics of
complex numbers and linear equations but does little to help the
students overcome difficulties in these subjects. It is not necessary to
be clever at mathematics in order to do fault calculations but a good
working knowledge of complex numbers and linear equations is
necessary. This chapter provides an introduction to and review of these
subjects in the first two sections. The range of material covered is
adequate for the course but in each case these are only the tips of very
interesting icebergs and many students will wish to follow them up
through the bibliography. Those students who feel confident without
this material should at least try to the self test questions.
The third section of the chapter covers why we need to use complex
numbers in electrical circuits. It is worth noting at this stage that
complex numbers are not vectors but the myth that they are vectors was
advanced by some early textbooks. Is easy to see a complex number is
not a vector because a vector does not have a reciprocal whereas a
complex number does; furthermore modern electrical engineering
textbooks draw pseudo vector diagrams of rms quantities and call them
phasor diagrams.
Appendix A introduces matrix algebra and introduces its application to
fault calculation. This material should not be read without a good
understanding of Thevenins Theorem and Nodal Analysis covered in
chapter three.
A Microsoft EXCEL spreadsheet is provided with the supplement to
help with the linear algebra and the more complicated complex number
operations; details of use are provided in appendix B.
Page 4 of 85
y
z
Page 5 of 85
but j2=-1
zw=(ac-bd)+j(bc+ad).
Example 2.1.1
Calculate z+w, z-w and zw if z=3+j4 and w= 5-j7.
Answer:
z+w = (3+5) +j(4-7) = 8-j3
z-w = (3-5)+j(4 - -7) = -2+j11
zw = (3x5 -4x(-7))+j(3x(-7)+4x5)= 43-j1.
We use the complex conjugate to do division. The complex conjugate is
z*=a-jb
i.e. we simply change the sign of Im(z).
It is clear that zz* = a2 +b2.
Consider first the reciprocal of a complex number z=a+jb.
Now 1/z = z*/zz* = (a-jb)/ (a2 +b2 ).
z ( 43 j1)(5 + j 7 )
=
w
25 + 49
z ( 215 + 7 ) + j ( 301 5)
=
w
74
z 222 + j 296
=
w
74
= 3+j4
which agrees with the result in example 2.1.1
Page 6 of 85
Example 2.1.3
If z=a+jb calculate z2/ 2z.
We should expect the answer to be z/2 just as it would be for real
numbers!.
Answer:
z2 =(a2 -b2) +j 2ab.
a jb
1
=
2z 2(a 2 + b2 )
z 2 ( a jb )(( a 2 b 2 ) + j 2 ab ) a 3 + ab 2 + j ( a 2b + b 3 )
=
=
2z
2(a 2 + b2 )
2(a 2 + b 2 )
but since
a (a2+b2) = a3+ab2
b ( a2+b2) = a2b+b3
and
then
z2/2z = (a+jb)/2.
Another method:
z2 z2 z* z( zz*) z
=
=
=
2 z 2 zz* 2 zz* 2
An obvious result but many students do not take the short cut!
Example 2.1.4
Calculate zw and z/w when z=jb w= jd.
In this case we should be able to ignore complex arithmetic but be aware
of the rules. Hence we should expect zw=-bd and z/w= b/d.
Answer:
Expanded zw=(0+jb)x(0+ jd) hence zw=-bd+j0.
similarly z/w=(0+jb)x(0-jd)/d2 =b/d
Example 2.1.5
An electric circuit has two inductive reactances w=j4 and v=j12 in
parallel. Calculate the impedance z (=wv/(w+v)) of the circuit.
Answer
z=4x12/(4+12) =j3
Page 7 of 85
b
pos
neg
pos
neg
degrees
0-90
270-360
90-180
180-270
Example 2.1.6
Express z=3+j4 and w=-3+j4 in polar form.
answer:
The modulus of both z and w is 32 + 4 2 = 5
4
.
For z = tan 1 = 5313
3
4
For w = tan 1
= 126.87
3
Note that the argument for w is (180-53.13)
Once again with z =r and w=s then zw= rs(+) and
z/w=r/s(-). We will now expand z and w using Eulers Formula and
calculate the quotient z/w. The product is left as an exercise for the
student.
z = r (cos + j sin )
w = s(cos + j sin )
z
r (cos + j sin ) rs(cos + j sin )(cos j sin )
=
=
s2 (cos2 + sin 2 )
w s(cos + j sin )
but since cos2 + sin 2 = 1
Page 8 of 85
z r
= ((cos cos + sin sin ) + j (sin cos sin cos ))
w s
z r
= (cos( ) + j sin( ))
w s
z r
= ( )
w s
1
2
3
4
Page 9 of 85
2.2
Linear Equations
Linear equations are used extensively throughout power system
calculations; large systems of equations are solved in modern times by the
digital computer but nevertheless it is useful to be able to solve small
systems using only a pocket calculator or spreadsheet. In this section we
will look at simple methods of solving equations involving at most three
unknowns. The method used will also provide a powerful and systematic
tool for proving theoretical results. Appendix A will cover matrix algebra
which is used by computer methods of solving power system equations.
The methods introduced in this section will be used in proofs of network
theory to be covered in other sections.
Once understood the process of finding solutions to practical problems of
simultaneous equations is quite tedious. A spreadsheet for solving
equations of up to three variables is included with this supplement.
Description of the spreadshheet is covered in appendix B.
Consider the equations:
3x + 4y = 16
x + 2y = 6
The most elementary method of finding the value of x is to subtract twice
the second equation from the first thus eliminating y:
3x + 4y = 16
2x + 4y = 12
giving x = 4 and, since x+2y = 6, y=1;
This very simple method becomes messy when trying to solve, say,
equations involving complex numbers. Alternatively, to eliminate y we
could multiply the first equation by 2 and the second by 4 and then subract
again in the same way:
thus
6x + 8y = 32
4x + 8y = 24
hence
2x
= 8 and
Page 10 of 85
In this system the first suffix denotes a row and the second one denotes a
column. Using the method described above to eliminate y, multiply the
first equation by A22 and the second one by A12.
A11A22x + A12A22y = A22B1
A21A12x + A22A12y = A12B2
B
B1
B1 A22 B2 A12
B2
x=
=
A11 A22 A21 A12 A11
A21
A12
A22
A12
A22
The array:
A11
A=
A21
A12
A22
B2
x=
A11
A21
A12
A22
A12
A22
and
A11 B1
A21 B2
y=
A11 A12
A21 A22
Page 11 of 85
3 4
D=
= 6 4 = 2
1 2
16 4
3 16
6 2 32 24
1 6 18 16
=
= 4 and y =
=
=1
x =
2
2
2
2
39 j12 3 j1
2 + j1 12 + j16
Example 2.3.2
Page 12 of 85
z=
82
44
j8
j 6 82 xj 6 44 xj8 j140
= j5
=
=
28
28
28
j10 82
Cramers rule is useful for proving theoretical results. Read the derivation
of the equations for the two phase to earth fault in paragraph d of section
3.4.4 of the textbook. The example quoted is the most difficult to solve of
the classic fault conditions but this systematic method makes the process
easier to understand.
Example 2.3.2
Fig 3.4.4E and equations 3.4.4.16 and 3.4.4.17 in the text book describe
the conditions at the point of fault for a Two phase to earth fault. We will
solve these equations using Cramers Method.
Answer:
This is one of the standard problems in the application of Symmetrical
component theory to unbalanced faults. It is not necessary to understand
symmetrical components for this answer but the solution to Self Test 2.1.1
is applied.
We are given Ia = 0 (Equation 3.4.4.16) and Vb = Vc = 0 (3.4.4.17)
There are three equations and, as we shall see, three unknowns (I1, I2 and
I0) but solving three equations simultaneously leads to quite complicated
manipulation. Instead we will use the voltage equations to obtain
relationships between the variables. We will then substitute these
relationships into the current equation to find direct expressions for the
currents.
Expanding for Vb in symmerical component form
Vb = a2E-a2I1Z1 -aI2Z2-I0Z0=0
(This equation is printed incorrectly in some text books)
and
Vc = aE-aI1Z1-a2I2Z2-I0Z0=0
Page 13 of 85
Solve these equations for I1 and I2 in terms of E and I0. First write them in
the form
a 2 Z1 I 1 + aZ 2 I 2 = a 2 E I 0 Z 0
aZ1 I 1 + a 2 Z 2 I 2 = aE I 0 Z 0
D = ( a a 2 ) Z1 Z 2
(since a4 = a)
I1 =
a 2 E I 0 Z 0
aE I 0 Z 0
aZ 2
a 2 Z2
aEZ 2 a 2 I 0 Z 0 Z 2 a 2 EZ 2 + aI 0 Z 0 Z 2
=
D
collecting terms:
Z 2 (a a 2 )( E + I 0 Z 0 ) E + I 0 Z 0
=
I1 =
Z1
Z1 Z 2 ( a a 2 )
I0 =
Thus
I 1 Z1 E
Z0
Similarly
I2 =
a 2 Z1
aZ1
a 2 E I 0 Z0
aE I 0 Z 0
D
collecting terms
Z1 E a 2 Z1 I 0 Z 0 Z1 E + aZ1 I 0 Z 0
=
D
Z1 Z 0 ( a a 2 ) I 0 I 0 Z 0 I 1 Z1 E
=
=
I2 =
Z2
Z2
Z1 Z 2 ( a a 2 )
Page 14 of 85
I 1 Z1 E I 1 Z1 E
+
=0
Z2
Z0
giving
I1 +
I 1 Z 2 Z 0 + I 1 Z1 Z 0 + I 1 Z1 Z 2 = EZ 0 + EZ 2
I 1 ( Z 2 Z 0 + Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2 ) = E ( Z 0 + Z 2 )
I1 =
E (Z0 + Z2 )
Z 2 Z 0 + Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2
E + I 2 Z2
I Z
+ I2 + 2 2 = 0
Z1
Z0
hence
I2 =
Z0 E
Z 2 Z 0 + Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2
I0 =
2.1
Z2 E
Z 2 Z 0 + Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2
Page 15 of 85
V
sin(t 90) .
L
Proof:
L
hence
dI
= V sin t
dt
dI V
= sint
dt L
V
I = sintdt
L
Page 16 of 85
I =
V
cost
L
cos =
V
R2 + X 2
R
R +X
2
Rt
L
[sin(t ) + e
, sin =
X
R + X2
2
where
= tan 1
X
R
Page 17 of 85
= VI-
b) S=|I|2 Z
In rectangular form: Let I= a+jb and Z=R+jX, then
S = I*V= I*I Z =(a+jb)(a-jb)(R+jX)=(a2+b2)(R+jX) = |I|2Z
In Polar Form I2 Z where is the impedance angle.
2
V
Z*
In rectangular form: Let V= u+jw and Z=R+jX
S=
(c)
VV * ( u + jw )( u jw ) u2 + w2 V
=
=
=
Z*
R jX
R jX
Z*
2
S = VI * =
V 2
Z
V
hence Z = Z1 + Z2
Z1 + Z 2
in this case of course I flows through both impedances.
VZ1
and this represents a potential divider
Z1 + Z2
For two impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel the total current I is given by:
I=
Z + Z2
ZZ
V
V
) hence the impedance of the circuit is Z = 1 2
+
=V( 1
Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
Page 18 of 85
Y1 + Y2 =
Z1 + Z 2
Z1 Z 2
IZ 2
IZ
=
Z1 Z1 + Z 2
and
I2 =
IZ1
IZ
=
Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
Example 2.3.2.1
A circuit consists of two impedances Z1 = (1+j8) and Z2 = (3+j4)
connected in parallel and series impedance Zs = (1.625+j1.125). The circuit
is connected to an ac voltage E = 100v rms.
Calculate (a) the total impedance of the circuit (b) the total current (c) the
current flowing in Z1 and Z2 (d) the voltage across Zs and (e) the power and
the reactive power in the circuit.
Answer
Zs
E
Z1
Z2
Page 19 of 85
I=
100
100(3 j 4)
=
= (12 j16) A
3 + j4
25
=20-53.13 A
. )
VZ s 100(1.625 + j1125
= ( 37.5 j12.5)V = 39.43 18.43 V
=
Z
3 + j4
(e) Power
S=|I|2 Z = (122 +162 ) (3+j4)=(1200+j1600)VA
2.3 Self Test Questions
Z1
E
Zp
Z2
A 132kV circuit breaker with breaking duty of 25kA rms is designed for use
on a 50 hertz system with an X/R ratio of 11.8. Calculate the highest peak
kiloampere making duty of the circuit breaker.
Page 20 of 85
Network Analysis
Understanding of fault calculations requires a good understanding of
network analysis; methods of network reduction beyond simple series
and parallel element reductions are based on network theorems. In this
chapter we shall begin with the axioms of Kirchhoffs Laws to analyse
networks and then, using these results as basis, we proceed to cover the
Parallel Generator Theorem; the Principle of Superposition; a direct
consequence of this, Thevenins Theorem which is the basis of most
methods of fault calculation, and; finally star-delta and delta-star
transformations. Proofs are provided but may be omitted if you are
short of time. Most of the chapter has been written around two
networks so that the advantages of the different approaches maybe
identified. In order to keep the focus on understanding principles most
calculations are based on resistive ohmic networks. Your spreadsheet
may be used to solve equations but masochists may wish to solve them
longhand!
3.1
Kirchhoffs Laws
We will treat these as axioms for which there is no proof. Kirchhoffs
Current Law states that the currents in branches terminating at a
junction sum to zero. Alternatively we may say the sum of currents
entering the junction equals the sum of currents leaving the junction.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law states that the voltages around any closed
path sum to zero.
Some authors refer to these as KCL and KVL respectively [5].
There are two basic ways of using these laws directly to solve network
problems. One way, known as mesh current analysis, is to specify the
voltages around meshes and calculate the mesh currents using KVL
and from this deduce the branch currents using KCL. The other way,
known as nodal voltage analysis, is to specify the currents injected at
nodes to calculate the voltages at them using KCL and from this
deduce the branch currents.
30
20
80V
Page 21 of 85
130V
There are two meshes. Let the current round each loop be I1 and I2 .
30
20
80V
I1
130V
I2
rearranging to become
80 = 28I1 + 8I2
Following a similar procedure around mesh 2 we can write:
130 = 8I1 + 38I2
The solution of these equations using Cramers Method:
Det = (28 x 38) - (8 x 8) =1000
I1 =
80 8
130 38
Det
= 2 A and I 2 =
28 80
8 130
Det
= 3A
I1 = 2A and I2 = 3A.
Thus the current in the 8 resistor = 5A.
Read section 3.2.1 of your text book up to This simple example has
been solved and noting:
There is a printing error in equations 3.2.1.7 and 3.2.1.9 in some
textbooks. The right hand side in both equations should read 100+j0.
The equation set 3.2.1.6 and 3.2.1.7 are branch current equations but
those in the set 3.2.1.8 and 3.2.1.9 are really mesh current equations.
The solution given is unclear; it is better to use Cramers Method:
Det= (2+j4)(3+j5)-(1+j0)(1+j0)=-15+j22
:
Page 22 of 85
I1 =
118 + j 34 1 + j 0
100 + j 0 3 + j5
A
= 17.707 j18164
.
Det
2 + j 4 118 + j 34
100 + j 0 100 + j 0
I2 =
= 9.932 j10.499 A
Det
Branch current analysis should not be used in general because elimination of
redundant information such as I3 in the above textbook example is confusing.
Mesh current analysis provides a more sound basis for creating a
mathematical model but we need to know how many equations are needed
and how to set them up. To determine how many equations are necessary
first short circuit all voltage sources; the number of equations required is the
number of impedance elements e minus the number of nodes v excluding the
reference node. Thus in example 3.1.1 above the number of equations is 31=2! simple. Setting them up just requires including each impedance element
in at least one mesh; each mesh current flows in every element round the
mesh with currents in adjacent meshes being added or subtracted. Fig
3.2.2A in the textbook shows a good example where the number of equations
required is three i.e. e = 6 and v = 3.
Example 3.1.1.2
Find the current flow in Fig 3.1.1.2.
10
5
100V
2
2
20
100V
Fig 3.1.1.2
There are 5 impedance elements and 2 nodes. We therefore need three
equations.
10
5
100V
I1
2
2
20
I2
Page 23 of 85
I3
100V
V2
V1
Y2
Y1
E1
Y3
Y5
Y4
E2
Fig 3.1.2.1
There are two nodes 1 and 2. We know from KCL that the current
flowing into a node sum to zero.
For node 1:
(E1 -V1)Y1 + (V2 - V1) Y2 + (0 - V1) Y4 = 0.
rearranging:
E1 Y1 = (Y1 + Y2 + Y4 ) V1 - Y2 V2
Similarly we can write for node 2:
E2Y3 = -Y2 V1 + (Y2 + Y3 +Y5 )V2
Noting that E1 Y1 and E2 Y3 both represent current we can solve the
equations to find V1 and V2.
Page 24 of 85
Y2
E1Y1
Y3+Y5
Y1+Y4
E2Y3
Fig 3.1.2.2
Fig 3.1.2.2 has been developed from fig 3.1.2.1 by replacing voltage
sources with constant current source. The constant current source is the
short circuit current at the terminals of the source. i.e.
Z
is equivalent to..
EY
50 = -0.1V1 + (0.5+0.5+0.1) V2
50 = -0.1V1 + 1.1V2
Page 25 of 85
(72-52) 0.1 = 2A
(52-0)0.5 = 26A
20
180V
120V
Page 26 of 85
V =
E 1Y1 + E 2 Y2 + E 3 Y3
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
E1
E2
E3
Y1
Y2
Y3
Fig 3.2.1
V
Proof
Applying nodal voltage analysis to the common busbar V:
(E1 - V) Y1 + (E2 - V) Y2 + (E3 - V) Y3 = 0
E1Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 = V( Y1 + Y2 + Y3 )
V =
E 1Y1 + E 2 Y2 + E 3 Y3
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
Example
Consider again example 3.1.1, repeated here for convenience:
Node 1
30
20
80V
130V
Page 27 of 85
80 130 0 250
+
+
250 120
30
20 30 8
V=
=
=
x
= 40V
25
1
1 1
30 25
+
+
120
20 30 8
Now
V prefault
Z bus
V prefault =
E 1Y1 + E 2 Y2
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
Page 28 of 85
This rule applies to any network as we shall see later. In practice fault
level varies marginally with load changes; most networks are operated
in a way to keep the voltage within a small tolerance of a target
voltage and system control devices like generators, transformers and
capacitors are adjusted as the load changes.
3.2.2 The principle of Superposition
This is sometimes quoted in text books as a theorem but as we shall see
it is derived directly from Kirchhoffs laws. Formally it states that:
The voltage and current response of a linear network to a number of
independent sources is the sum of responses obtained by applying each
source once with all other sources set to zero.
Applying this principle to the example 3.1.1.1 using mesh analysis we
have:
30
20
80V
I1
I2
130V
First find the current flow with only the 80V source present:
30
20
80V
I1
I2
Z = 20 +
8 x 30 500
=
8 + 30 19
and I1 = 80x19/500=3.04A.
Page 29 of 85
I 2 = I1
8
8
= 3.04 x
= 0.64 A
38
30 + 8
20
I1
I2
130V
With equations
28I1+ 8I2 = 0
8I1 + 38I2 = 130
from which I1 = -1.04A and I2 = 3.64A
Adding together the solutions:
I1 = 3.04 - 1.04 = 2A
I2 = -0.64 + 3.64 = 3A
The current direction convention was kept constant to preserve
consistency. The method when written like this is equivalent to the
mesh current analysis with just one voltage coefficient on the right
hand side at each stage.
It is not necessary to solve equations but network reduction methods
may be applied provided all impedances in the system (including those
of voltage sources for which the voltage has been set to zero) are
included.
The principle of superposition may also be applied to nodal analysis. In
this case all injected currents except one are set to zero and each
current injection is considered separately.
The nodal voltage equations of example 3.1.2 were:
0.35V1 - 0.1V2 = 20
-0.1V1 + 1.1V = 50
Treating each current source individually:
Page 30 of 85
0.35V1 - 0.1V2 = 20
-0.1V1 + 1.1V2 = 0
from which V1 = 176/3 V and V2 = 16/3 V
and
0.35V1 - 0.1V2 = 0
-0.1V1 + 1.1V2 = 50
from which V1 = 40/3 V and V2 = 140/3 V
Summing the two results gives our earlier result:
V1 = (176+40)/ 3 = 72V and V2 = (16+140)/3 = 52V
It is not necessary to solve equations in order to calculate these
voltages. It could be done by injecting current into the reduced network
but this is left as an exercise for the student.
It should be noted that it is not normal practice to solve problems using
the Superposition method in conjunction with the nodal voltage method
but it has been included here to show the general properties of the
superposition method.
Network
ZL
Fig 3.2.3.1
20
E
80V
I1
I2
130V
80 = 20I1 + E
130 = -30I1 + E
from which
Now remove and short the original voltage sources; keeping the same
sign convention we can write equations:
-100 = 28I1 + 8I2
-100 = 8I1 + 38I2
Hence
I1 = -3A and I2 = -2A
Thus the current in the 8 resistor is 5A but in the opposite direction to
the normal result. Thus when E acts alone the current in the 8 resistor
is -5A but when acting with other voltages the current is zero. This is
because E = 100V opposes exactly the current from the other sources
according to the Principle of Superposition; Thus we conclude that with
E removed a current of 5A will flow in the 8 resistor and E =100V is
the open circuit voltage across the 8 resistor (which could be
removed).
We then have from Thevenins Theorem:
I=
E
100
=
=5
ZL + Z 8 + Z
Page 32 of 85
thus Z = 12
I2 = 2+1 =3
30
20
5
80V
8
130V
Now suppose the load is included in the network and that we want to
calculate the fault current when the 8 resistor is short circuited. The
voltage at node 1 before the short circuit is applied was calculated in
section 3.1, using the parallel generator theorem, to be 40V and the
impedance Z is given by:
Z=
1
1
120 24
=
=
=
= 4.8
1 1
1
25
25
5
+
+
8 20 30 120
Page 33 of 85
The network with the 8 resistor incorporated is now equivalent to fig 3.4.1:
i
4.8
40V
Fig 3.4.2
Fig 3.4.1
We can now put any new load, including a short circuit, across the
open terminals and obtain the current and voltage conditions. The short
circuit current is the same with or without the load.
Thevenins Theorem is sometimes written based on fig 3.4.2 as:
v = E - iZ
Fault conditions are clearly defined by v=0.
Read Example 2 in section 3.3.10 of the textbook from the paragraph
following Fig 3.3.10I and commencing It should be noted that.. .
Comment: The author makes the explanation of Thevenins Theorem in
the Paragraph commencing Knowing the fault current.. difficult to
understand. The following points will now be clear to you:
5
100V
2
2
20
Fig 3.4.3
Page 34 of 85
100V
5
100V
20
100V
4
i.e. 20x5/25= 4
80V
50V
i.e. 100x20/25= 80
10
4
80V
50V
100V
I1
I = 2A
20
I2
100V
thus
I1 = 5.6A
Page 35 of 85
80.8kV
j80
6.9+j39
2.3 + j13
4.6+j26
80.8kV
j 53.2
80.8kV
2.3 + j13
4.6+j26
80.8kV
Following the previous example the current in the 6.9+j39 element is:
I=
I = 14.314 j 224.421 A
Note that I flows from left to right in the diagram. The current in the
left and right hand loops can now be calculated.
Page 36 of 85
Page 37 of 85
3.3
Zb
Za
Zc
Fig 3.3.1
Z2
Z1
Z3
Fig 3.3.2
Star- Delta Transformation
The two networks in Figs 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 are equivalent if:
Z1 = Za + Zc + ZaZc/Zb ;
Z2 = Za + Zb + ZaZb/Zc;
Z3 = Zb + Zc + ZbZc/Za
Delta- Star Transformation
The two networks in Figs 3.3.2 and 3.3.1 are equivalent if:
Za = Z1Z2/(Z1+Z2+Z3);
Zb= Z2Z3/(Z1+Z2+Z3);
Zc = Z1Z3 /(Z1+Z2+Z3)
Proof:
It is a remarkable fact that the solution of the mesh- current problem of the
star network in fig 3.3.1 is equivalent to the coefficients of the nodal
voltage analysis equations of fig 3.3.2. Likewise the solution of the nodal
voltage problem of fig 3.3.2 is equivalent to the coefficients of the mesh
current analysis of fig 3.3.1.
Page 38 of 85
I1 , V1
I2 , V2
Zb
Za
Zc
Fig 3.3.1.a
Applying mesh current analysis to the network in Fig 3.3.1.a:
V1 = (Za + Zc ) I1 + Zc I2
V2 = Zc I1 + ( Zb + Zc ) I2
1.1
1.2
Zb + Z c
Zc
V1
V .........13
.
Z a Zb + Z a Z c + Zb Z c
Z a Zb + Z a Z c + Zb Z c 2
Za + Zc
Zc
I2 =
V1 +
V .........14
.
Z a Zb + Z a Z c + Zb Z c
Z a Zb + Z a Z c + Zb Z c 2
I1 =
I1 , V1
I2 , V2
Y2
Y1
Y3
Fig 3.3.2a
Using Fig 3.3.2a, in which admittances are used for convenience, we can
write the nodal voltage equations:
I1 = (Y1 + Y2) V1 - Y2 V2
I2 = - Y1 + (Y2 +Y3) V2
2.1
2.2
Page 39 of 85
Zc
1
=
Z 2 Z a Zb + Z a Z c + Zb Z c
Z Z
Z 2 = Z a + Zb + a b
Zc
Y2 =
Solving the nodal 2.1 and 2.2 equations by Cramers method we find:
V1 =
Y2 + Y3
Y2
I1 +
I ..............2.3
Y1Y2 + Y1Y3 + Y2 Y3
Y1Y2 + Y1Y3 + Y2 Y3 2
V2 =
Y2
Y1 + Y2
I1 +
I .............2.4
Y1Y2 + Y1Y3 + Y2 Y3
Y1Y2 + Y1Y3 + Y2 Y3 2
Y2
Y1Y2 + Y1Y3 + Y2 Y3
Zc =
1
Y1 + Y3 +
Y1Y3
Y2
1
Z2
1
1
+
+
Z1 Z 3 Z1 Z 3
Z1 Z 3
Zc =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3
Zc =
Formulas for Za and Zb may be derived from this result and this too is left
as an exercise.
Example 3.3.1
Find the current flow in the following network.
30
20
80V
130V
125
80V
33.3
50
130V
It must be noted that the network inside the box is only an equivalent of
the original. The current in each element is easily calculated:
50 element = 130/50 = 2.6A
125 element = (130-80) / 125 = 0.4A
33.3 element = 80/33.3 = 2.4A
The current from the 130V source = 2.6+0.4 =3A
The current from the 80V source = 2.4-0.4 =2A
These values agree with earlier methods of solving this problem.
Example 3.3.2
A 50km double circuit 132kV overhead
line
with impedance
0.1814+j0.3920 per kilometre has a fault 20km from a termination and in
the network reduction procedure it is necessary to convert the delta to an
equivalent star network.
Answer:
There are two ways of doing this type of calculation. One is very tedious
and the other very efficient! First the tedious method (followed by 95% of
students and engineers) goes like this:
Impedance AB = 50*(0.1814+j0.3920) = 9.069+j19.602.
Impedance AC = 20*(0.1814+j0.3920) = 3.628+j 7.841
Impedance BC = 30*(0.1814+j0.3920) = 5.442+j11.761
Finding the star element corresponding to AB and AC:
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC = 18138
+ j 3.9204
.
(9.069 + j19.602)(3.628 + j 7.841) 120.795 + j142.219
=
+ j 3.9204
+ j 3.9204
18138
18138
.
.
= 1814
+ j 3.92
.
Z an =
Z an
Page 41 of 85
Z an =
50 * 20
* (018138
.
+ j 0.39204) = 1814
.
+ j 3.92
100
10
60
40
12
B
350V
Page 42 of 85
30
A
I
20
I2
12
12
B
350V
100
60
Id
40
6.25A
Page 43 of 85
4.0
4.1
Introduction
We shall investigate the nature of fault conditions and examine best ways of
calculating fault current. All fault calculations would be very simple if there
were no transformers in the power system so basically we need a method
which makes them transparent in the calculation. Ohmic methods are
advocated by some authors [3] whilst per-unit methods are used in the PSP
course and are used widely. We will also examine how we should express the
fault current since modern international standards quote them as kiloamperes.
This section covers sections 3.3.2, 3.3.3 and 3.3.7 of the textbook.
4.2
V
E
V
E
Fig 4.2.1
Fig 4.2.2
In each case the load current is I amps and the load voltage V volts; thus the
two circuits have equal input and output quantities.
In Fig 4.2.1
E - IZ/n = nV
In Fig 4.2.2
E = n (V + I z)
or
E - nIz = nV
Page 44 of 85
L
O
A
D
V
Z ' = Z base
V
We are now able to exploit this result which allows us to swap transformers
and impedances around in order to simplify calculations.
2
4.3
Ohmic Methods
In this method the basic process consists of finding the equivalent impedances
as referred to one reference voltage which in our case will be the voltage level
of the fault.
Consider the following problem of finding I:
I/n
n
X
I
Y
Fig 4.3.1
The result above allows the network to be reduced almost by inspection to:
I
X/n2
E/n
Fig 4.3.2
Thus
I=
E
X
n( 2 + Y )
n
Page 45 of 85
Proof :
IX
nIY = 0
n
IX
E =
+ nIY
n
E
X
= I ( 2 + Y)
n
n
E
I=
E
X
n( 2 + Y )
n
Example 4.3.1
A 33kV generator of impedance 4.5 feeds an 11kv feeder of impedance
0.71 via an ideal transformer. Find the 11kV fault current assuming that the
impedances are reactive only.
Answer:
Choosing 11kV as the base voltage the transformation ratio is 3.
The equivalent generator voltage is therefore 33kV/3 and phase voltage is
11000/3V.
The generator impedance referred is 4.5/9 = 0.5.
Thus the fault current I = 11000/3/(0.5+0.71) = 5248.64A
The accuracy is preserved for later use!
The result of this example will be explored later but consider first the problem
of finding the current flowing in the following network with two generators of
different voltages.
n:1
I1 /n
1:m
I1
I2 /m
I2
E1
E2
Y
I1 + I2
Fig 4.3.3
This network has the following equivalent.
Page 46 of 85
I1
I2
X/n2
W/m2
E1 /n
E2 /m
Y
I1 + I2
Example 4.3.2
An 11kV circuit having impedance j0.45 is supplied by a nominal 33kV
generator having an impedance of j18 and a 132kV generator having an
impedance of
j76 in a network similar to Fig 4.3.3. Calculate the 11kV
fault current for voltages of (a) 33kV and (b) 34kV for the 33kV generator.
Assume ideal transformers.
Answer:
Choosing 11kV as base voltage. The transformation ratios are 12 for
132kV and 3 for 33kV
The equivalent impedances of the 132kV generator is 76/144 =0.5278
and the equivalent impedance of the 33kV generator is 18/9=2.
(a) Because the equivalent voltages are equal they can be treated as one
behind two impedances in parallel. The parallel combination is thus:
.
2 x0.5278
= 0.4176
2 +.5278
I=
(b)
11000
= 7320 A
3x (0.4176 + 0.45)
If =
6391
= 7366 A
0.45 + 0.4176
Using the Parallel Generator Theorem we can calculate the voltage across
the 11kV feeder directly.
From previous work:
now
11000
11333
+
3. 0.5278
32
V =
= 3314.84V
1
1
1
+ +
0.5278 2 0.45
If =
3314.84
= 7366A
0.45
Returning to reconsider the simple series example No. 4.3.1 there are a few
points worth noting:
It is clear that Fault Level means the total magnetic energy lost in a
system during a fault. Modern International standards avoid
ambiguity by quoting fault current in amperes. [6]
Note that phase values are always used when calculating fault
currents. This also applies to the per-unit system which is covered
below.
Page 48 of 85
4.4
V
IZ
=
Vbase Vbase
V
IZ I base
.
=
Vbase Vbase I base
V
I ZI base
=
Vbase I base Vbase
V
I
Z
=
Vbase I base Z base
V pu = I pu Z pu
The values of V and Vbase in equation 3.3.7.9 are not necessarily line to line
values, the equation is equally valid if phase to neutral values are used. Use
of phase to neutral voltage makes the derivation of equation 3.3.7.11 much
clearer; viz:
ZI
ZS
Z
Z pu =
= base = base
2
Z base
Vbase
3Vbase
This is not very useful because the equation can apply only to impedances
operating at the base voltage. In section 4.2 we have developed a method of
referring impedances Z operating at other voltages V to Z operating at the
voltage base Vbase.
Then:
2
ZSbaseVbase
ZSbase
Z ' pu =
2
2 =
3VbaseV
V L2
but since V is a phase voltage 3V2 is the square of the operating line voltage
VL.
There are three points worth noting about the expression above:
It is combining two functions of referring to a common voltage base and
giving the Zpu in one simple operation.
It is not quite the same as equation 3.3.7.11 in the textbook which has Zpu
on the left hand side. It is normal to use Z instead of Z but we have not
quite finished with Z.
Page 49 of 85
Now we are able to calculate the per unit impedance for any operating
voltage but we need another common reference. The textbook states that a
common MVA base should be used without justifying it.
Now we know
2
Vbase
ZS base
Z ' pu =
and Z ' = Z 2
3V 2
V
then
Z ' pu
Z'
Sbase
2
3Vbase
ZxSbase
kV L2
where Sbase is the Base MVA and kVL is the line operating voltage in
kilovolts.
Proof:
Z pu =
Z
Z base
2
Sbase
ZxS base xVbase
ZxSbase
I base
1
x
= Zx
= Zx
=
=
2
2
Vbase
3V base Vbase
V L2
3VbaseV
Page 50 of 85
Answer:
Z pu =
01
. x50
= 0.001147 pu
662
ZS1
V2
V 2 Z1 pu
S1
V 2 Z1 pu S 2
2
V S1
Z1 pu S 2
S1
Example 4.4.2
A 240MVA 400/132kV transformer has a nameplate impedance of 20%.
Calculate the per unit impedance to a 100MVA base.
Answer
Zpu on a base of 100 MVA = 20/100*100/240 = 0.08333pu.
Z1 puV12
V22
Where V1 is the voltage of the quoted per unit impedance Z1pu and V2 is the
operating voltage.
Example 4.4.3
Page 51 of 85
10km of 132kV overhead line has a per unit impedance to a 100MVA base
of (0.0104 +j 0.0225) pu and is operated at 33kV. Calculate the pu
impedance at 33kV.
Answer:
Z33pu=(0.0104+j0.0225) x 1322/332 = (0.1664+j 0.36)pu
L pu
2
L 3I 2 Z 3I 2 ZS 3V 2 ( 3IV )
ZS
2
= =
=
x 2 =
x 2 = I pu
Z pu
2
2
S
S
3V
3V
S
S
Example 4.4.4
An 11kV circuit of resistance 0.726 carries 10MVA. Calculate the losses in
the circuit.
Page 52 of 85
thus Z pu =
V pu
I pu
Vpu2
S pu
Normally the fault level is quoted as MVA without reference to the prefault
voltage. In this event nominal voltage is assumed.
Example 4.4.5
A 132kV infeed busbar operating at 138kV has a short circuit fault current
of 20kA. What is the infeed impedance for a 200 MVA base?
Answer:
Spu = 3 x138x20/200=23.903pu
Vbase = 132kV, Vpu = 138/132 = 1.0454pu
Zpu = 1.04542/23.903 = 0.04572pu.
Alternatively:
Ibase = 200x103/ 3 / 132 = 874.773 A thus Ipu = 20000/874.773 = 22.863pu
Zpu = Vpu / Ipu = 1.0454/ 22.863 = 0.04572pu
4.4.6 Load Impedance
It is often necessary to convert load to a per unit impedance.
Let the voltage at the load be V and the power S using the convention that
lagging vars are positive.
Spu = S/Sbase and Vpu = V/ Vbase
then
Z pu =
Vpu2
*
S pu
Proof:
Vphase
I
2
3Vphase
Zbase
2
Vbase 3Vbase
=
=
Ibase
Sbase
Zbase Vbase S *
S pu
2
Hence Z pu
Example 4.4.6
Page 53 of 85
S*
Calculate the per unit impedance on a 200MVA base for a load of 150MVA
at 0.85 power factor on a 132kV system operating at 138kV. This example
is taken from example 2 in section 3.3.10 in the textbook.
Answer: (by two methods)
The load angle is arcos (0.85) = 31.788
Vpu = 138/132 = 1.04545.
Spu = 150/200= 0.75= 0.75( 0.85 + j sin 31.788) = 0.6375+j 0.3951
Method I load angle
Zpu= V2pu /S* pu = 1.045452/ 0.75 = 1.4573
Thus Zpu = 1.4773 (0.85+j sin 31.788) = 1.2387 +j 0.7677pu
Method II Complex load
Zpu = V2pu /S* pu = 1.045452 / (0.6375 - j 0.3951) = 1.2387 + j0.7677pu
4.4.7 Transformer impedances
Transformers present two types of problem. The first is caused by them
having tap change equipment; the second is caused by non - standard ratios.
First assume a transformer is operating at an off nominal tap ratio a:1.
For example, most 132/33kV transformers in the UK have tap changers of
ratio range -20% to 10% fitted to the HV side.
When the tap position is -20%. the per unit terms the ratio a = 0.8
Assuming that 1pu current flows in the secondary and the secondary voltage
is Vpu then the corresponding values on the HV side are 1/a pu and aVpu.
The impedance Zpu viewed from the HV side is then:
v aV
=
= a 2V = a 2 Z pu
1
i
a
The transformer test engineer needs to guard against the possibility of this
result distorting the measurement of the true impedance of the transfomer. A
transformer impedance is determined by circulating the exact full load
current in a short circuited secondary winding and measuring the voltage on
the primary winding required to produce the current. The result is known as
impedance voltage and is normally quoted as a percentage of the test
supply voltage; it is easily converted to a per-unit value by dividing by 100
but it must be noted this is based upon the rating of the transformer. However
when the transformer is at the off nominal tap ratio a:1 the secondary
voltage is transformed to aV in the primary winding ; the test engineer avoids
ambiguity by expressing the impedance voltage as a percentage of aE (where
Page 54 of 85
E is the nominal voltage of the primary when a=1); thus keeping the volts per
turn constant. Any variation of transformer impedance from the test is then
a true measure of variation caused by the design of the transformer and the
tap changer.
In accurate power system studies it is necessary to take account of the tap
changer effect (ie a2Z above) and also sometimes necessary to change the
transformer impedance Z. Students are recommended to obtain a full test
certificate for a transformer within their company to see how Z varies with
tap position.
Transformers with non - standard ratios are used sometimes for voltage
control purposes. Typical among these are 33/11.5kV transformers
operating on nominal 33/11kV medium voltage distribution networks.
Methods outlined paragraph 4.4.3 can be used in such a cases.
Example 4.4.7.1
A 33/11.5kV 24MVA transformer having impedance voltage 10% is
operated in a nominal 33/11kV network. Determine the per unit impedance
to be used for doing 11kV fault calculations with a tap changer position of
- 10%.
Answer:
First without the tap changer effect:
Z = (11.5/11)2 x 10 / 100 = 0.1093pu
Taking account of the tap changer .
It should be noted first that when viewed from the 11 kV side the
transformer will have an output voltage of 11.5kV when on the nominal tap.
ie there is an equivalent ratio b = 11/11.5 = 0.9565:1 and this correction
is required throughout the range of the tap changer. The modified a is then
a= (100-10)/100 x b = 0.9x0.9565=0.8609 ; a2 = 0.741
Z = a2Z = 0.741x0.1093 = 0.081pu
Clearly we have rebased the impedance by a factor (11.5/11)2 and then
corrected this by modifying the tap changer with the reciprocal! It is
necessary because we need to model the tap changer correctly for voltage
control and the impedance is adjusted to compensate.
The next example illustrates the effect in fault calculation.
Example 4.4.7.2
Page 55 of 85
a:1
0.081pu
0.1pu
1pu
I/apu
Ipu
Looking again at example 4.3.1 this time using per unit methods:
A 33kV generator of impedance 4.5 feeds an 11kv feeder of impedance
0.71 via an ideal transformer. Find the 11kV fault current assuming that the
impedances are reactive only.
Answer Using a 200MVA base.
Noting that Z pu =
ZxSbase
we have
kV L2
Page 56 of 85
Find Zbase (in ohms) for a base MVA of 100 at 11kV, 33kV , 132kV and
400kV.
Page 57 of 85
800MVA
B
A
Fig 5.1.1
Use a base MVA of 100.
We will do the calculation two ways, first including resistance and then ignoring it.
First find the per unit impedance of the overhead lines:
ZL =
ZT
Zs
ZL
E
Page 58 of 85
ZT
ZP =
Z A ZB
+ j 0.4352)
+ j 2.4353)(01253
(01253
.
.
=
= 0.0929 + j 0.3719 pu
Z A + Z B (01253
.
+ j 2.4353) + (01253
.
+ j 0.4353)
33(0.0929 + j 0.3719)
= 24.978 j1499
.
= 25.023kV
0.0929 + j 0.4969
Note the direct use of the 33kV line voltage in the calculation for Va
Now, ignoring resistance we can drop the use of the j operator.
Zp = 2.4353 x 0.4353/ (2.4353+ 0.4353) = 0.3693
ZF = 03693 + 0.125 = 0.4943 hence IF = 2.0232pu = 3540A
VA = 33x Zp / (Zp + Zs ) = 33 x 0.3693/ 0.4943 = 24.65kV
Page 59 of 85
800MVA
GEN
A
Fig 5.2.1
L
O
A
D
Comment
This example illustrates the value of Thevenins Theorem in fault calculations. At
first sight it may be thought that the load impedance is short circuited by the fault
and therefore can be neglected. Unfortunately this is not true because the presence
of the load helps to determine the tap change position.
In those circumstances where the load impedance is known but the busbar voltage
is not known it would be necessary to determine the driving voltage behind the
generator and use , say, mesh analysis to find the fault current. This procedure is
not necessary in this case because we know the prefault voltage at the busbar. The
process used here applies the fundamental principle of fault calculation covered in
section 3.2.1. It is only necessary to find the impedance to the fault from the three
parallel paths: The overhead circuits and transformers in parallel; the load; and the
generator.
Another small complication arises from the colloquial use of the term 11kV
busbar when all the plant connected to it is rated at 11.5kV and it is operated at
11.4kV. There are options to rebase all the plant values or to use the common
voltage of 11.5kV as the base voltage (strictly we should say 11.5/3)
The per unit voltage is thus 11.4/11.5 = 0.9913pu Using a base MVA Sbase= 100:
Page 60 of 85
ZT =
. + j 2.9 )
j 2.0x (1159
= 0.2927 + j1876
.
j 2.0 + 1159
. + j 2.9
IF =
( 0.2927 + j1876
. )( 0.0627 + j 0.8552 )
= 0.0582 + 0.5883
0.2927 + j1876
.
+ 0.0627 + j 0.8552
Vpu
ZF
0.9913
.
= 01652
j1.6711
0.0582 + j 0.5883
IF = 1.679 pu
Ibase at 11.5kV = 105/3 11.5 = 5020A
Thus the Fault current = 5.02 x 1.679 = 8.43kA
Fault current with the load disconnected would be 8.37kA. due to different tap
change and voltage conditions. The fault impedance is influenced by the amount of
load and the effect this has on the tap changer.
Page 61 of 85
The current that would flow into the circuit if a line circuit breaker at end A
were to trip.
Ignore resistance. The prefault voltage at the fault is 132kV. Transformers are on
nominal tap.
125MVA
28%
75MVA
12.5%
125MVA
18%
75 MVA
17.5%
B
fig 5.3.1
1500MVA
Comment
This type of problem can be solved by many of the methods covered in chapter 3.
Most students calculate the fault current first and then find the current sharing
between circuits for the intact system. Having completed that phase they next
remove an element and repeat the process. Quite often delta-star transformation is
used involving the circuits of interest as we have covered in example 3.3.3.
This example will be done in three ways using :
Thevenins Theorem
Page 62 of 85
The generator and transformer at end B do not need re-basing thus the equivalent
of the grid and the plant at end B is 0.05x0.3/0.35 = 0.0429pu . The fault diagram is
thus:
0.24pu
0.175pu
0.0429pu
0.105pu
0.07pu
1pu
1pu
Fig 5.3.2
Method (a) Thevenins Theorem
First find the current in the healthy circuit (the 0.175pu impedance).
Remove it and find the equivalent voltages and imedances at end A and B.
End A
ZA = 0.24 x 0.07 / 0.31 = 0.0542pu
VA = 0.07/0.31 = 0.2258pu
ZB = 0.105 x 0.0429 / 0.1479 = 0.0304pu
VB = 0.105/0.1479 = 0.7101pu
0.0304pu
.2258pu
.7101pu
Fig 5.3.3
The current in the healthy line is thus:
I AB =
0.7101 0.2258
= 18655
.
flowing from B to A.
pu
0.0542 + 0.0304 + 0175
.
Let IA be the machine current at end A. Then we can write for the local mesh in
fig 5.3.2:
1 = 0.24IA + 0.07 ( IA + 1.8655) from which IA = 2.8406pu
similarly IB = 8.0881pu
Page 63 of 85
The currents in the faulted circuits are thus IAF = 1.8655+2.8406 = 4.67pu=1532A
and IBF = 8.0881-1.8655 = 6.2226pu = 2041A.
We are also ready to deal with the line A-F outage. Clearly, with the line
removed, the left hand side of fig 5.3.3 now has VA = 1 and ZA = 0.24. Thus
I AB =
1 0.7101
= 0.6507 pu
0.24 + 0.0304 + 0175
.
from A to B .
1pu
I1
0.175pu
0.0429pu
0.105pu
0.07pu
I3
1pu
I2
Fig 5.3.4
The mesh equations are
0.31I1 + 0.07I2 = 1
0.07I1 + 0.35I2 - 0.105I3 = 0
-0.105I2 + 0.1479I3 = 1
from which I1 = 2.8046 I2 = 1.8655 and I3 = 8.0881 check these using your
spreadsheet.
Clearly the line currents are IAF = 4.67pu and IBF = 6.2226pu
Modelling of the line outage provides an even more simple system of equations to
solve. From fig 5.3.5:
1 = 0.52 I1 + 0.105 I3
1 = 0.105 I1 + 0.1479 I3
Page 64 of 85
0.24pu
0.175pu
0.0429pu
0.105pu
I1
1pu
I3
1pu
fig 5.3.4
From which I1 = 0.6507pu and I3 = 6.3012
Thus the current in the remaining circuit is 6.9519pu
Method (c) delta - star transformation
In this method the delta comprising the sources and the healthy line circuit is
converted to an equivalent star; as we are seeking to find the currents in the faulty
sections of line this approach avoids the complications of example 3.3.3. Voltage
sources can be paralleled because they have the same value of voltage.
Starting from the fault diagram the reduction goes as follows:
0.24pu
0.175pu
0.0429pu
0.105pu
0.07pu
1pu
1pu
fig 5.3.5
0.105pu
0.0429pu
0.175pu
0.24pu
0.07pu
1pu
Page 65 of 85
0.0164pu
0.105pu
0.0917pu
0.07pu
0.0225pu
1pu
The impedance of the parallel branch is easily seen to be 0.0693pu and the total
fault impedance is 0.0918pu Thus If = 1/0.918 = 10.8926pu.
The current in the top element, which includes explicitly the 60km line B-F, is
given by:
I BF = 10.8926x
0.0917 + 0.07
= 6.2226 pu and IAF = 4.6701pu as before.
0.0164 +.0917 +.175
The calculation of fault current without the 40km section of circuit follows as a
direct consequence but most people start the calculation again! Consider this:
0.0164pu
0.105pu
0.0225pu
0.0917pu
1pu
It should be noted that the equivalent circuit has not changed. Changes have only
affected the external elements.
If = 1/(0.0225+0.0164+0.0105) = 6.9519pu
Agreeing with earlier methods.
Page 66 of 85
132kV
62.5MVA 12%
GRID
station transformer
625MVA 15%
50MVA 16%
Generator transformer
unit transformer
fig 5.4.1
13.8kV
11kV
Comment
Similar to example 5.3, but with more variation in plant rating and
voltages, this problem can be solved efficiently by methods outlined in
chapter three. The worked examples will cover use of nodal voltage
analysis and then the principle of superposition. Note there is no need
to calculate the total fault current first and then follow this with
calculation of the flow. If it is necessary to find the fault level/current or
/impedance these will follow directly from the current flow calculation.
As there is no resistance specified for any component all the calculation
can be done using real numbers.
First the housekeeping
Rebase all the plant to a common value. The best common factor is
125MVA.
The grid infeed is 10000/125 = 80pu ie Zg = V2pu / Spu = 1/80 = 0.0125pu
Each Auto transformers Zat =
10 x125
= 01042
.
pu
100 x120
Page 67 of 85
15x125
= 0.03 pu
100 x 625
0.30 x125
= 0.06 pu
625
16 x125
= 0.4 pu
100 x50
12 x125
= 0.24 pu
100 x 62.5
The 132kV busbar which has no part in the calculation can be eliminated
by a series equivalent of the auto transformers and the station
transformers. ie Zast = Zat /2 + Zst = 0.1042/2 + 0.24 = 0.2921pu
The fault diagram is thus:
Zg
Zgt
1pu
Zgen
1pu
Zut
Zast
V2
Ygt
80pu
16.7pu
Yg
Yast
Yut
Ygen
Using symbols for illustration, the two nodal equations for nodes 1 and
2 are:
80 = (Yg + Yast + Ygt ) V1 - Ygt V2
16.67= -Ygt V1 + ( Ygen + Yut + Ygt ) V2
Page 68 of 85
0.0125pu
1pu
0.03pu
0.2921pu
0.06pu
0.4pu
1pu
First remove the generator voltage but leave its impedance in circuit:
Page 69 of 85
13.0495pu
0.0125pu
1pu
8.8559pu
0.03pu
0.06pu
0.4pu
0.2921pu
2.8652pu
1.3284pu
Now follow a similar process for the generator with the grid voltage
removed.
9.2349pu
8.8559pu
0.0125pu
10.2042
0.03pu
0.06pu
1pu
0.4pu
0.2921pu
0.3790pu
0.9693pu
Current flow during the fault is given by the adddition of these values ie
0.9494pu
4.1936pu
0.0125pu
1pu
1.3484
0.03pu
0.2921pu
3.2442pu
0.06pu
1pu
0.4pu
2.2977pu
Page 70 of 85
33kV
GRID
0.25+j0.463
0.368+j1.2395
0.25+j0.463
1000MVA
fig 5.5.1
0.6768+j0.9372
Comment
This problem is best solved using Thevenins Theorem because we are
given the prefault voltage. Before we can apply the theorem there is a
need to re-base the voltages. We are faced with 11.5kV transformers
feeding a nominal 11kV network and we are faced with a choice of
either re-basing the 11kV circuits and the generator to 11.5kV or rebasing the transformer infeed. Clearly there is not much work to do to
rebase three 11kV components to 11.5kV. We need also to establish the
angle between the generator terminal voltage and the 11kV primary
busbar in order to find the generating voltage ie the internal voltage.
After using Thevenins Theorem to find the fault current we will use the
voltage divider principle to find the voltage at the generator terminals at
the start of the fault.
Let the base MVA = 100 and the base voltage =11.5kV.
Page 71 of 85
.05
= 0.051006 pu
0.97 x10106
.
IgZg
Eg
IgZgp
Ig
Fig 5.5.2
Ep
Using the cosine law we have:
(IgZgp )2 = Ep2 + Eg2 - 2EpEg cos
(0.051006 x 1.1829)2 = 0.98132 + 1.01062 - 2 x 0.9813 x 1.0106 cos
Page 72 of 85
Page 73 of 85
Zin = 0.119+j0.8214
Zgc = 0.3367+j 3.4214
Zfc = 0.6192+j0.8575
ZL =9.1481+j 3.0068
0.9813
E gf = E pf +
( E st E pf ) Z gp
E gf = 0.6139 j 0.1007 +
Z gc
(1.0316 + j 0.1680 0.6139 + j 01007 ) x ( 0.3367 + j1134
. )
0.3367 + j 3.4214
E gf = 0.7725 j 0.03711 pu
Page 74 of 85
1 1 4 1
3
= j
2
2
2
a=
2 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3
4 (a)
2.2
1
2
x=3 , y=5
z=3+j, w =4-j
2.3
1 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.88+j4.16
9.88-55.3 A
3.125-j3.125 A or 4.4194-45
22.53V
281.25 + j406.25 VA
62.446kA
3.2
4.4
1
11
33
132
50
0.0413
0.00459
0.00028
100
0.0826
0.0005
0.00057
200
0.1652
0.0020
0.00114
Z=0.1764+j0.1323
Y= 3.6281-j2.7211
Page 75 of 85
Appendix A
A.1 Matrix Algebra
Matrix algebra is not part of the PSP course but nevertheless plays a major role in
the modelling of power systems. Almost every computer model of power systems
makes use of matrix algebra so it is worth gaining some understanding. As you
might expect matrix algebra is a wide subject and this appendix can cover only a
few basic operations; students wanting to extend their knowledge may find
reference [1] helpful.
The appendix will cover representation, multiplication and inversion of matrices;
matrix algebra can be tedious so the operations described will be carried out using
personal computer spreadsheet programs. Instructions for Microsoft EXCEL and
Lotus 1-2-3 are provided in appendix B.
A2
What is a matrix?
A matrix is an array. Consider again the problem first considered at the beginning
of section 2.2:
3x + 4y = 16
x + 2y = 6
Do not be concerned if you do not understand this section; it is only an example;
techniques used are explained in later sections. These could be written in matix
form as:
3
1
4 x 1 6
=
2 y 6
The advantage of matrix lies in its facility to allow us express the unknown
quantities in terms of the Right Hand Side (RHS) of the equation:
x 1 2 16 4
=
y = 0.5 15
. 6 1
from which we can see that x=4 and y=1. We will explain the derivation below.
Looking at the original equations we have a square matrix of coefficients A ,a
column matrix x known usually as a vector and a RHS vector b.
x
16
3 4
ie in the example A=
, x= and b=
1 2
y
6
Matrices and vectors symbols are usually written in bold type in technical
publications. In symbolic terms we may write Ax=b to represent the equations.But
of course we can represent nearly every system of linear equations because all we
need is a systematic way of solving them.
Page 76 of 85
a11 a12
A=
a21 a22
A.3
Multiplication
Matrix multiplication will be illustrated by the product of two matrices A and B.
If A.B = C then any element of C for example c12 is found by multiplying all the
elements in the first row of A by the corresponding elements in the second
column of B and summing them. Thus:
a11
a
21
The only requirement for matrix multiplication to be possible is that the number of
columns in the first matrix must be the same as the number of rows in the second.
The acronym CARB (Columns in A equals Rows in B ) may be useful to help
remember the method.
Example A.3.1
1 2 5 6 1x5 + 2 x 7 1x 6 + 2 x8 19 22
3 4 7 8 = 3x5 + 4 x 7 3x 6 + 4 x8 = 43 50
Matrix operations are tedious! These methods would have no benefit at all if we
were restricted to systems of 2 x 2 matrices! Use of a spreadsheet is recommended
(see appendix B) and is used for the next example.
Example A.3.2
1 4 3 3 4 2 13 4 20
2 2 0 1 5 3 = 4 18 2
1 3 2 2 4 2 10 3 15
In general matrices are not commutative like real numbers. Put simply this means
that AB BA, but there is one powerful exception which will be dealt with below.
For example the two matrices in the above example multiplied together in reverse
order give the result:
3 4 2 1 4 3 13 10 13
1 5 3 2 2 0 = 6 23 9
2 4 2 1 3 2 0 18 10
Page 77 of 85
3 4
1 2 suppose we multiplied it by a
matrix
1 2
B=
but
.
0.5 15
matrix I.
1 0
1 0
BA=
. The matrix
is known as an identity
0 1
0 1
Now we have BA=I and for this special case B is known as the matrix inverse of
A and is written as A-1.
So, going back to our first example we have:
Ax=b
A-1Ax = A-1 b
x = A-1b.
This sounds simple, all we need to do is compute the inverse and multiply by the
RHS vector. However calculation of the inverse has been tedious but use of
speadsheets makes it now a practical proposition.
Not all matrices have inverses. Any matrix which has rows (or columns) which can
be expressed as a combination of other rows (or Columns) is known as a singular
matrix and does not have an inverse. All non-singular matrices have inverses.
The number of rows of a non-singular matrix is known as the rank of the matrix.
Rank is a powerful concept throughout linear algebra and is dealt with in the
literature [1].
Matrices of rank 2 can be inverted easily by manual means.
a b
If A =
c d
then A-1 =
1 d b
ad bc c a
Matrices of rank 3 may be inverted manually but it is quite tedious and prone to
error. It is better to use the spreadsheet.
Example A.4.1
1
3 2 1
0 1
Page 78 of 85
1 0 0 2 5
0 = 20
1 0 0 0
I
1
I 2
I 3
20
32
2
0.0 8 2 6 7
= 0 .0 5 3 3 3
0 . 0 2 6 6 7
2
4
I1
I2
I 3
0 .0 5 3 3 3
0.0 6 6 6 7
0 .0 3 3 3 3
0.0 2 6 6 7
0.0 3 3 3 3
0 . 2 6 6 6 7
1 0 0 5.6
0 = 2 .0
1 0 0 2 4
The mesh current example has been done for illustration only it is not used for fault
calculations in practice due to the advantages of the nodal analysis method. Before
moving on to nodal analysis it is worth observing that there were zeros in the loop
impedance matrix but none in the loop admittance matrix. In practice there would
be many zeros in the loop impedance matrix but none in the inverse loop
admittance. Space management techniques avoid explicit use of inverses in order to
keep computer storage requirements to a minimum. This is a vast subject in itself.
A similar difficulty arises with nodal analysis.
In nodal analysis we start from the opposite side of the problem with nodal
equations and write:
I = YE and solve to find E . Hence Y-1YE =E =Y-1I but Y-1 = Z hence E = ZI.
20 0.35 01
.
50 = 01
11
.
.
V1 2.9333 0.2667 20 72
V1
V V = 0.2667 0.9333 50 = 52
2
2
In this case Y is known as the node admittance matrix and Z as the noe impedance
matrix. The result is the same as in chapter three but there is some valuable
Page 79 of 85
information within the Z matrix. It turns out that the elements on the diagonal are
the impedances of the nodes to the neutral (or ground). Hence in a practical case
these would be the fault impedances. The student is invited to check this from fig
3.1.1.2.
For fault condtions we know the voltage at the fault is zero. The above calculation
has given us prefault values. Taking a further step we can write
Efault = Eprefault - ZIfault where Efault is the voltage vector during the fault and
Ifault is a vector representing the fault current. In this case it would have a single
element at the faulted node. Expanding the equations for a fault at only node 1 we
can write knowing that E1 = 0 and during the fault E2 is unknown.
0 72 2.9333 0.2667 I f
E = 52 0.2667 0.9333 0
2
.
The matrix equation tells us by multiplication of elements that:
0 = 72 - 2.9333If
hence If = 72/ 2.9333 = 24.54A
This analysis is essentially Thevenins Theorem where it is necessary to find the
prefault voltage and the nodal impedance. The method is described in Stagg and El
Biad [4] . The student is invited to verify this calculation by reconsideration of fig
3.1.1.2.
It is clear that the systematic approach using matrix algebra provides an efficient
method if the inverse can be computed easily.
Page 80 of 85
Appendix B
Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet based upon Microsoft EXCEL is provided to help with
complex number operations and linear algebra. This appendix provides
a basic outline of the spreadsheet; detailed instructions are included in
the data. The filename of the spreadsheet is LINEARC.XLS. The file
may be processed as a LOTUS file but LOTUS users must be aware
that matrix multiplication and inverses may not be computed
automatically as described below. The LOTUS manual will need to be
consulted.
B1
Complex numbers
The spreadsheet accepts two numbers A and B in rectangular form and
provides the results AxB ; A/B and; an l parallel electrical combination
of A and B
B2
Linear Algebra
The spread sheet provides solutions to systems of real valued linear
equations in two and three unknowns. The solution method is based on
Cramers Rule.
A Matrix multiplication facility is provided for 2 by 2 and 3 by 3
matrices.
Similarly matrix inversion facilities are provided for matrices of rank 2
or 3.
For both multiplication and inversion the spreadsheet changes its
product as data is entered. If the matrix to be inverted is singular at any
stage the spreadsheet will indicate an error; ignore the error and
complete the data changes .
Page 81 of 85
Appendix C
Short circuit currents in an RL circuit.
This appendix covers derivation of the general expression for the current
in a circuit consisting of a resistance and an inductance connected in
series when energised from a sinusoidal voltage source.
i
R
Vsin t
i=
[sin(t ) + e
Rt
L
R2 + X 2
t is time after switch closure
and
X
R
Proof:
Now
The most efficient way to solve this equation is to invoke Eulers Formula
shown in section 2.1 ie
sin t = Im( e jt )
di V
R
i + = e jt
dt L
L
and then take the imaginary component of the result.
Page 82 of 85
Rt
then
Rt
d (ie L )
V
= e L . e jt
dt
L
ie
Rt
L
Rt
V
+ jt
= e L dt
L
Rt
L
Rt
V
+ jt
eL
=
+A
R
L ( + j )
L
Rt
V
jt
i=
e + Ae L
R + jL
Rt
V ( R jL) jt
i= 2
e + Ae L
R + (L) 2
i=
i=
i=
Rt
V ( R sin t L cost )
L
+
Ae
R 2 + (L) 2
V
R 2 + (L) 2
V
R 2 + (L) 2
Rt
L
Rt
L
V
R 2 + (L) 2
Page 83 of 85
V
R +X
2
cos =
[sin(t ) + e
R
R +X
2
Rt
L
1
where = tan
sin =
and
X
R
R + X2
2
The e
term in the expression for i represents a decaying direct
current. Figure C.1 shows a typical current waveform following
energisation of an RL circuit.
20
Amps
10
I( t )
10
20
40
60
80
100
t
milliseconds
Page 84 of 85
Bibliograghy
1
Page 85 of 85