Mass Transfer

1.
Energy Technology Mass Transfer

1 Introduction
Mass transfer refers to the transport of one chemical species through another, usually due to the presence of a
concentration gradient. For instance, consider a cube of sugar dissolving in a cup of tea. The tea adjacent to the sugar
cube will have a higher concentration of sugar than that further away. The sugar dissolved in the tea will tend to diffuse
away from the cube, in the direction of the decreasing concentration gradient.
While chemical mixtures may contain any number of components, we will simplify our analysis by considering
mixtures of only two substances, known as binary mixtures. The diagram below schematically depicts a binary
mixture, showing how concentration of each chemical species might vary.
Species A
Concentration
species A
Species B
Concentration
species B
From previous studies you should be familiar with concepts of heat transfer, the transmission of thermal energy driven
by a temperature gradient in a solid or a fluid. The fundamental modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and
radiation. Due to the similarity in physical processes occurring, we find that there are very close analogies between
conduction and convection, and modes of mass transfer.
The diffusion of a chemical species can be driven by different means. In this course we will restrict ourselves to
ordinary diffusion, where the mass transfer is driven by differences in the concentration of the species through the
mixture. Other mechanisms of mass transfer include thermal diffusion, driven by large temperature differences,
pressure diffusion, driven by large pressure gradients, and forced diffusion, driven by external means such as electrical
fields. Whilst these methods have some interesting applications, for simplicity they are not covered in this course.
The mixtures that we will consider include gasses and liquids, as well as diffusion through solids.
S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013
MechEng 713 Energy Technology
1.2
1.1 Analogies to Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Mass diffusion is analogous to heat conduction, both being governed by similar laws. Many of the analytical results
derived for heat conduction can be applied readily to mass transfer problems. Recall, heat conduction occurs in bodies
(solid or fluid) due to the presence of temperature gradients. Ordinary mass diffusion occurs in mixtures due to the
presence of concentration gradients.
Mass transfer can also occur due to the motion of the fluid mixture, this being called mass convection. This is
analogous to heat convection, the close similarity of the mechanisms involved results in the mathematics often being
identical. Heat convection occurs in moving fluids, thermal energy transferred by a combination of conduction, and
bulk motion of the fluid. Mass convection refers to the transport of chemical species in a moving fluid mixture, due to a
combination of diffusion, and bulk motion of the fluid. Under certain assumptions, many correlations developed for
heat convection can be applied directly to mass convection with the appropriate substitution of non-dimensional
variables.
One important difference between heat transfer and mass transfer is the treatment of boundary conditions at boundaries
between two phases (e.g. a solid and a gas, or a liquid and a gas). Due to thermal equilibrium at such interfaces we can
normally assume continuity of temperature across the interface. However, for many mass transfer applications the
concentration of chemical species will be discontinuous across phase boundaries. This is discussed further in
Section 3.3.
The diagram below depicts continuity of temperature at the interface between two phases:
Interface
Gas
Temperature
Profile
Solid
The diagram below depicts an example of concentration discontinuity between two phases. The concentration of H2O
in pure water is 100%, while in the adjacent air / water vapour mixture the water concentration is limited by its
solubility in air:
Air / Water Vapour
Mixture
Liquid
Water
H2O Concentration
Profile
1.3
1.2 Physical Situations Involving Mass Transfer

Simple physical examples of mass diffusion occurring in binary mixtures include two gas species diffusing into each
other, after removal of a partition.
Species A concentration.
Species B concentration.
Another is solid salt dissolving into stationary water, forming a salt solution,
Salt concentration
Solid Salt
1
Salt/Water
Solution
Stationary Liquid
0
Water concentration
If motion of the water is introduced in the second example, we have an example of mass convection in a binary mixture.
The dissolving of the salt into the water is enhanced by the bulk motion of the water / salt mixture. (Similarly, heat
transfer from your skin is enhanced by motion of air across it due to wind).
Salt concentration
Solid Salt
1
Salt/Water
Solution
Fluid
Motion
0
1.4
1.3 Examples of Engineering Applications involving Mass Transfer

Case Hardening of Steel: A commonly applied operation to increase hardness at the surface of a steel component (e.g.
a gear). The component is heated and placed in an environment high in carbon (e.g. a bed of charcoal). Carbon
diffuses into the steel, altering the microstructure, and hence the physical properties.
Carbon
diffusing into
the steel
Gear surface
Catalytic Converters: For example, two-way oxidation converters. Unburned hydrocarbons and CO oxidise to form
H2O and CO2.
Ablation of Heat Shields: Heat shields used in re-entry space vehicles are formed from sacrificial composite materials.
A portion of the energy absorbed by the atmosphere is used in the change of phase of the shield materials.
1.5
Counter flow Cooling Towers: Used to cool a water stream, such as the cooling water supply to the condenser of a
power plant.
For other examples see the extensive list of applications provided in [1] p678 or [2] p2.
1.4 Topics Covered

We will address the following topics in order:
Preliminary definitions and relations.
Steady state mass diffusion.
Transient mass diffusion.
Mass convection.
Simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
Mass exchangers.
1.5 Bibliography
[1] Mills, AF, Basic Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2005
[2] Mills, AF, Mass Transfer, Prentice Hall, 2001
[3] Incropera, FP and de Witt, DP, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th Edition, Wiley, 1996
[4] Cengel, YA. and Ghajar, AJ, Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2011
[5] Cengel, YA, Cimbala, JM & Turner, RH, Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2012
These notes are based on Chapter 9 of [1]. That chapter is also available separately in an expanded form in Chapters 1
and 3 of [2]. Reference [5] does not cover mass transfer, but includes some related material on heat transfer.
2.1
2 Mixture Concentrations
A mixture is a substance containing two or more chemical species. Within these notes we will deal with gas mixtures,
liquid solutions, and solid solutions. In order to work through mass transfer calculations you should be comfortable
with measures of species concentration. Note that there are two common approaches to specifying concentration, on a
mass basis (using density), or a molar basis. The following definitions and equations will be used extensively in the
lectures to come.
For a mixture having n components, take i to be the ith species or component.
mass concentration, or density of species per unit volume.
[kg/m3]
Ci
molar concentration of species i per unit volume.
[kmol/m3]
Mi
molecular weight for species i.
[kg/kmol]
Fundamental relationship: i = M i Ci
The equation above relates the mass and molar concentrations of a single component of a mixture. The two are related
by the molecular weight of that species. Considering the entire mixture:
mixture mass concentration
i =1
[kg/m3]
mixture molar concentration
C
N
mixture molecular weight
[kmol/m3]
i =1
Ci
CM
i =1
Fundamental relationship:
[kg/kmol]
= MC
This equation relates the mass and molar concentrations of the entire mixture. They are related by the molecular weight
of the mixture. We will show how to calculate this quantity.
We now define two very useful measures of concentration, the mass fraction, and the mole fraction. They provide
measures of the concentration of a particular species in a mixture, falling in the range from 0 to 1, with 0 signifying that
there are no molecules of the species in the mixture, and 1 signifying the mixture contains only that species:
mi = mass fraction =
xi = mole fraction =
N i Ci
=
N
C
If we sum the mass and molar fractions of all n species in a mixture, by definition:
= 1;
=1
The following equations can be used to calculate the molecular weight of a mixture, in terms of the molar or mass
fractions:
M = xi M i ;
i
m
1
= i
M
i Mi
In order to convert between mass and mole fractions, the following expression can be used:
mi = xi
Mi
M
S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013
2.2
The definitions and equations listed above are necessary for the treatment of chemical mixtures. You should become
comfortable with their use before we continue with the analysis of mass transfer processes.
For our course we will mostly consider binary mixtures, which are mixtures of two chemical species. For binary
mixtures where one species has a much higher mass (or molar) fraction than the other, the dominant species is called the
solvent, and the minor species is called the solute. For instance, for air dissolving into water, the water is the solvent,
and the air is the solute.
2.1 Ideal Gas Mixtures

Most of the gasses we encounter in typical engineering applications can be considered to act as ideal gases. Here we
show that the molar fractions of such mixtures can be related to the partial pressures of the component gases.
Recall the Ideal Gas law relationships for a pure gas:
P = RT
where R is the gas constant of the gas
P = CRU T
where RU is the universal gas constant

Note: RU = 8.314 [kJ/kmol.K]
For the ith component of a mixture of ideal gases, the Partial Pressure Pi is:
Pi = i RiT
N
P = Pi
i =1
Pi = Ci RU T
where=
8.314 [kJ/kmol.K]
RU R=
iMi
We will prove the following useful relationship:

xi =
Pi
P
where Pi is the partial pressure of component i, P is the total pressure of the gas mixture, and xi is the molar fraction of
component i.
Proof:
Pi i RiT
=
P
P
=
i RU T
Mi
using Pi = i RiT
using RU = Ri M i
= Ci
RU T
P
using i = M i Ci
= xi
CRU T
P
using xi =
= xi
Ci
C
using P = CRU T
Q.E.D.
2.3
2.2 Concentrations at Interfaces

At the boundary between two phases of matter the concentrations will be discontinuous the concentration of a
chemical species in one phase will differ from that in the other. For instance, the salt in a solid block of pure salt will
have a concentration of 1. However, if the block is placed in some water, the concentration of the salt in the water will
be less than 1, since it is mixed with water. To solve mass transfer problems we need to be able to calculate the
concentrations at these phase interfaces.
At the phase interface the two phases can normally considered to be in thermodynamic equilibrium (unless there is a
chemical reaction occurring). Therefore the temperature will be the same across the interface. In contrast, the
concentrations in the two phases will normally be different. However, immediately adjacent to the interface the
mixtures can be considered to be saturated, they have absorbed as much mass from the other phase as they can, and
cannot absorb any more.
In order to deal with discontinuities at interfaces when solving mass transfer problems, we will define two imaginary
surfaces, one either side of the physical interface. These are positioned an infinitesimally small distance away from the
real surface. Each surface is labelled as in the diagram below. You should get in the habit of defining these surfaces
correctly when setting out to solve a problem.
Real Interface
Imaginary
Surfaces
Surface Labels
The surfaces are customarily labelled u and s, with u being the more solid of the two phases.
u for the solid side of solid-liquid interfaces
u for the solid side of solid-gas interfaces
u for liquid side of liquid-gas interfaces
For solid-solid and liquid-liquid interfaces the labelling is arbitrary, and we sometimes label them as u and v.
The subscripts and used together with the species label, to specify the mass and molar fractions of species at different
locations. For instance, n1,u is the mole fraction of species 1 at location u, and w2,s is the mass fraction of species 2 at
the surface s.
The data to determine the saturation condition that occurs at the interfaces is presented in different forms, depending on
the physical situation. For instance, the evaporation of liquid into a gas is presented in a different form to that for
solid/liquid interfaces. The different cases are discussed below.
2.4
2.2.1 Liquid / Gas interfaces (evaporation of liquid into gas)

The schematic below depicts the interface between a body of water, and an air stream into which water vapour is
evaporating. For air/water mixtures it is customary to label the dry air as species a, and the water as species v.
xv,u=1
Water vapour / air

mixture
xv,s
Water
xv
Considering the concentration of H2O, what are the molar concentrations at the u and s surfaces? At surface u the
water is practically a pure liquid (very little air is absorbed by the water) and the molar fraction is approximately 1:
xv ,u = 1
Adjacent to the water surface the air is fully saturated with water vapour. In order to calculate this concentration
we will consult saturated steam tables to find the saturation pressure of the water vapour. We assume thermodynamic
equilibrium at the interface, and so the temperature of the water will equal the temperature of the gas.
Ts = Tu
We can then specify xv,s , if we know Ts and P of the air/water mixture. From the ideal gas relations:
Pv , s = Pv , sat
xv , s =
Pv , sat
P
where Pv,sat is the saturated vapour pressure at Ts which can be found in steam tables ([2] Table A.12a, [4] Table A.4).
Temperature
Pv,s
State of H2O at u
surface
Ts
State of H2O at s
surface
Entropy
2.5
2.2.2 Liquid / Gas interface (absorption of gas by liquid)

The schematic below depicts the interface between pure CO2 gas, and a body of water that is absorbing the gas.
xCO2,s=1
Aqueous CO2
solution
Pure CO2
xCO2,u
xCO2
Considering the concentration of CO2 on a molar basis, what are the molar concentrations at surfaces u and s?
Within the pure CO2:
xCO2 , s = 1
For gases that are only sparingly soluble in a liquid, the solubility data can be conveniently represented by Henrys law,
which states that the solubility of species i is proportional to the pressure and a function of temperature:
xi ,u
P
CHe ,i (T )
xi ,u =
Pi
CHe ,i (T )
xi , s
The Henry constant for a given species, CHe,i, is a function only of temperature, and can be found in [1] Table A.21.
Note that this data is indexed to temperatures in K and pressures in bar (105 Pa). If you use other units your answer will
be wrong.
Note that the concentration of the gas in the liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas, and inversely
proportional to the Henry constant (which increases with temperature). Therefore, you can add a gas to a liquid by
increasing its partial pressure, and remove it by heating the liquid.
With the solubility of gases being very low, the molecular weight of the solution at the u surface will be approximately
that of the pure liquid, and so the mass fraction can be approximated by:
M u = x1,u M 1 + x2,u M 2 M 2
m1,u x1,u
M1
M2
2.6
2.2.3 Solid / Liquid interface (dissolving of solid into liquid)

The schematic below depicts the interface between solid salt (NaCl), and water into which the salt is dissolving.
mNaCl,u=1
Salt / water
mixture
Solid salt
mNaCl,s
mNaCl
u
Considering the concentration of salt on a mass basis, what are the mass concentrations at surfaces u and s? Within
the solid salt:
m1,u = 1
At the liquid side of the phase interface (surface s) the salt / water mixture will be fully saturated with salt. Assuming
thermodynamic equilibrium, the concentration at this point can then be found from published solubility data.
The data in [1] Table A.24 is presented in the form of kg of the solid species that can be dissolved in 100 kg of water.
Therefore the mass fraction at the s surface can be calculated as
m1, s =
Sm
S m + 100
where Sm is the solubility from the table.
2.7
2.2.4 Solid / Gas interface (absorption of gas by solid)

Finally we consider the case of a gas being absorbed by a solid (something you might not have encountered before). In
this example we will consider Hydrogen gas being absorbed into Iron.
x2,s=1
Solid Fe
Pure H2
xH2,u
xH2
There are several ways of presenting solubility data. The simplest is a dimensionless solubility coefficient, where the
concentration of the gas in the solid is proportional to the concentration in the surroundings.
Cgas ,u
Cgas , s
= S
If we can approximate the gas phase by the ideal gas equation, the concentration inside the solid is a function of the
partial pressure of the gas.
=
Cgas ,u
Cgas , s S
S
=
Pgas , s
RU T
Sometimes the data is presented as a solubility S, where the dependence on temperature is ignored. Note that this form
is no longer dimensionless but has units of kmol/m3.Pa or kmol/m3.bar, so it is important to specify pressure in the
same units as the solubility data.
Cgas ,u = S Pgas , s
For gas-solid mixtures the mass or molar fraction of the gas species in the solid is typically very small. Therefore the
mixture density and molecular weight can be approximated by that of the solid component, and the molar fraction can
be calculated from
=
xgas ,u
Cgas ,u
Csolid ,u
mgas ,u xgas ,u
=
Cgas ,u
M gas
M
M solid
solid
Cgas ,u
M gas
solid
2.8
2.3 Air / Water Vapour Mixtures

Air / water vapour mixtures are commonly encountered in engineering applications. It is possible to develop simple
relationships specifically for this mixture. These are used extensively in the air-conditioning industry.
Let:
Given:
Air = species a
(dry air)
H2O = species v
(water vapour)
M a = 28.84 [kg/kmol]
M v = 18.02 [kg/kmol]
Utilising these molecular weights, we can define relations for the mass fractions of the water vapour, based upon the
mole fractions:
xv M v
xv M v
=
M
xa M a + xv M v
=
mv
mv =
xv
1.6 0.6 xv
The mole fraction of the water vapour can be determined from the mass fraction by:
xv =
1.6 mv
1 + 0.6 mv
A commonly encountered measure of the water vapour content of air is the relative humidity , often presented as a
percentage. This is the ratio of the molar fraction of water vapour to the maximum molar fraction that will evaporate at
the mixtures temperature, the saturation molar fraction. To find the saturation molar fraction we can use the saturated
vapour pressure data from steam tables, as was discussed in 2.2.1 above.
xv
=
xv ( sat )
xv ( sat ) =
Pv
Pv ( sat )
Pv ( sat )
P
Therefore, if a mixture is described in terms of relative humidity, the molar fraction of the mixture can be calculated as,
Pv ( sat )
xv =
By using the relationship between mass and mole fractions for air / water vapour mixtures we get
mv =
Pv ( sat )
1.6 P 0.6 Pv ( sat )
Another commonly used measure of water vapour content is the specific humidity, , which is the pass of water vapour
per unit mass of air,
Mass v
Mass a
The following relationships are useful for converting between the various measures of humidity,
=
xv =
0.625 xv 0.625 Pv ( sat )

=
1 xv
P Pv ( sat )
0.625 +
( 0.625 + ) Pv ( sat )
mv =
1+
2.9
When calculating convective mass transfer you may need to know the density, viscosity and thermal conductivity of the
mixture. As a first approximation the viscosity and thermal conductivity may be approximated by that of dry air at the
same temperature. The density of the mixture varies with temperature and composition. Assuming that the mixture is
an ideal gas,
= v + a =
=
Pv M v ( P Pv ) M a
+
RU T
RU T
10.82 Pv + 28.84 P
RU T
2.4 Example Questions

1.
Assuming air to be composed exclusively of O2 and N2, with their partial pressures in the ratio 0.21 to 0.79,
what are their mass fractions?
2.
A mixture of CO2 and N2 is in a container at 25C, with each species having a partial pressure of 1 bar.
Calculate the molar concentration, the mass density, the mole fraction, and the mass fraction of each species.
3. Consider a gas mixture of helium, argon and xenon. The mixture contains equal concentrations of each
component on a molar basis. What is the composition of this mixture on a mass basis?
4. Consider again a gas mixture of helium, argon and xenon. The mixture now contains equal concentrations of
each component on a mass basis. What is the composition of this mixture on a molar basis?
5. Methane is burned with 20% excess air. At 1250 K the equilibrium composition of the product is:
Species i :
xi :
CO2
H2O
O2
N2
0.0803
0.160
0.0325
0.727
NO
0.000118
Determine the mean molecular weight M of this mixture.

6. Consider an air-water vapour mixture at 100 kPa and 303 K, having a relative humidity of 50%. What are
the mass and mole fractions of each component? What is the specific humidity?
7. Consider an air/water vapour mixture adjacent to a pool of water at 310 K, and 1 atmosphere. What are the
mass and molar fractions for the water vapour in the mixture just above the surface of the pool?
8. Pure CO2 is dissolving into a pool of water. The CO2 is at a pressure of 3 bar, and the water is at a temperature
of 27oC (300 K). What is the concentration of CO2 at the surface of the water?
9. Consider a salt / water solution adjacent to a piece of solid salt. The entire system is at a temperature of 30C.
What is the mass fraction of the salt in the solution at the interface?
10. Helium at a pressure of 1 bar and 470 K (molar concentration 2.5610-1 kmol/m3) is held in a glass container.
What is the concentration of He at the inner surface of the glass wall if the container is made of,
a. Pyrex glass?
b. 7740 glass?
11. Other solubility relationships for gasses in solids also occur. For instance, the solubility of hydrogen H2 gas in
steel can be given by:
m1,u 2.09 104 e 3950/ T
P1, s
where T is in Kelvin and P is in bar. For hydrogen gas stored at 400C and 500 kPa in a steel vessel,
determine the mass and molar fraction of hydrogen on the steel side of the steel-hydrogen interface.
3.1
3 Ordinary Mass Diffusion

Mass diffusion is analogous to heat conduction. Both heat conduction and mass diffusion are transport processes that
originate from molecular activity. For a gas, the random motion of the molecules tends to evenly distribute the
temperature. Similarly, the random motions of molecules of a particular species in a gas mixture results in the species
being evenly distributed through the mixture. Ordinary mass diffusion, which we will study here, is driven solely by
gradients in the concentration of a species through a body, with molecules of a species on average migrating to regions
of lower concentration. Under conditions typical for engineering applications, ordinary mass diffusion is governed by a
simple and useful equation, Ficks law.
Species A
Concentration
species A
Species B
Concentration
species B
In addition to Ordinary diffusion which is driven by concentration gradients, diffusion can be driven by temperature
gradients, a process known as Thermal diffusion. This is dependent on the presence of large temperature gradients, and
so is often negligible compared with ordinary diffusion. Similarly, Pressure diffusion is driven by very large pressure
gradients, such as occur in centrifuges, but is normally negligible elsewhere. A fourth type of diffusion, forced
diffusion, where the diffusion is driven by an external force (such as an electric field) also occurs under special
circumstances. See [1] 9.2.4 or [2] 1.2.4 for further discussion of these mechanisms. Whilst for simplicity these
forms of diffusion are not covered in this course, they do have many useful applications.
We will also restrict ourselves to low mass transfer rate diffusion, where mass transfer across interfaces is due to
diffusion only, and the medium through which the diffusion takes place will be assumed to be either stationary, or the
momentum of the diffusion flux is small compared to the momentum of the mixture. This is appropriate for
evaporation of water from a pond, but not for boiling where there is a large velocity normal to the interface. For a fuller
definition see [1] 9.7 and [2] Chapter 2.
As we study diffusion we will discover many useful analogies between heat conduction and mass diffusion. As
temperature gradients drive heat conduction, concentration gradients drive mass diffusion. We will discuss Ficks law
which governs ordinary mass diffusion, as Fouriers law governs heat conduction. We will then use this physical law to
develop solutions for steady state, and then transient diffusion problems.
3.2
3.1 Notation
The following notation will be used in our studies of mass diffusion, as well as subsequent topics. You will need to feel
comfortable with this notation in order to apply the concepts we will learn.
T
Temperature of mixture
Pi , j
Pressure of species i, at surface j
ji
diffusive mass flux of species i
[kg/m2s]
Ji
diffusive molar flux of species i
[kmol/m2s]
m i
mass flow of species i
[kg/s]
N i
molar flow of species i
[kmol/s]
D12
binary diffusion coefficient, or mass diffusivity
[m2/s]
3.2 Ficks Law of Mass Diffusion

Recall Fouriers law of heat conduction, which states that the local heat flux in a body is proportional to the local
temperature gradient.
q k
T
z
This statement is the building block for the study of heat conduction, for steady and transient applications, in multiple
dimensions.
Ficks law of mass diffusion states that the local mass flux in a body is proportional to the local concentration gradient.
This statement is true for:
binary gas mixtures at normal pressures
dilute liquid solutions
dilute solid solutions
This list encompasses many mixtures encountered in engineering applications. In a binary mixture of species 1 and 2,
the equation governing diffusion of species 1 is;
j1 D12
dm1
dz
where D12 is the binary mass diffusion coefficient (units [m2/s]), and is the density of the mixture. j1 is the mass flow
rate of species 1 per unit area, a mass flux. We can also write an equation governing the diffusion of species 2 in the
mixture;
j2 D21
dm2
dz
The relations stated above provide the diffusive mass flux [kg/m2s]. A similar relations can be stated for the diffusive
molar flux [kmol/m2s], and we will make use of both in our treatment of mass transfer. The following is a molar flux
statement of Ficks law for one-dimensional diffusion problems:
J1 CD12
dx1
dz
where C is the mixture molar concentration, and J1 is the mole flux of species 1 (the molar flow rate per unit area).
Note that the same diffusivity constant, D12, is used for both the mass and molar forms of the law, and that D12 = D21.
3.3
3.3 Steady Mass Diffusion

In this section we develop steady state diffusion of mass, particularly for one-dimensional applications. For these
problems, the system in consideration has reached a steady state, with concentrations at any point in a body remaining
constant with time. We will use Ficks law, remembering the mixtures for which it is applicable:
binary gas mixtures at normal pressures
dilute liquid solutions
dilute solid solutions
3.3.1 Steady Mass Diffusion Through a Plane Wall

We start by considering the simple case of one-dimensional mass diffusion across a plane wall. This wall might
represent a solid partition, a stationary liquid film, or a stationary gas layer. The binary mixture is made up of species 1
and 2, and we will consider the diffusion of species 1 through the wall. The geometry is shown below, the wall
having a thickness of L, and surface area A. Given boundary conditions for the concentration of species 1 at either side
of the wall, we will calculate the flow of species 1 through it.
Area A
m1,u
m i , or N i
m1,v
z=0
z+z
z=L
The principal of conservation of mass species states (for a steady system) that flow of species 1 across the plane at z,
must equal the flow of species 1 across the plane at z + z. This will hold for any value of z within the body. Therefore,
m 1 j1 A Constant
Substituting Ficks law for j1 ,
m 1 D12 A
dm1
Constant
dz
integrating across the wall from 0 to L, and applying the appropriate mass fraction boundary conditions, gives
L
w1,v
w1,u
m 1 dz A D12 dm1
The area A is constant through the thickness of the wall. If we now assume there are no significant variations of and
D12 with z, we arrive at the following equation.
m 1
D12 A
L
1, u
m1,v
This is the rate that species 1 diffuses through the wall in kg/s. An identical analysis can be completed applying mole
fraction boundary conditions, providing the rate that species 1 diffused through the wall in kmol/s:
CD12 A
N 1
x1,u x1,v
L
3.4
Compare these two equations with the equivalent equation for heat conduction through a plane wall. The following
expression gives heat flow rate through a plane wall for steady state heat conduction:
kA
Q
Tu Tv
L
Note: The above equations allow you to solve a diffusion problem in terms of either the mass concentration or the
molar concentration. When deciding which method to use, it is often best to stick to using the concentration that your
boundary conditions are stated in.
How does concentration of species 1 vary through the wall?
For steady flow, the mass flow rate through the wall is constant. At each point in the wall,
m 1 D12 A
dm1
Constant
dz
If and D12 are constant, then the gradient dm1/dz will also be constant. Therefore the concentration of species 1 varies
linearly between the boundary conditions at the surfaces of the wall:
v
u
m1,u
m1,v
z=0
z=L
Expressing m1 as a function of z gives a linear profile for mass fraction:

m m1,u
m1 ( z ) 1,v
L
z m1,u
You may recall that the temperature profile through a plane wall was also linear.
3.3.2 Steady Diffusion Through Cylindrical and Spherical Geometries

The analysis completed above can be repeated for cylindrical and spherical geometries. This must be completed using
the appropriate coordinate systems, integrating over the radial coordinate. Expressions are given below for mass flow
rates, but it is straightforward to convert these expressions to given molar flow rates.
Cylindrical Geometry:
m 1
2D12 L
m1,u m1,v
ln rv ru
m1,u
Inner radius, ru
Outer radius, rv
m1,v
u
v
3.5
Spherical Geometry:
m 1
4D12
m1,u m1,v
1 1
r
rv
u
m1,v
Inner radius, ru
Outer radius, rv
v
u
m1,u
3.3.3 Permeability of a Wall

The molar flow rate for steady diffusion of a gas through a plane wall is given by
D A
CD12 A
N 1
x1,u x1,v 12L C1,u C1,v
L
C1,u and C1,v are the concentrations of the gas inside the surfaces of the solid wall. These concentrations can be
determined from the partial pressure of the gas outside the wall, by use of one of the solubility relationships.
C1,u S P1, s
or
C1,u S RU T P1, s
or
P12 S RU T D12
The permeability P, is defined as

P12 S D12
and has units kmol/m.s.Pa, kmol/m.s.bar or kmol/m.s.atm. By use of the permeability, the rate of mass diffusion
through a wall can be expressed directly in terms of the partial pressures of the gas adjacent to each side of the wall.
P A
N 1 12 P1, s P1,t
L
P M A
m 1 12 1 P1, s P1,t
L
kmol/s
kg/s
For water vapour in air, the partial pressures may be determined from the saturation pressure Psat and the relative
humidity . Using these, the mass flow rate of water vapour through a wall can be calculated.
m v
P12 M v A
s Psat , s t Psat ,t
L
For building materials of a given thickness L, the permeability may be defined in terms of the permanence M (units
kg/s.m2.Pa or ng/ s.m2.Pa. ng = 10-12 kg) allowing a further simplification
M12
P12 M
L
kg/m 2 .s.Pa
m 1 M12 A P1, s P1,t

M12 A s Psat , s t Psat ,t
3.6
3.3.4 Obtaining the Binary Diffusion Coefficient D12

To solve a problem using the diffusion equations above the binary diffusion coefficient D12 needs to be known. Note
that the diffusion coefficient is different for every combination of species and phase (ie: you cant use D12 for hydrogen
in solid iron to model hydrogen in aluminium or hydrogen in molten iron). The diffusion coefficient varies with
temperature, and for gasses it varies with pressure as well.
The Schmidt number is the mass transfer equivalent of the Prandtl number, and is given by,
Sc
D12
.
D12
If you know the Schmidt number of a mixture, and the kinematic viscosity (or the dynamic viscosity and the mixture
density), then you can calculate the mass diffusivity using,
D12
Sc
.
Sc
Sometimes the density the mass diffusivity is needed, and so you can use,
D12
Sc
Diffusion in Gasses:
From the kinetic theory of gasses it can be shown that the dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity vary only with
temperature (and not pressure), and vary as
and
k T.
From the ideal gas equation the density of the gas is proportional to P/T (ie: P/T), and so the kinematic viscosity
thermal diffusivity, and mass diffusivity vary as,
3
2
k
T2
,
cp
P
D12
T2
.
P
The ratio of the viscosity and thermal and mass diffusivities (the Prandtl and Schmidt numbers) are therefore constant.
To calculate the diffusivity of a dilute mixture of a gas in air, you need the Schmidt number for the mixture and the
kinematic viscosity of the mixture, , which may be approximated as that of air at the same temperature and pressure.
Tables of Schmidt numbers can be found, as can tables for the properties of air for a range of temperatures at
atmospheric pressure.
If the problem is at atmospheric pressure, use the Schmidt number of the mixture, and the kinematic viscosity taken at
the same temperature as the problem.
If the problem is not at atmospheric pressure, use the Schmidt number, the dynamic viscosity of air at the same
temperature as the problem, and the density of the mixture calculated using the ideal gas law,
PM
.
RU T
This requires the molecular weight of the mixture, which may be approximated by that of dry air. However, sometimes
the combination of D12 is needed, in which case you just need the dynamic viscosity of air and the Schmidt number.
Diffusion in Liquids:
For liquids the density is relatively constant. The viscosity, thermal conductivity, and mass diffusivity all vary with
temperature, but not pressure. However, the Prandtl and Schmidt numbers vary with temperature.
For a dilute mixture in water, the simplest option is to assume a constant Schmidt number and calculate the mass
diffusivity using the kinematic viscosity of water at the same temperature as your problem.
Diffusion in Solids:
Obviously the Schmidt number is not defined for diffusion through solids.
coefficients as functions of temperature in the form
D12 D0 e
[1] Table A.19 gives the diffusion
Ea / RU T
3.7
3.3.5 Heterogeneous Catalysis

u
Catalyst for
reaction
O2, CO
j1,u
CO2
m1,e
m1,u
z=0
z=L
z
Heterogeneous catalysis describes a catalytic reaction occurring at the surface of a body, due to reactants applied to that
surface. A chemical reaction is promoted by contact of the reactants with a suitable surface, termed the catalyst. The
inner surfaces of an automobile catalytic converter are one example, providing a site for the oxidation of carbon
monoxide in exhaust gases. Platinum oxide is one example of a catalyst, promoting the following reaction:
2CO+O 2 2CO 2
CO and O2 are absorbed at the surface, and CO2 is given off.

We will analyse the mass transfer occurring in the binary mixture adjacent to a catalytic surface as a steady state
diffusion problem. The surface catalytic reaction will be treated as an alternative boundary condition, as it is effectively
a sink or source for a particular chemical species.
The Catalytic Boundary Condition
In the following analysis we will consider the diffusion of species 1, as it diffuses across the gas mixture, and is
consumed at the u surface. The rate of consumption at the surface is assumed proportional to the concentration of
species 1 at the u surface, m1,u, and proportional to the rate of reaction at the surface:
m 1 j1 A m1,u k '' A
where m 1 is the mass flow rate to the surface, and k '' is the rate constant for the reaction.
Since the system is assumed to be at a steady state, the rate that the species diffuses to the wall is given by,
m 1
D12 A
L
1, e
m1,u
As the mass that diffuses through the gas mixture must equal that consumed at the catalytic surface, both of the
equations above are valid expressions for the mass flow through the system. An expression for the mass flow rate m 1
can be found if we first eliminate m1,u , and solve:
m 1
Am1, e
L
1
D12 k ''
This result provides the mass flow, m 1 , given the mass fraction of species 1 at surface e, and various parameters that
define the problem. A very similar result could be generated for the rate that species 1 is consumed on a molar basis.
C Ax1,e
N 1
1
L
D12 k ''
3.8
Note that the sign convention for the above expression is that a positive mass flow is one that flows towards the wall
(with a species being destroyed at the wall), and a negative mass flow is one with mass flowing away from the wall (the
species is being created at the wall).
The behaviour of this type of system is now considered for two extreme cases, a very slow catalytic reaction, and a very
fast reaction.
The Rate-Controlled Limit
If the surface catalysis reaction is very slow, and therefore k '' D12 L , it is said to be rate-controlled,
m 1 m1,e k '' A
In this limit, m1,u m1,e , and the mass flow through the system is independent of the diffusion coefficient within the
mixture.
The Diffusion-Controlled Limit
If the catalysis reaction is very fast, and therefore k '' D12 L , it is said to be a diffusion-controlled reaction,
m 1
D12 A
L
m1,e
In this limit, m1,u 0 . Any of species 1 diffused through the mixture is consumed quickly at the catalytic surface.
The variation of m1 with z is plotted below, for various reaction rates:
Rate
Controlled
u
m1,e
Catalyst
Increasing
Reaction
Rate
m1,u
Diffusion
Controlled
z=0
z=L
3.9
3.4 Transient Mass Diffusion

We now extend our analysis of ordinary mass diffusion to include time dependant behaviour. As for the steady state
analysis, the tools developed here are basically identical to those for transient heat conduction problems. We will focus
on a one-dimensional analysis, which proves to be suitable for many engineering applications. Diffusion will be
assumed to be described by Ficks law.
Sudden increase in
concentration at
surface
Increasing time
For transient problems species concentrations will be functions of time and position. In order to solve these problems
we will need to establish appropriate boundary conditions, and one initial condition.
3.4.1 Governing Equation

Consider one-dimensional diffusion through a mixture in Cartesian coordinates (excluding any chemical reactions).
The principal of conservation of mass species will be applied to an elemental control volume having a volume of V
and thickness z.
V = Az
m 1
m 1
z z
z+z
Over a time interval of t the conservation of species requires that the change of species 1 in the element is equal to the
net flow of species 1 across the element boundaries.
Change of species 1 in volume = Net inflow of species 1 across boundaries
Stating this mathematically,
1 t t
V m
1 z
m 1
z z
Substituting V Az , and m 1 m 1A , and dividing throughout by Az t ,
1 t t
1 z z
j1
3.10
Now we take the limit, letting z , t 0 ,
1
j
1
t
z
At this point we introduce Ficks law, substituting for the diffusive mass flux, j1 :
1
m
D12 1
t
z
z
(Note that 1 m1 )
If we now assume there are no significant variations of and D12, with z and t, we have the following equation, which
governs the mass fraction, m1.
m1
2 m1
D12
t
z 2
A similar equation can be derived for analysis done on a molar basis.

x1
2 x
D12 21
t
z
At this point we have derived an equation for transient mass diffusion in one-dimensional geometries. We can compare
this result with the governing equation for transient heat conduction. Recall,
T
2T
2
t
z
where is the thermal diffusivity of a medium.

Note that these equations have the same exact mathematical form, and note the identical roles played by the binary mass
diffusivity, D12, and the thermal diffusivity, . This mathematical equivalence allows us to directly apply solutions
derived for heat conduction problems to equivalent mass diffusion problems.
The mass and thermal diffusivities are properties of a substance or mixture, and provide a feel of how easy mass, or
thermal energy, is diffused into that substance or mixture.
3.4.2 Transient Diffusion in a Semi-Infinite Domain

The semi-infinite domain proves to be the most useful for application to transient diffusion processes, due to their
slow nature. We will now apply the governing equation for mass fraction to transient diffusion in the semi-infinite
domain depicted below:
Solving for m1(z,t), z>0

z
u
A particular problem is defined by the geometry, boundary conditions, and initial condition. The following boundary
conditions will be applied:
m1 m1,u
at
z0
m1 m1,0
as
The mass fraction of species 1 at surface u is known, and the mass fraction is known as we move far away from
surface u. The following initial condition is applied:
m1 m1,0
at t 0
Now compare this problem to an analogous heat transfer problem:
3.11
T
2T
2
t
z
T Tu
T T0
z0
Boundary Conditions
as z
T T0
at t 0
at
Initial Condition
This problem has the following solution (see [1] 3.4.2):

T z , t T0
Tu T0
erfc
z
2 t
where erfc is the complimentary error function (tabulated on p3.13). This may be non-dimensionalised as
erfc
1
2 Fo
where is the non-dimensional temperature, and Fo is the Fourier number.
T T0
,
Tu T0
Fo
t
L2
The heat transfer and mass transfer problems are mathematically equivalent, and so we can write the solution for the
mass transfer problem we have defined as:
m erfc
1
2 Fo m
where Fom is the mass transfer Fourier number, Fom = D12t/L2, and m is a non-dimensionalised concentration, which
can take many forms;
m1 m1,0
m1,u m1,0
x1 x1,0
x1,u x1,0
1 1,0
C C1,0
1
1,u 1,0 C1,u C1,0
The behaviour of w1 with position and time is depicted schematically below:

m1,u
increasing t
m1(z,t)
m1,0
z
u
In this case the concentration was increased at the surface (ie: m1,u m1,0 ). However, if the surface concentration was
decreased the solution would look like:
m1,0
m1(z,t)
increasing t
m1,u
z
u
3.12
Penetration Depth
m1,u
m1(z,t)
m1,0
z
The penetration depth, which can be defined in a variety of ways, is a measure of how deep the diffusing species has
penetrated at time t. We will define the penetration depth of species 1, 1, as the location where a tangent to the
concentration profile at z = 0 intercepts the line m1 = m1,0.
Taking the spatial derivative of the concentration profile and evaluating it at z = 0,
m1
z
m1,u m1,0
z 0
D12 t
m1,u m1,0
Therefore, our measure of the penetration depth is,
1 D12 t
or the Fourier number based on the penetration depth is equal to .
Fo = .
The important thing to note is the dependency of 1 to the square root of time. Initially the diffusing substance
penetrates quickly, the rate of penetration continuing to decrease with time.
h
t
p
e
D
n
o
it
ar
te
n
e
P
1 t
Time
Rate of Diffusion per unit surface area
The mass flux at surface u is given by,

j1,u D12
j1,u
m1
z
z 0
D12
m1,u m1,0
t
or as a function of the penetration depth,

j1,u
D12 m1,u m1,0

1
3.13
On a molar basis
J1,u
CD12 x1,u x1,0
Total Diffusion per unit surface area
The mass that has diffused across the surface u between t = 0 and t is calculated from the integral of the diffusion flux,
and is given by,
m1 2
D12 t
N1 2
A m1,u m1,0
D12 t
C A x1,u x1,0
Table 1 The complimentary error function

erfc x 1
x
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.74
erfc x
1.0000
0.9774
0.9549
0.9324
0.9099
0.8875
0.8652
0.8431
0.8210
0.7991
0.7773
0.7557
0.7343
0.7131
0.6921
0.6714
0.6509
0.6306
0.6107
0.5910
0.5716
0.5525
0.5338
0.5153
0.4973
0.4795
0.4621
0.4451
0.4284
0.4121
0.3961
0.3806
0.3654
0.3506
0.3362
0.3222
0.3086
0.2953
x
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.42
1.44
1.46
1.48
1.50
e u du
erfc x
0.2825
0.2700
0.2579
0.2462
0.2349
0.2239
0.2133
0.2031
0.1932
0.1837
0.1746
0.1658
0.1573
0.1492
0.1414
0.1339
0.1267
0.1198
0.1132
0.1069
0.10090
0.09516
0.08969
0.08447
0.07949
0.07476
0.07027
0.06599
0.06193
0.05809
0.05444
0.05098
0.04771
0.04462
0.04170
0.03895
0.03635
0.03389
x
1.52
1.54
1.56
1.58
1.60
1.62
1.64
1.66
1.68
1.70
1.72
1.74
1.76
1.78
1.80
1.82
1.84
1.86
1.88
1.90
1.92
1.94
1.96
1.98
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.70
2.80
2.90
3.00
3.20
3.40
3.60
erfc x
0.03159
0.02941
0.02737
0.02545
0.02365
0.02196
0.02038
0.01890
0.01751
0.01621
0.01500
0.01387
0.01281
0.01183
0.01091
0.01006
0.00926
0.00853
0.00784
0.00721
0.00662
0.00608
0.00557
0.00511
0.00468
0.002979
0.001863
0.001143
0.000689
0.000407
0.000236
0.000134
0.000075
0.000041
0.000022
0.000006
0.000002
0.000000
3.14
3.4.3 Transient Diffusion in a Plane Wall

Due to the similarity of the governing equations, solutions of transient mass diffusion problems in plane walls, cylinders
and spheres can be quickly generated by inspection of existing heat conduction solutions. However, it should be noted
that these solutions find relatively few practical applications, as we will often have significant variations in the diffusion
coefficient with position, due to dependence on temperature, or concentrations in the mixture.
However, to further demonstrate the application of existing heat conduction solutions, we will look briefly at transient
diffusion in a plane wall. Consider the problem described below:
u
u
m1,u
m1,u
At t=0, m1=m1,0
z =-L
Defining the required boundary conditions:
m1 m1,u
at z L, L
m1 m1,0
at t 0
z=L
z=0
and initial condition:
This problem can be compared to an analogous heat conduction problem, having the following conditions:
T Tu
at z L, L
Boundary.Conditions
T T0
at t 0
Initial Condition
This has the following solution, which is developed in [1] pp138 -141:
1n
z
exp 2 Fo cos
L
n0
T Tu
,
n 12
T0 Tu
By careful inspection of the governing equations, geometry, boundary conditions and initial conditions, we find an
equivalent equation for the mass diffusion problem:
m 2
n 0
1n
z
exp 2 Fo m cos
L
m m1,u
m 1
m1,0 m1,u
u
Increasing
time
m1,u
Again, the non-dimensionalised concentration m could be expressed

in mole fraction, partial density or species concentration.
Typical behaviour of m1 z , t is shown schematically to the right.
We might also be interested in mass flux at the surface u.
This is provided by Ficks Law:
j1,u D12
m1
z
m1,0
z 0
z=-L
z=0
z=L
3.15
Utilising the solution for m1(z,t) above:
dm1
dz
m1,u m1,0
2 n
1 exp 2 Fo m sin
L n0
m1,u m1,0
2
exp 2 Fom
L n0
zL
Simplifying further:
dm1
dz
zL
And finally;
j1,u
2 D12
m1,0 m1,u exp 2 Fo m .
L
n0
Example:
Consider a mild steel plate of total thickness 20 mm. It has an initial carbon concentration 0.2% by weight, and is to
have the carbon concentration increased to at least 0.8%. An equilibrium concentration of 1.5% carbon is established at
the surface of the plate. Calculate the time required for the centreline of the plate to reach a carbon mass concentration
of 0.8%. The diffusion coefficient of carbon in steel at the process temperature is approximately 5.610-10 m2/s.
Solution:
The series solution for m1(z,t) has been implemented using a simple Fortran code. The solution was stepped forward in
time, until m1 at z = 0 exceeded 0.008. This required 62400 s, or 17.33 hrs.
Increasing
Time
We might also be interested in the rate at which mass is diffused through the surface of the plate (@ z = L). The series
solution for surface mass flux has been applied in the same code, producing the following result:
3.16

1.
A thin plastic membrane is used to separate helium from a gas stream. The concentrations of helium at the
inner and outer surfaces of the membrane are 0.02 and 0.005 kmol/m3, respectively. If the membrane is 1 mm
thick, and the binary diffusion coefficient of helium with respect to the plastic is 10-9 m2/s, what is the molar
diffusion flux? What is the mass diffusion flux (the molecular weight of helium is 4.0 kg/kmol?
2.
A steel tank of 1 litre capacity and 2 mm wall thickness is used to store hydrogen at 400C. The initial pressure
is 9 bars, and the tank is located in an evacuated chamber. Estimate the initial rate of hydrogen loss per unit
surface area on both mass and molar bases. For hydrogen in steel you can use
D12 1.65 106 e 4630/ T
m1,u 2.09 104 e 3950/ T P1,1/s 2
3.
[m 2 /s]
[T in K, P in bar]
A helium-cadmium (blue) laser used in a photocopying machine printer contains He at a nominal pressure of
460 Pa. The glass outer shell has a volume of 150 cm3, an area of 550 cm2, and a wall thickness of 1.52 mm.
At normal operating conditions, the average temperature of the gas in the tube is 225C and the shell outer
temperature is 115C. Estimate the (i) initial helium leak rate; and (ii) time required to lose 1% of the original
helium. You can use the following.
D12 1.40 108 e 3280/ T ( K ) m 2 /s
S'
C1,u
C1, s
0.007 3.0 105 T ( C )
4.
Helium gas at 27C and 4 bars is contained in a Pyrex glass cylinder of 100 mm inside diameter and 5 mm
thickness. What is the rate of mass loss per unit length of the cylinder?
5.
A tube of length 10 cm and cross-sectional area 0.785 cm2 contains an Air/CO mixture with a mixture density
of 0.442 kg/m3, with D12 = 97.8 10-6 m2/s. When the mass fraction of CO in the gas mixture flowing over
the tube is 0.001, the rate of removal of CO is measured to be 0.01855 g/s. Determine the rate constant of the
reaction on the particular catalyst used. If the rate constant can be increased by some means, what is the
maximum rate that CO could be consumed in the rig?
6.
A mild steel rod with an initial carbon concentration 0.2% by weight is to be case-hardened. It is packed in a
carbonaceous material (eg: charcoal) and maintained at a high temperature. Thermodynamic data for the
chemical system indicates an equilibrium concentration of carbon in iron at the interface of 1.5%.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
What is the time required for the location 1 mm below the surface to have a carbon mass
concentration of 0.8%?
What is the penetration depth for this time?
What mass of carbon per unit surface area has diffused into the steel up to this time?
What is the carbon molar flux through the surface at this time?
Plot penetration depth - time, and mass diffused - time curves for this process.
You may use D12 = 5.610-10 m2/s for carbon in steel at the process temperature.
4.1
4 Mass Convection
Mass convection, or convective mass transfer, are terms used to describe the process of mass transfer involving a
moving fluid. Convection mass transfer occurs due to a combination of diffusion within the fluid, and bulk motion of
the fluid. In this course we will concentrate on mass transfer between a surface and a moving fluid.
U
m1,e
m1,s
j1,s
s
In the above diagram we see mass transfer from a surface through a boundary layer. As before, the surface s lies on the
fluid side of the fluid-solid boundary. Here we also have the e-surface which lies at the edge of the boundary layer,
where the fluid properties take on those of the free stream flow. The difference in species concentration between the ssurface and the e-surface drives the mass flow.
Heat convection and mass convection involve very similar mechanisms, allowing mass transfer problems to be solved
using the same methodologies. If low mass transfer rates are occurring, the analogy between heat convection and mass
convection is very strong. Many engineering applications can be analysed assuming low mass transfer rates.
What do we mean by low mass transfer rates? The use of the heat transfer analogy in convective mass transfer ignores
the fact that there is a velocity normal to the s-surface due to the species 1 diffusing into the flow. If the rate of mass
transfer is high enough then this velocity can be non-negligible compared to the free stream velocity of the flow U. At
this point the flow is no longer similar to convection past a wall, but is convection past a wall with blowing.
For instance, a low mass transfer rate would be water evaporating into the air. High mass transfer would occur when
the water is boiling. As we will see below, the mass transfer rate is proportional to the difference in the mass fraction
across the boundary layer, m. Normally a low mass transfer rate is indicated by m < 0.1.
Examples of applications with low mass transfer rates include:
Cooling towers
Humidifiers
Gas absorbers, for sparingly soluble gases
Catalysis
Applications with high mass transfer rates include:
Combustion of volatile liquid hydrocarbon fuel droplets in diesel engines
Ablation of phenolic based heat shields on re-entry vehicles
We will treat mass convection problems using methodologies you have applied previously to heat convection. As with
heat convection, when solving mass convection problems we will classify flow situations as forced or natural, internal
or external, and laminar or turbulent. Correlations will be used to predict important non-dimensional numbers, from
which mass transfer rates can be found. The strong analogy between heat and mass convection motivates the revision
of heat convection problem solving methods.
4.1 Revision of Convective Heat Transfer

Convective heat transfer occurs due to a temperature difference between a surface, and a body of fluid that is in motion.
Heat is transferred by conduction within the fluid, and by the bulk motion of the fluid. A large amount of effort is
required to determine the exact fluid velocity field and temperature field that exist in the fluid. However, useful
engineering calculations can be performed to determine the resultant heat transfer from the surface to the fluid, based
upon available correlations. Such heat convection correlations relate the heat flux quantities through various nondimensional numbers, which characterise a problem.
4.2
4.1.1 Notation
cp
specific heat at constant pressure
[J/kg K]
D, L
characteristic diameter and length
[m]
gravitational acceleration
[m/s2]
heat transfer coefficient
[W/m2 K]
thermal conductivity of fluid
[W/m K]
heat flux
[W/m2]
rate of heat flow
[W]
characteristic velocity of flow
[m/s]
thermal diffusivity of fluid ( = k c p )
[m2/s]
coefficient of thermal expansion
[1/K]
density of fluid
[kg/m3]
kinematic viscosity of fluid
dynamic viscosity of fluid
(= )
[m2/s]
[kg/m s]
4.1.2 Classification of Flow

Convection occurs in a variety of physical geometries, which can be defined as either internal, or external. External
geometries include flow over flat plates, cylinders, and spheres, while internal geometries include flow in circular and
non-circular ducts, and through packed beds. The diagram below (reproduced from [1] p19) depicts some of these flow
situations.
Fluid flows can be classified as laminar, one having a low, steady or smoothly varying velocity, or turbulent, one having
a high, rapidly fluctuating velocity. The flow structures within these two flow types are quite different, significantly
affecting the rates of heat transfer. Flows can be driven by a fan or the motion of the body, or can be driven by
buoyancy forces due to density differences in the fluid.
The Reynolds number, Re, is a non-dimensional quantity that is often used to identify a forced flow as laminar or
turbulent.
UL UL Inertial Forces
=
=
Viscous Forces
Re
=
L
The Grashof number, Gr, is a non-dimensional quantity used to identify a buoyancy driven flow as laminar or turbulent.
TgL3 Buoyancy Forces

=
Viscous Forces
2
GrL
=
This number is commonly multiplied by the Prandtl number, Pr, the result being the Rayleigh number, Ra,
RaL = GrL Pr
The coefficient of thermal expansion, , is defined as
1 d
dT
which for an ideal gas is
1
T
The buoyancy force can also be approximated using the density difference between the surface and the surroundings
T =
w e
4.3
Flows in involving heat transfer can be further classified as forced convection or natural convection. With forced
convection the flow is driven over a surface (eg: by a fan or by the motion of the surface), whilst the flow in natural
convection is driven by buoyancy forces. Mixed convection occurs when both mechanisms occur. In order to
determine whether a flow is dominated by forced or natural convection, or if both are significant, the ratio of the
Reynolds and Grashof numbers (the Richardson number Ri) is used,
4.4
Forced convection
( Gr
Re 2 ) << 1
Mixed convection
( Gr
Re 2 ) 1
Natural convection
( Gr
Re 2 ) >> 1
Note: Other non-dimensional numbers may be employed to further classify flows.

Heat transfer correlations for mixed convection may be derived from combining the separate correlations for free and
forced convection. One method is
3
Nu
=
NuF3 Nu N3
where NuF and NuN are determined from correlations for pure forced and natural (free) convection. The plus sign
applies to assisting (where natural convection drives the flow in the same direction as the forced flow) and transverse
flows (where the direction of the natural convection and the forced flows are perpendicular). When the natural
convection and the force convection act in opposite directions (opposed flow) the minus sign applies.
4.1.3 Fluid Properties

The relationship between heat transfer and fluid motion depends on the Prandtl number, Pr, which is a ratio of the
transport properties for heat and momentum.
Pr=
c p Momentum Diffusivity
=
=
k
Thermal Diffusivity
The Prandtl numbers of different fluids can vary widely. Typical ranges for different fluid types are,
Liquid metals
Pr << 1
Air, Gasses, Saturated Steam, Water
Pr 1
Oils
Pr >> 1
A reputable heat transfer text will have tables of the fluid properties and Prandtl numbers for different fluids.
4.1.4 Calculation of Convective Heat Flux
Thermal boundary
layer
Te or T2
Fluid
q
Tw or T1
Wall
Heat transfer between a surface at temperature Tw, and a body of fluid in motion at temperature Te, is often assumed to
be linearly proportional to the temperature difference ( Tw Te ). We characterise this relationship using the heat
transfer coefficient, h. The heat transfer coefficient for a particular problem will depend on geometry, properties of the
fluid in motion, and the nature of the fluid flow.
Local Heat Transfer Coefficient
At a particular position on a body surface, we can define the local heat flux by,
=
q h (Tw Te )
or =
q h (T1 T2 )
where the heat flux is defined as positive flowing from the surface to the fluid. h is the local heat transfer coefficient,
and is a function of position.
4.5
Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
The average heat flux occurring over a surface of area A, is given by,
q=
Q
= h (Tw Te )
A
where h is the average heat transfer coefficient, defined by an area average:

h=
hdA
A
where dA is an elemental area.
4.1.5 Application of Correlations to Calculate Heat Transfer Coefficients

Because there are very few analytical solutions to the equations that govern fluid motion, it is often easiest to calculate
the heat transfer coefficient for a given problem using published correlations. These are equations, based on experiment
or CFD calculations, which relate the rate of heat transfer to the flow properties for a particular geometry. They are
typically expressed in terms of non-dimensional numbers, to allow their use for different fluids and scales, and are in
the form of a function of the Reynolds, Grashof and Prandtl numbers giving a Nusselt or Stanton number.
The local Nusselt number is defined as,
NuL =
hL
k
and is the ratio of the heat transfer due to convection, to that which would occur to conduction alone. The average
Nusselt number is defined as follows,
Nu x =
hx
k
The Stanton number St is an alternative non-dimensionalisation of the heat transfer coefficient, and is defined as
St =
h
cPU
The methodology to solve a problem using a correlation for the Nusselt or Stanton number is to evaluate the Reynolds
or Grashof, and Prandtl numbers for the flow, to calculate the Nusselt or Stanton number, and from that evaluate the
heat transfer coefficient. From this the heat transfer can be calculated.
The following is a presentation of the heat convection correlations for forced, laminar flow over a flat plate, followed by
an example calculation.
Correlations for Forced, Laminar Flow over a Flat Plate
U, Te
Fluid
hL
hx
Tw
Plate
L
For flow to remain laminar over the plate, the Reynolds number at the end of the plate, ReL, must be lower than the
value that signifies transition to turbulent flow. Therefore, in order to apply the following correlations we must have,
ReL=
UL
< 5.0 105
4.6
The following correlations are applicable to fluids having,
Pr 0.5
typical fluids, and oils
Under these conditions, the local and average Nusselt numbers can be calculated from the following,
1
Nu z = 0.332 Rez 2 Pr
Nu z = 0.664 Rez 2 Pr
A variety of the fluid properties will need to be evaluated (e.g. , , k), and a decision should be made at which
temperature they will be evaluated. For forced convection over flat plates, it is conventional to evaluate the fluid
properties at the film temperature, Tfilm, defined as the average temperature across the boundary layer,
T film =
Tw + Te
2
4.1.6 Convective Heat Transfer Problem Methodology

1.
Determine the classification of the flow situation. Is it forced or natural, internal or external?
2.
Identify the geometry.
3.
Using guessed or approximate temperatures if necessary, evaluate the non-dimensional numbers which
determine the strength of the flow. Is the flow laminar, turbulent or a mixture of both?
4.
What heat transfer boundary condition applies? Is a constant temperature or constant heat flux condition
relevant?
5.
Decide which correlation is relevant.
6.
Determine which correction for property variation with temperature is relevant (if any).
7.
Use the correlation to calculate the Nusselt number.
8.
Evaluate the heat transfer coefficient.
9.
Use the heat transfer coefficient to predict heat transfer and unknown temperatures.
10. If calculated temperatures are different from any guessed for step 3 go back and repeat steps 3 to 9.
4.1.7 Convective Heat Transfer Alternative Methods

The alternatives to using the above methods are;
Analytic Solutions: very few are known, and all are for laminar flow.
Experimental investigations: build a model of the device, and test it.
Numerical Solutions: Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer.
4.1.8 Further Reading on Convective Heat Transfer:

Recommended revision reading on heat convection is given below. From Cengel et al. [5]:
Sections 19-1 and 19-2
Introduction to forced convection. Worth revising.
Refer to for specific correlations.
Introduction to natural convection basics. Worth revising.
Sections 20-3 to 20-5
4.7
4.2 Mass Convection

The mechanisms governing mass convection and heat convection are very similar, allowing us to apply a very similar
approach to the solution of mass convection problems. Mass convection flows are classified in the same way as heat
convection flows, and we can very often make use of the same correlations developed for heat convection.
Mass convection occurs due to a concentration difference of a chemical species between a surface, and a body of fluid
that is in motion. Mass is transferred by a combination of diffusion within the fluid, and by the bulk motion of the fluid.
4.2.1 Notation
gm
mass transfer conductance
[kg/m2 s]
Gm
mole transfer conductance
[kmol/m2 s]
ji
mass flux of species i
[kg/m2s]
Ji
molar flux of species i
[kmol/m2s]
m i
mass flow of species i
[kg/s]
N i
molar flow of species i
[kmol/s]
The mass and mole transfer conductance play the same role as the heat transfer coefficients for the solution of heat
convection problems.
4.2.2 Calculation of Convective Mass Flux

U
m1,e
m1,s
j1,s
s
The rate of convective mass transfer between a surface and a body of fluid in motion is assumed to be linearly
proportional to the concentration difference. In a similar approach as was taken for convective heat transfer, we define
this relationship through the mass transfer conductance, gm, or mole transfer conductance, Gm.
Local Mass Transfer

At a particular position on a body surface, we can define the local mass flux of species 1 as follows,
=
j1, s gm1 ( m1, s m1, e )
Similarly, the local molar flux of species 1 is defined as,

=
J1, s Gm1 ( x1, s x1, e )
Total Mass Transfer

The total mass or molar flow of species 1 occurring over an surface of area A, is calculated using the average mass
transfer conductance gm1 , or average mole transfer conductance, Gm1 .
=
m 1, s gm1 A ( m1, s m1, e )
=
N 1, s Gm1 A ( x1, s x1, e )
4.8
The local and average mass conductance are related by the following,
gm1 =
gm1dA
A
4.2.3 Relevant Non-Dimensional Numbers

As for heat convection problems, fluid flows in mass convection problems are defined as internal or external, and their
strengths as laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number will be used as defined earlier, while the Grashof number is
modified to,
GrL =
gL3
2
where is the difference in density due to mass concentration (and temperature) between the surface, and the fluid
free stream. The Reynolds number and the Grashof number can be used in the usual way to identify forced, natural, or
mixed convection.
The Sherwood number Sh is defined in terms of the mass transfer conductance as,
gm1 L Gm1 L
= =
D12 CD12
=
ShL
Dimensionless concentration gradient at surface
and will be useful for the calculation of mass conductance, gm,1. The Sherwood number plays the same role in mass
convection problems as the Nusselt number plays in heat convection, and is sometimes referred to as the mass transfer
Nusselt number.
For a mass transfer problem the Stanton number is defined as
gm ,1 Gm ,1
.
=
U CU
=
St m
The Schmidt number Sc is analogous to the Prandtl number used in heat convection problems.
=
Sc
Momentum Diffusivity
=
=
D12 D12 Mass Diffusivity of Species 1 in 2
Values for the Schmidt number taken from [1] Table 9.2 are provided below, giving values of the Schmidt number for
various binary mixtures.
Finally, a mass transfer Rayleigh number can be defined as
Ram , L = GrL Sc
from analogy with the definition of the Rayleigh number as RaL = GrLPr.
4.9
4.2.4 The Analogy between Mass Convection and Heat Convection

Due to the similarity in mass and heat transfer mechanisms, there is a strong analogy between mass convection, and
heat convection. We will restrict ourselves to the study of systems in which low rates of mass transfer are occurring.
Under these conditions, we are able to obtain the Sherwood number for a particular mass convection problem, simply
by applying the same correlations for the Nusselt number, as would be used for the analogous heat convection problem.
The Sherwood number is obtained by replacing the Prandtl number by the Schmidt number, in the appropriate
correlation. The required approach is demonstrated below:
U, m1,e
Fluid Mixture
m1,s
gm1
Plate
z
L
For heat convection occurring at a flat plate, with laminar flow, the following relation provides the local Nusselt
number,
Nu z = 0.332 Re z
Pr
for fluids with Pr > 0.5
Therefore, the local Sherwood number for the analogous mass transfer problem can be calculated from,
Shz = 0.332 Re z
Sc
for fluids with Sc > 0.5
Similarly, the average Sherwood number can be found from,
Shz = 0.664 Re z
Sc
for fluids with Sc > 0.5
The mass transfer conductance is then calculated from the obtained Sherwood number.
4.2.5 A Methodology for Solving Convective Mass Transfer Problems

To solve a mass convection problem, find a correlation for an equivalent heat convection problem. Rewrite the
correlation, with the following substitutions
Re
Unchanged
Gr
Unchanged
Pr
Sc
Ra
Ram
Nu
Sh
St
Stm
Calculate the correlation for the Sherwood or mass Stanton number, and from this evaluate the mass or mole transfer
conductance and so the mass transfer.
Note that the same Sherwood number can be used to calculate either the mass transfer conductance, gm, or the mole
transfer conductance Gm. Solving for either the mass or mole flow rate should give you the same answer.
4.2.6 The Chiltern-Colburn Analogy

For laminar forced external flow, the Chiltern-Colburn analogy states,
2
St
Sc 3
=
St m Pr
This can be used to convert a heat transfer coefficient to a mass transfer conductance via,
2
h
h
Sc 3
= = .
c p gm1 Mc pGm1 Pr
4.10
4.2.6 The Equivalent Stagnant Film Model

A useful simplification can be made to a convection problem by modelling the boundary layer by an equivalent
thickness of stagnant (motionless) fluid over which mass diffusion occurs.
s
s
m1,s
e
m1,s
U
m1,e
m1,e
f
Full convection problem
Equivalent stagnant-film model
For the mass convection problem, the total mass flow from the surface is calculated from,
=
m 1 j=
gm1 A ( m1, s m1, e )
1, s A
We now model this mass flow to be occurring by diffusion alone, across a stagnant film of thickness f . The mass
flow for the diffusion problem is,
m 1
=
D12 A
( m1, s m1,e )
f
By comparing these expressions for m 1 , the approximate mass conductance is defined as,
D12
f
gm1 =
An application of this simplification can be made to the heterogeneous catalysis problem considered earlier,
s
e
m1,e
Catalyst for
reaction
m1,s
Replacing L in the earlier result by f ,
Am1,e
f
1
m 1 =
D12
k ''
and introducing the stagnant film mass conductance,

m 1 =
m1, e A
1
1
+
gm1 k ''
4.11
The result is an expression for the mass flow absorbed at a catalytic surface, given the rate of reaction, and a mass
conductance that describes the nature of convection occurring at the surface. The result may be applied to various
geometries, if a suitable mass conductance can be assigned.

1.
Air at a temperature of 30C, is flowing over a plate at a constant temperature of 100C. The air velocity
outside of the boundary layer is 0.5 m/s. The plate is 1.0 m long in the flow direction, and 0.5 m wide.
a.
b.
What is the local heat flux at a point 0.5 m along the plate?
What is the average heat flux, and average heat flow for the entire plate?
2.
A 40 W incandescent bulb is placed in a lamp, and the lamp switched on. The surrounding atmospheric air is
at 25C, and the bulb surface temperature reaches a steady state of 170C. The bulb may be approximated as a
sphere of 80 mm diameter, and we will neglect the presence of any lamp shade. What is the rate of heat loss
by natural convection to the air?
3.
Air at 300 K and 40% relative humidity blows at 5 m/s over a 10 m-square swimming pool near Albuquerque,
New Mexico. If the ambient pressure is 870 mbar and the water surface temperature is measured to be 300 K,
estimate the evaporate rate of the water from the pool.
4.
Air at 300 K and 40% relative humidity lies over a 10 m-square swimming pool on a still day. If the ambient
pressure is 870 mbar and the water surface temperature is measured to be 300 K, estimate the evaporate rate of
the water from the pool.
5.
A catalytic converter consists of 1 mm square channels, and is operating at 800 K where the effective rate
constant is 0.070 m/s. If the pressure 1.15105 Pa, and the mean molecular weight of the exhaust gasses is 28,
calculate the CO reduction rate when the CO concentration is 0.187% by mass. Calculate the equivalent film
thickness. You can assume a diffusivity of D12 = 1.0210-4 m2/s.
5.1
5 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

For many problems of engineering interest, both heat and mass transfer are occurring simultaneously at an interface.
The rates of heat and mass transfer may depend on each other, in which case they are termed coupled. However, there
are some situations for which the heat and mass transfer rates are not strongly dependant on each other, in which case
they can be considered as uncoupled, simplifying the required calculations. The majority of situations however require
a coupled analysis, solving equations for the respective processes simultaneously.
The following are examples of processes involving simultaneous heat and mass transfer:
Evaporation of water into an air stream, which occurs in cooling towers and humidifiers.
Combustion of a fuel oil droplet.
Ablation of a heat shield.
5.1 Surface Energy Balances

Surface energy balances can be applied at an interface, considering energy transfer components due to both the heat and
the mass transfer. This approach can be helpful in establishing the nature of any coupling present in a problem.
As an example, consider evaporation of water into air, as shown below,
Air and Water
Vapour
Water
mvhv,s
mvhv,u
qconvA
qcondA
qradA
Conservation of energy at the phase interface requires that the heat needed to vaporise water, is balanced by the other
forms of heat transfer occurring at a surface,
m v ( hv , s hv ,u ) =
Q
where hv,s is the enthalpy of water vapour at the s-surface, and hv,u is the enthalpy of liquid water at the u-surface. Over
a surface of area A,
m v ( hv , s hv ,u=
) A ( qcond qconv qrad )
If the mass transfer (evaporation) from the interface is modelled as convection with low transfer rates,
=
m v j=
gmv A ( mv , s mv ,e )
v,s A
Heat convection from the interface can be calculated from the following,
q=
h (Ts Te )
conv
where hc is the heat transfer coefficient. Heat conduction within the pure water at surface u can be expressed by,
qcond = k
T
z
Introducing these three relations into the energy balance,

k
T
= h (Ts Te ) + h fg gmv ( mv , s mv , e ) + qrad
z u
5.2
where hfg = hv,s hv,u, which you may recall is the latent heat of vaporisation of water at the surface temperature. If the
evaporation is expressed in molar terms the energy balance becomes,
k
T
= h (Ts Te ) + h fg M vGmv ( xv , s xv ,e ) + qrad
z u
The above result might be applied to a variety of problems considering evaporation at a water surface. The following
are examples taken from [1] and are discussed in 9.5.1.
5.3
5.2 Uncoupled Heat and Mass Transfer Analysis

Calculation of the heat loss from a stirred pool can be simplified by assuming that the heat and the mass transfer
processes are uncoupled, and therefore can be solved as separate problems. In solving this problem we will assume that
the pool is very well stirred, and therefore the temperature of the water in the pool is constant. Mass and heat transfer
are assumed uncoupled, as the rate of mass transfer is low enough that it does not affect the bulk temperature of the
water pool.
U, Te
QLatent
QSensible
Ts
CV
QSupply
Consider the pool shown schematically above, that is held at a constant temperature. We will analyse a Control Volume
that encompasses the entire pool. Q Supply is the energy that must be added to the pool to maintain it at a constant
temperature. An energy balance on the Control Volume gives,
Q
=
Q Sensible + Q Latent
Supply
Q Sensible is the portion of heat transfer due to the temperature differences involved, while Q Latent is due to the energy
required to change water from the liquid to gaseous phase. Q Sensible and Q Latent can be calculated from the following
expressions,
Q Sensible
= hA (Ts Te )
Q=
h=
h fg jv A
Latent
fg mv
These can be addressed individually, as we have assumed heat and mass transfer to be uncoupled.
5.2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Driven by Natural Convection

Convective heat and mass transfer can be solved using the same correlations use are used in heat transfer and mass
transfer problems. However, when solving natural convection problems, density variations are due to both temperature
and concentration gradients. To solve such a problem the Grashof number should be calculated using the calculated
densities due to temperature and concentration differences.
GrL =
gL3
Care should be taken to work out the orientation of the geometry, so that the location of the lighter fluid coincides with
the hot surface in the equivalent heat transfer problem.
5.4
5.3 Coupled Heat and Mass Transfer Analysis

Here we will explore example applications that involve coupled heat and mass transfer analysis. We will consider,
A Wet and Dry Bulb Psychrometer
Analysis of a Shallow, Stagnant Pool
5.3.1 Analysis of a Wet and Dry Bulb Psychrometer

The wet and dry bulb psychrometer is a simple device used to measure the moisture content, or humidity, of air. The air
to be analysed is forced over the bulbs of two thermometers, one of which is surrounded in a wick that is supplied with
water from a reservoir. Evaporation from the wick reduces the temperature at the wet bulb. The moisture content in
the air can be related to the measured wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures.
The following analysis provides for the calculation of air humidity, based upon a coupled heat and mass transfer
approach. Heat and mass transfer are coupled due to the temperature dependence of the saturation pressure of water in
air, Psat. Psat will be related to the mass fraction of water at the surface of the wetted wick, mv,s.
We will assume the system has reached a steady state, and that temperature does not vary through the thickness of the
wick. At the surface of the wick covering the wet bulb,
Te (Tdry bulb)
mv,e
Sensible
Heat
Transfer
Evaporation
Ts (Twet bulb)
mv,s
s
mv=1
Note: Te > Ts and mv , s > mv ,e

Applying a surface energy balance and neglecting heat transfer by radiation to the wick,
0 = h (Ts Te ) + h fg gmv ( mv , s mv , e )
The left hand side of this equation is zero, as temperature is assumed constant in the wick and thermometer bulb.
Rearranging for mv,e,
mv , e =
mv , s
h
(Te Ts )
h fg gmv
Once we can calculate the mass fraction of water in the surrounding air, mv,e, it is a simple matter to calculate the
relative humidity of the air. For laminar, forced flow over cylinders or spheres, the form of the Stanton numbers for
heat and mass transfer can be approximated as follows (Chilton-Colburn analogy),
5.5
2
h
Sc 3
=
c p gmv Pr
This result is substituted into the earlier expression for mv,e,

2
c p Sc 3
mv , e =
mv , s
(Te Ts )
h fg Pr
This expression provides the mass fraction of water vapour in the air, based upon the two measured temperatures, and
the mass fraction at the surface of the wick. The mass fraction at the surface of the wick can be calculated from the
wet bulb temperature, using saturated steam tables. The ratio of the Prandtl to Schmidt number can be taken as
follows,
2
1
Sc 3 0.61 3
=
Pr
=
0.69
1.086

which provides the final result for a wet and dry bulb psychrometer,
cp
mv , e =
mv , s
(Te Ts )
1.086h fg
5.3.2 Combined Heat and Mass Transfer Analysis of a Shallow Pool

As a further example of a coupled Heat and Mass Transfer analysis, a stagnant pool of finite depth is considered. A
temperature gradient is present through the depth of the pool, due to heat conduction. Heat and mass transfer are
coupled due to their influence on the surface temperature of the pool, Ts. Given the conditions in the air flowing over
the pool, Te and mv,e, and the temperature at the bottom of the pool, TB, values of Ts and mv,s can be found from an
energy balance at the pool surface. Heat transfer in the pool is assumed to occur only due to heat conduction.
Te
mv,e
U
Sensible Heat
Transfer
Evaporation
mv,s
Ts
D
TB
Note: TB > Ts > Te and mv , s > mv ,e ; Ts and m2,s are unknown.
Applying an energy balance at the surface of the pool, and neglecting heat transfer by radiation,
k water
T
= h (Ts Te ) + h fg gmv ( mv , s mv , e )
z u
This equation states that the heat being conducted through the depth of the pool is being balanced by the heat lost at the
surface by heat convection, and latent heat lost by evaporation. Assuming heat is transferred through the depth of the
pool only by conduction,
k water
(Ts TB )
D
= h (Ts Te ) + h fg gmv ( mv , s mv , e )
This result is rearranged for mv,s,

mv , s = mv , e
k water
h
(Ts TB )
(Ts Te )
h fg gmv D
h fg gmv
5.6
Given a particular problem (defined by given Te, mv,s, TB, U, and D values), the required approach would be to guess a
particular value of Ts, and calculate mv,s using the equation above. This value would then be compared to mv,s as
calculated from Psat(T=Ts), e.g.
m2, s
=
Psat (T =Ts )
xv , s
=
1.6 + 0.6 xv , s 1.6 P + 0.6 Psat (T =Ts )
(from 2.3)
Several iterations would be completed, guessing Ts values, until mv,s values calculated from both approaches are
consistent. At this point conditions at the surface have been determined, and any of the following could be calculated.
Rate of evaporation of water from pool.
Rate at which the depth of the pool is changing.
Sensible heat loss from the pool.
Latent heat loss from the pool.
The solution process described above requires a significant amount of work for each iteration, and would be best
applied in a spreadsheet, or developed using simple Matlab program. Alternatively you could use EES, or a CFD code.
Note: For another application of coupled H&MT see [1] 9.5.3, Heterogeneous Combustion.

1.
Air at 290 K, 40% relative humidity blows at 5 m/s over a 10 m-square swimming pool near Albuquerque,
New Mexico. If the ambient pressure is 870 mbar and the water surface temperature is measured to be 300 K,
estimate the heat loss due to:
a.
b.
2.
convective heat transfer

evaporation
Air at 1010 mbar flows over a wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer. The dry bulb measures 31.8C, and the wet
bulb 26.8C. Determine the relative humidity ratio.
6.1
6 Mass Exchangers
A heat exchanger is a device that transfers thermal energy between two fluid streams, and example being a shell and
tube heat exchanger. Similarly, a mass exchanger is a device that effects a change in composition of one or more
flowing streams of fluid. Examples include
Catalytic converters: a single stream of fluid passes through the device, and the mixture composition changes
due to chemical reactions.
Gas scrubber: an unwanted component of a gas stream is absorbed by a liquid stream, usually through direct
contact of the two streams. A large contact area increases the mass transfer, so often the liquid is sprayed as
droplets into the gas stream, or the gas is bubbled through the water.
Adiabatic humidifiers: water vapour is added to an air stream, simultaneously increasing the humidity of the
air and cooling the air.
Cooling towers: water evaporates into an air stream, cooling the water stream.
The exchangers can be categorised in two ways.
Mass exchangers, where only mass is transferred, and combined heat and mass exchangers. The catalytic
converter and the gas scrubber are mass exchangers, whilst the humidifier and cooling tower include the
effects of both heat and mass transfer.
Single stream and two stream devices. The catalytic converter is a single stream device, and the adiabatic
humidifier can be modelled as a single stream device. The gas scrubber and cooling towers both have two
streams.
6.1 Single Stream Mass Exchangers

These devices have only one fluid stream, which has a varying concentration. Species 1 is the component of the
mixture that is changing, and it is present in a weak concentration in the mixture. While its concentration varies in the
bulk flow, m1,e, it has a constant value at the boundary, m1,s.
Consider a gas flow with mass flow rate m G , in a duct of perimeter P.
From a mass balance of species 1, the mass flowing into the control volume equals the mass exiting.
( m G m1 )
+ j1, sPx =( m G m1 )
x + x
For overall mass conservation,
m G
+ j1, sPx + j2, sPx =m G
x + x
We will assume j2, s j1, s , and that m G is approximately constant. Using the first equation,
m G ( m1
x + x
m1
)= j
1, s
Taking the limit as x 0 gives a differential equation for the mass fraction of species 1.
dm1 j1, sP
=
dx
m G
Using the relation for the surface mass flow rate,
=
j1, s gm1 ( m1, s m1, e ) , and remembering that m1,s is constant, gives
the following.
S. Norris 2013
6.2
dm1 gm1P
=
( m1, s m1,e )
dx
m G
This can be integrated from the entrance to give the mass fraction along the duct, m1,e m1.
m1 m1, s
g P x
= exp m1
m1,in m1, s
m G
For a duct of length L, having a mass fraction of m1,in at the inlet and m1,out at the outlet, the total mass transfer is given
by the following.
m1, out m1, s
g PL
= exp m1
m1,in m1, s
m G
m1, out m1,in

m1, s m1,in
g PL
1 exp m1
=
m G
This is the equation for the effectiveness of a single stream heat exchanger.
m
=1,out
m1,in
m1, s m1,in
=
N tu
=
1 exp ( N tu )
gm1PL gm1 A
=
m G
m G
The effectiveness is a measure of the efficiency of a mass exchanger. The maximum mass transfer that is physically
possible is when m1,out = m1,s, giving an effectiveness of 1. In reality the effectiveness will be less than this value.
6.2 The Adiabatic Humidifier

A humidifier adds water vapour to a stream of gas, so it is a two stream device, with gas and water streams. For an
adiabatic humidifier, the energy required to evaporate the liquid water comes from the stream of air, and so the effect is
to cool the air stream. Thus both heat and mass are transferred between the two streams.
S. Norris 2013
6.3
Water is sprayed into the gas stream, as a mist of droplets to maximise surface area. The unevaporated water is
collected, and recirculated, with some additional water (the make up water) added to replace the evaporated liquid.
The analysis of these devices can be simplified by recognising that the quantity of water vapour added to the gas stream
is small compared to the total mass flow of the gas stream. In addition, the devices recirculate the water stream, which
settles to a constant temperature, the wet bulb temperature of the inlet gas flow.
For the control volume shown above, conservation of the water requires that
m G mv
+ jv , sPx =m G mv
x + x
where P is the perimeter of the surface between the two streams (A = Px), and the water phase is species v, and the
air stream is species a. Conservation of mass requires that
m G
+ jv , sPx =m G
x + x
However, the evaporation rate is typically small, so we can consider the mass flow rate of the gas stream to be
approximately constant. We can therefore model the device as a single stream heat exchanger. By performing the same
analysis as was done before we get the following;
m
=v ,out
mv ,in
=
1 exp ( N tu )
mv , s mv ,in
=
N tu
gmV P L gmV A
=
.
m G
m G
The quantity of water that is evaporated can be calculated from a mass balance
( m G mv )in + m add =
( m G mv )out .
If mG is approximately constant we get
m add m G ( mv ,out mv ,in=
) m G ( mv,s mv,in ) .
At the outlet of the device, the wet bulb temperature is the same as at the inlet. The dry bulb temperature can be found
from
cp
mv , out =
mv , s
(Tout Ts )
1.086h fg
1.086h fg
Tout =
Ts +
( mv, s mv,out ) .
cp
6.3 The Catalytic Converter

A catalytic converter is a single stream mass flow device, with the mass flow being constant along the length of the
duct. If the species 1 is removed continuously, we have from the catalysis notes.
m=
1, s
m 1
=
A
m1
= gmOA1 m1
1
1
+
gm1 k ''
1
1
1
=
+
.
gm1 k ''
gmOA1
The overall conductance is defined as
This gives equations for the effectiveness and number of transfer units of the converter as,
m
=1,in
m1, out
m1,in
N tu
=
=
1 exp ( N tu )
gmOA1 PL gmOA1 A
=
m G
m G
A catalytic converter that is able to extract all of the species of concern from a gas stream would have an effectiveness
of 1.0. In reality the effectiveness will always be less than this value.
S. Norris 2013
6.4
6.4 Gas Scrubbers

A gas scrubber is used to removed some material from a gas stream, by having it adsorbed into a water stream. For
instance, they are used in power-station exhaust stacks to removed sulphur dioxide from the exhaust stream, preventing
acid rain. An example of such a scrubber is given below. Since they have two counterflowing streams they are a twostream device, but since the suphur dioxide undergoes a rapid reaction in the water converting it into another species,
the concentration of SO2 at the surface of the water is a constant value of zero. This allows the devide to be analysed as
a single stream mass exchanger.
By assuming that the mass fraction of the sulphur dioxide is zero at the surface of the water, we have,
m
=1,in
m1, out
m1,in
N tu =
=
1 exp ( N tu )
gm1 A
.
m G
6.5 Cooling Towers

A cooling tower is a device that cools a stream of water by evaporating some of the water to an air stream. Since both
the water and air stream change temperature and mass transfer occurs, it is a two-stream heat and mass exchanger. We
will consider a counter-flow cooling tower, where a falling stream of water transfers heat and vapour to a rising stream
of air. Therefore the device works as a counter flow heat and mass exchanger.
S. Norris 2013
6.5
Since the temperature of both the air and water streams varies through the device, the concentration of the water vapour
in the air stream at the surface of the water varies through the device. This prevents the modelling of the device as a
single stream heat exchanger, and no simple analytic model can be used to describe them.
Merkels method, dating from the 1920s, uses the enthalpy of the liquid and gas streams, referenced to a zero value at
0C. The enthalpy of the liquid stream is,
hL = cP , LT
For the air stream the enthalpy is (taking v as the water vapour, and a as dry air)
=
hG ma ha + mv hv
ha = cP , aT
h=
h fg + cP , vT
v
Temperatures are given in C (not Kelvin). After a lot of assumptions and modelling, we arrive at the following. For a
constant ratio of flow rates we can integrate from the bottom of the tower (the gas inlet and the liquid outlet) to get,
hG =
hG ,in +
m L
( hL hL,out )
m G
The number of transfer units is defined as Ntu = gmPH/mL, where P is the perimeter and H is the height. From this we
get
m L dhG
dhL
=
= hs hG
m G d N tu d N tu
This can be integrated to get
hL ,in
N tu =
hL ,out
dhG
hs hG
We assume that the temperature of the water is constant across the stream, so that Ts = TL. We can numerically
integrate the above equation from the bottom of the tower upwards, to get the number of transfer units for the cooling
tower.
To simplify calculation, you can use the table of enthalpy data in Table A.31, reproduced below. The method is
demonstrated through the following example.
S. Norris 2013
6.6
Example:
A wet cooling tower is required to cool water from 40C to 26C when the inlet air is 10C, at 1 atm, and is saturated.
Calculate the number of transfer units when the mass flow rates of the water and air streams are equal.
To solve we use the following equations.
hL ,in
N tu =
hL ,out
dhG
hs hG
hG =
hG ,in +
m L
( hL hL,out )
m G
From Table A.31, hG,in=hsat(10C)=29.15 kJ/kg, hL,in=167.58 kJ/kg, hL,out=109.07 kJ/kg. Modelling the cooling tower as
one control volume we get;
hG , out =
hG ,in +
m L
( hL,in hL,out )
m G
=29.15 +(167.58 109.07 )

= 87.66 kJ/kg
We find hs from Table A.31 as 79.12 kJ/kg and 158.86 kJ/kg at the bottom and the top of the cooling tower respectively.
We then approximate the number of transfer units by
hL ,in
N=
tu
hL ,out
dhG
1
1
1
(167.58 109.07 )
+
2 158.86 87.66 79.12 29.15

hs hG
= 0.996
Rather than evaluating the integral using one step, we can divide it up into several steps. Using this, we get the table
(from Mills),
Here we have taken 2C steps in temperature to evaluate the properties along the tower flow. The enthalpy of the liquid
stream at the specified temperature, hL, is determined from Table A.31, as is the enthalpy of saturated air at the same
temperature. Performing an energy balance, we can determine the enthalpy of the air stream at the same location, hG.
We then evaluate the last two terms, which get integrated to give the number of transfer units for the tower.
hL ,in
N tu =
hL ,out
dhG
hs hG
0.01986 + 0.01942 + 0.01871

8.36
=
0.02001 + 2
+ 0.01404
2
+0.01776 + 0.01662 + 0.01536
= 1.043
Note that we dont have the temperature of the outlet air stream. However, the outlet stream is typically saturated, so
from the enthalpy of the stream (87.66 kJ/kg) we can find the temperature in Table A.31 as TG,out = 27.9C.
S. Norris 2013
6.7
S. Norris 2013
6.8

1.
A catalytic converter is to be designed for removing CO from an automotive engine exhaust. If the mass flow
rate of the exhaust is 30 g/s, and the reaction rate is k" = 210-2 m/s, what is the surface area required if the
converter is to be 99% effective? The density of the exhaust gasses is 0.3 kg/m3, and the mass transfer
conductance is 0.24 kg/m2.s.
2.
An adiabatic humidifier is working in Melbourne in conditions of 310 K, 1 bar atmospheric pressure, and 10%
relative humidity, producing an outlet air temperature of 292 K. Calculate the mass fraction of the chilled
outlet air, the water make up rate, and the effectiveness of the device.
3.
Cooling water leaves the condenser of a power plant and enters a wet cooling tower at 35C at a rate of
100 kg/s. The water is cooled to 22C in the cooling tower by air that enters the tower at 1 atm, 20C, and
60% relative humidity and leaves saturated at 30C. Neglecting the power input to the fan, determine the
volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower and the mass flow rate of the required makeup water.
S. Norris 2013

Mass Transfer

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1.

Energy Technology Mass Transfer

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

1.1 Analogies to Heat Transfer Mechanisms

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

1.2 Physical Situations Involving Mass Transfer

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

1.3 Examples of Engineering Applications involving Mass Transfer

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

1.4 Topics Covered

Preliminary definitions and relations.

Steady state mass diffusion.

Transient mass diffusion.

Simultaneous heat and mass transfer.

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

mass concentration, or density of species per unit volume.

molar concentration of species i per unit volume.

molecular weight for species i.

mixture mass concentration

mixture molar concentration

mixture molecular weight

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.1 Ideal Gas Mixtures

where R is the gas constant of the gas

where RU is the universal gas constant

We will prove the following useful relationship:

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.2 Concentrations at Interfaces

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.2.1 Liquid / Gas interfaces (evaporation of liquid into gas)

Water vapour / air

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.2.2 Liquid / Gas interface (absorption of gas by liquid)

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.2.3 Solid / Liquid interface (dissolving of solid into liquid)

where Sm is the solubility from the table.

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.2.4 Solid / Gas interface (absorption of gas by solid)

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.3 Air / Water Vapour Mixtures

0.625 xv 0.625 Pv ( sat )

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

2.4 Example Questions

Determine the mean molecular weight M of this mixture.

m1,u 2.09 104 e 3950/ T

S. Bickerton, 2001, R. Sharma 2007, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

3 Ordinary Mass Diffusion

S. Bickerton, 2001, S. Norris 2013

MechEng 713 Energy Technology

Pressure of species i, at surface j