1

Herbal Medicine: A Comparative Study on Alternative

Healing Practices and Beliefs
By: Samantha Goelz
Senior Thesis
Abstract
Herbal medicine is growing in popularity in the US and currently the number of visits
to Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) providers outnumbers the number of
visits to primary care physicians (Bussmann 2010). Herbal medicine is one type of
alternative medicine used by trained professionals, known as herbalists and healers. Herbal
medicine is effective when used properly because herbs contain organic chemicals with
healing properties used to treat illness and disease throughout the entire body. Even with
proven results of effective healing, herbal remedies are not classified as prescription drugs,
but as dietary substances (Bent et al. 2004). In this comparative study, I examined
herbalism as found in the alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine and Native
American medicine. A local Chinese herbalist and a Native American healer were
interviewed to analyze their healing beliefs in reference to diagnosing and treating patients
with herbal medicine. I also analyzed how the beliefs and practices tied to herbal medicine
differ from the culturally defined western model of healing. To deepen my analysis, I
compared the local alternative medicine systems of Chinese medicine and Native American
medicine to other alternative medicine traditions, specifically those of the Cherokee and
Lakota, while also looking at consistencies within Native American medicine. The theoretical
approach of ethnomedicine was used to analyze the different approaches of herbal use
among the complementary and alternative medicine healing systems of Chinese medicine
and Native American medicine. To better interpret, I also applied Dumonts (1980) theory of
holism to examine how these alternative systems of healing view the relationship between
the whole person and its parts, and how their systems of healing include treating the whole
in order to treat the affected parts. My research is significant because it can directly
influence the way we view our own medical beliefs and practices by drawing our attention to
the possible alternatives of a more preventative, less invasive, and less costly system of
healing through herbal medicines.

Table of Contents
Introduction

page 1

Literature Review Chapter

page 4

Research Problem

page 4

Background

page 7

Theoretical Approach

page 11

Methodology Chapter

page 14

Sample

page 14

Research Sites

page 14

Methods

page 15

Data Analysis

page 17

Results

page 20

Conclusion

page 33

Implications

page 37

Acknowledgements

page 39

Works Cited

page 40

Appendix A: Interview Questions

page 43

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Herbal Medicine: A Comparative Study on Alternative Healing Practices and Beliefs

Introduction
Throughout history, people have used plants for both food and medicine.
Medicinal herbs are defined as plants or parts of plants such as the leaves, stems,
roots, flowers, and seeds that contain organic chemicals with effective healing
properties (Bent et al. 2004:478-485). Over time, humans have evolved the ability to
absorb and digest the bioactive chemical compounds found in plants (Winston
2003:10). Because of the healing nature of plants, herbal medicine has been used from
past to present to treat illness and disease throughout the entire body and associated
systems, such as the digestive or respiratory systems (Winston 2003:10-29). Herbal
medicine is one style of complementary and alternative medicine employed by trained
professionals known as herbalists, medicine men, botanist, healers, or shamans.
Practitioners of herbal medicine are trained with traditional knowledge that has been
passed down for thousands of years (Garrett and Garrett 2002: 1-11, Lame Deer
1972:154-162).
Traditional knowledge and biomedicine are two ways of understanding the
complexity of herbal medicines used in clinical practice. Biomedicine is clinical-decision
making that generates medical knowledge by using current evidence when treating or
caring for patients. Traditional knowledge is the indigenous knowledge developed over
hundreds of years through direct contact with the environment. Individuals with
traditional knowledge have a vast understanding of how plants and animals affect
people (Evans 2008:2098-2106). Because of this knowledge, much of the worlds

population uses herbal medicine globally as their primary health care choice (Winston
2012).
There are various types of traditional knowledge-based alternative systems of
healing that use herbal medicines to treat illness and disease. Some examples include
Ayurveda (India), Chinese medicine, Native American medicine, Tibetan medicine,
Unani-tibb (Greco-Arabic) and Kampo (Japan). These alternative systems of healing
have a long history of usefulness, safety, and effectiveness that has now been
confirmed through modern research (Winston 2012). I chose to focus on Chinese herbal
medicine and Native American medicine in my research because they are both used in
the United States and their beliefs and practices differ from the culturally defined
Western medicine model of healing (Winston and Maimes 2007). The Western model
of healing with pharmaceuticals is viewed by some as harmful, invasive, too powerful,
and in direct conflict with local healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279).
Currently, herbal medicine is growing in popularity in the United States, and the
number of visits to complementary and alternative medicine providers outnumbers the
number of visits to primary care physicians (Bussmann 2010:1-10). Herbal remedies are
not classified as prescription drugs, but as dietary substances (Bent 2008:854-859).
Unlike prescription drugs, dietary supplements do not have to claim to diagnose, cure,
treat, or prevent illness, and can be sold in markets without testing or proven safety and
efficacy (Bent 2008:854-859). Moreover, because an herb is deemed natural does not
mean it is safe to ingest. Herbal medicines are effective with the correct dosage, but
some can have dangerous or even deadly side effects if used incorrectly (personal
communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Risks involved with herbal medicine

include incorrect dosage, toxins, allergic reactions, contaminants, and interactions with
other herbs or other prescription drugs (Bent et al. 2004:478-485). Dosage is a major
risk associated with herbal medicine. If an herbal dosage is administered incorrectly, the
chance of adverse or unwanted side effects increases drastically. Herbal medicines can
even be deadly if too high of a dosage is administered. Furthermore, the same type of
herb can contain varying levels of chemical compounds based on the geographical
location in which it is grown or the way it is manufactured , which complicates the
dosage process even more (Snodgrass 2001:724-737).
In this study, I examine herbal medicine by comparing and contrasting the
alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine and Native American medicine, while
applying the paradigm of Dumonts (1980) part/whole relations to my findings. To further
document the major commonalities and differences between these two systems of
healing, I interviewed a local Chinese herbalist and a Native American healer to analyze
their beliefs in reference to diagnosing and treating patients with herbal medicine. To
better interpret, I apply Dumonts (1980) theory of holism to examine how these two
alternative systems of healing see the relationship between the whole person and its
parts, and how their systems of healing include treating the whole to treat the affected
parts. To further my analysis, I compare the local healing systems of Chinese medicine
and Native American medicine to other alternative medicine traditions, specifically those
of the Cherokee and Lakota, while also looking at consistencies within Native American
medicine. My research shows how the beliefs and practices of complementary and
alternative medicine differ from the culturally defined western model of healing. They

involve treating the whole body and its organs rather than focusing only on the parts
affected.
There are three major reasons why my research is significant. Foremost, I
examine manufacturing risks involved with preparing herbal medicines and show the
need to test for possible manufacturing risks before using store bought herbal products.
Secondly, my research shows the need for standardizing the chemical levels of herbal
products because the same type of herb can contain varying levels of chemical
compounds based on the area it is grown or how it is manufactured. Standardizing the
chemical levels of herbal products would make testing efficacy more consistent in
clinical trials. Lastly, my research can directly influence the way we view our own
medical beliefs and practices by drawing our attention to the possible alternatives of a
more preventative, less invasive, and less costly system of healing through herbal
medicines. This includes documenting alternative ways of conceptualizing illness,
healing, and the importance of holistic treatments.
Literature Review Chapter
Research problem
As previously stated, I examined the beliefs and practices surrounding herbal
medicine by comparing and contrasting the alternative healing systems of Chinese and
Native American medicine and then applying the paradigm of Dumonts (1980)
part/whole relations to my findings. As a comparative study, my research examines
herbalism as found in the alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American
medicine. A Chinese and Native American herbalist was interviewed in order to analyze

their healing practices and beliefs in reference to diagnosing and treating patients with
herbal medicine. An angle of my project that deepens my analysis is the comparison of
the local alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American medicine to other
alternative healing traditions. I also looked at consistencies within Native American
medicine by comparing my findings to other traditional Native American styles of
healing, such as the Cherokee and Lakota.
Various herbs can cause adverse effects and can interfere with other prescription
drugs when used together. Most of the clinical trial data conducted on herbal medicine
is inconclusive since not all of the risks associated with the herbs are known (Ernst
2002:42-53). I included an analysis of the factors affecting the quality of herbal products
and associated risks. More research is needed to determine if the potential benefits of
using herbal medicine outweigh any potential risks.
The questions I am trying to address through my research are regarding the general
theories as to how or why herbal medicine works. How do alternative medicine beliefs
and practices differ from the culturally defined Western model of healing? What are the
commonalities and differences among herbal use between Chinese medicine and
Native American medicine? Do herbalists inform patients of all known benefits and risks
when prescribing herbal remedies? Moreover, do the herbalists take into account
manufacturing contaminants when using herbal products? What are the manufacturing
regulations surrounding herbal medicine? Lastly, does the way herbal products are
manufactured affect their efficacy or quality?

There are benefits to changing the way we view and present the world of herbal
medicine. Some clinical herbalists are moving away from traditional knowledge and
towards biomedicine as their way of understanding and administering herbal medicine
(Evans 2008:2098-2106). I will use these two different frameworks as a way to examine
the beliefs and practices surrounding Chinese and Native American medicine in order to
determine whether they use a given framework or a combination of both.
Herbalists use a range of techniques aside from herbal medicine to heal and
treat illness, such as acupuncture or energy and body-based therapies. Due to its
increasing prevalence in the United States, I chose to take the biological approach and
only focus on herbal medicine in my research. Unfortunately, the increase in popularity
as a treatment for illness and disease has not yet led to an increase in information on
the safety and efficacy of herbal remedies. Herbs are drugs and have the potential for
high benefits and high risks (OHara et al. 1998:523-536). Determining the efficacy of
herbal medicine can be complicated because each plant contains a diverse number of
chemical compounds even within the same species (Winston and Maimes 2007). This
lack of knowledge on the efficacy of herbal medicine is because it is hard to measure
safely without a standard level of chemical compounds in each herb or without the
regulation of quality control when manufacturing herbal products (Snodgrass 2001:724737).
I addressed this problem of efficacy in my research by interviewing a Chinese
and Native American herbalist regarding their beliefs on herbal safety, effectiveness,
and possible risks. I collected further data on herbal efficacy by conducting a literary
analysis of articles and books relating to effectiveness and successful treatments of

herbal remedies. I then compared my findings from the literature review to the data I
gathered from my interviews. By better understanding the benefits and risks associated
with an herb, one can determine if an herbal product is safe or not. My research is
significant because it can directly influence the way we view our own medical beliefs
and practices, as well as the culturally defined Western model of healing. It is also
relevant because it fills a gap in the literature on efficacy of herbal medicine by
examining it from a different angle and analyzing the practitioners beliefs on safety and
effectiveness. With more research conducted on the efficacy of herbal remedies, we can
gain the benefits of creating a more preventative, less costly, and less invasive system
of healing.
Background
As a society, we define illness in terms of medicine, even though it is far more
complex than just medicine. We interpret the meaning of illness when defined in terms
of what medicines are used to cure or prevent it (Van der Geest and Whyte 1989: 345
367). The social meaning of a cure is the promise that medicine will restore you to
good health regardless of contact with a doctor (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). In other
words, individuals have the capacity to interpret their own models for healing,
regardless of whether or not it is traditional, and one defines what medicine is and how
to use it based on culture, personal experiences and personal logic (Van der Geest and
Whyte 1989: 345367). According to the Van der Geest and Whyte study, medicine is
based on objectivity (Van der Geest and Whyte 1989: 345367). Objectivity means to
be fair and make impartial decisions on medical treatment based on proven results.
Objective medicine is based on efficacy, and individuals who are sick make their own

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decisions on whether or not to seek treatment in order to make themselves better based
on their illness (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). This is because individuals can impose
personal logic onto reality and ultimately make their own health care decisions on
whether or not to use alternative herbal medicine versus Western pharmaceuticals (Van
der Geest and Whyte 1989: 345367).
Herbal medicines are used to treat illnesses and diseases throughout the entire
body, including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, digestive system, ears,
skin, eyes, nose, throat, eliminatory system, endocrine system, female reproduction
system, male reproduction system, immune system, lymphatic system, musculo-skeletal
system, nervous system, respiratory system, and urinary system (Winston 2003:10-29).
Approximately one quarter of adults in the United States have reported using herbal
medicines to treat aliments rather than over the counter drugs (Bent et al. 2004:478485). Both clinically prescribed herbal medicines and over-the-counter herbal medicines
are growing in popularity. A survey from the World Health Organization (WHO) shows
that 70-80% of the worlds population relies on herbal medicine, using complementary
and alternative medicine as their primary healthcare choice (Chan 2003:1361-1371),
indicating its an effective and reliable alternative to Western based pharmaceuticals.
Over-the-counter herbal medicines put added pressure on the professional
herbalists because these herbal remedies are now available in stores and markets,
dissipating the need to see a professional herbalist to receive the herbal medications.
Over-the-counter herbal medicines are frequently contaminated from environmental
factors such as pesticides, microbial contaminants, heavy metals, and chemical toxins
(Chan 2003:1361-1371). Chemical toxins may also come from the plant growing in a

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contaminated environment, incorrect storage conditions, or chemical treatments used to

store and preserve the herbal products. Chemical and biomedical analyses are two
methods that can be used to show intentional and unintentional toxic contaminants in
herbal products. Professional herbalists have a way to test and avoid using
contaminated herbs by following the proper procedures (personal communication,
Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Most environmental factors leading to contamination can
be controlled by implementing the standard operating procedures (SOP) leading to
Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), Good Laboratory Practice (GLP), Good Supply
Practice (GSP) and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) for manufacturing safe and
effective herbal remedies (Chan 2003:1361-1371). Thus, it is far safer to go to a trained
professional herbalist to receive a more regulated herbal product than to purchase an
over-the-counter one.
Herbal medicines can interact with prescription drugs, so individuals have to be
careful when using both at the same time (Winston and Maimes 2007). Individuals must
also be careful when using herbal remedies that do not have a well-established efficacy.
Previous clinical trials have focused on testing efficacy of commonly used single herbs
or on chemicals extracted from the herbs. This way of testing efficacy is ineffective
because herbalists use compounds of herbal mixtures with single herbs used less
commonly (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). In order to test
efficacy more effectively, clinical trials must study the entire herbal compounds, as they
are used in traditional alternative medicine.
There is also a lack of consistency in clinical trials as there are no regulations
over quality control of manufacturing herbal products. The same type of herb can

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contain varying levels of chemical compounds based on the way it is manufactured or

grown (Snodgrass 2001:724-737). The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
(DHSEA) laws govern labeling and claims made by herbal products, not on the quality
control of manufacturing herbal medicine (Ernst 2004:985-988). The United States
Pharmacopoeias (USP) sets the official standards for pharmaceuticals and regulates all
health care products manufactured and sold in the United States, (Winston and Maimes
2007) but they do not test efficacy. They only make sure that labeling is correct and that
what is in the product matches the label. I included in my research the practitioners
beliefs on efficacy of herbal medicine as a way to analyze its effectiveness due to the
lack of information from clinical trials.
As part of my research, I compared the alternative healing systems of Chinese
and Native American medicine to other alternative healing traditions such as the
Cherokee and Lakota traditional style of healing, and then looked for consistencies
within Native American medicine. I used David Winston as a point of comparison in my
research because he is a practicing herbalist also trained as a traditional Cherokee
healer. Winston has written multiple books describing the herbal compounds, treatments
and remedies that he uses on patients. In Winstons An Introduction to Herbal
Medicine (2012), he asserts that although herbs are growing in popularity they are still
poorly understood. Most people equate natural with being harmless, which is not the
case with herbal medicine. Winston describes how in Cherokee medicine they divide
the herbs into three categories: food, medicine, and poisonous. Some examples of food
herbs that can be utilized as subsistence are lemon balm, ginger, garlic, chamomile,
hawthorn, rose hips, nettles and dandelion root. Herbs used for medicine need to be

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used more carefully with a deeper knowledge and understanding. Some examples of
herbs used for medicine are blue and black cohosh, ephedra, goldenseal, Jamaica
dogwood, and Oregon grape root. Certain dangers and toxicities can be associated with
herbal medicine, which is why there is a category for poisonous herbs. Poisonous herbs
are toxic, even deadly, if ingested. Some examples of poisonous herbs include datura,
male fern, aconite, belladonna, and henbane (Winston 2012). Over the years, a few
herbs have been mislabeled as toxic or poisonous due to inaccurate clinical trials. For
example, Echinacea is a popular herb used to prevent and treat colds. It received bad
publicity in the past because of a test that came out claiming it was a harmful
hepatotoxic, when in fact it is not. Winston equates this lack of knowledge on herbal
efficacy to a lack of knowledge of phytochemistry, the chemical make-up of plants
(Winston 2012). I used Winstons knowledge and training in Chinese and Cherokee
medicine as a point of comparison in my research to look at consistencies within
Chinese and Native American medicine. I compared Winstons approach of alternative
medicine to the approach taken by the Chinese and Native American herbalists from my
interviews.
Theoretical approach
For the theoretical approach of my research, I applied the four theories of
ethnomedicine, biomedicine, pharmacovigilance, and Dumonts theory of holism.
Ethnomedicine is the study of different cultural approaches to health, disease, and
illness and the nature of the local healing systems (Anderson 1992:1-14). I used the
theoretical approach of ethnomedicine to analyze the different approaches of herbal use
among the complementary and alternative medicine healing systems of Chinese

14

medicine and Native American medicine. I used ethnomedicine as a starting point to

help frame my research and to assist with designing the interview questions.
Ethnomedicine allowed me analyze the different types and styles of herbal medicine
employed by herbalists in complementary and alternative medicine systems of healing.
Next, I applied the theoretical approach of biomedicine to study the different
clinical approaches each herbalist followed when manufacturing and preparing the
herbal products. Biomedicine is the study of the different biological and physiological
principles of clinical practice and can be used to study different clinical approaches
employed by each herbalist in complementary and alternative medicine (Van der Geest
and Whyte 1989: 345367). Biomedicine is significant to my research because it helps
me examine the manufacturing regulations that govern herbal medicines as well as the
beliefs and practices surrounding herbalism. With more research conducted towards
gaining a stronger understanding of health and illness, we can better understand the
efficacy of herbal medicine, the reasons behind why it is successful in treating illness
and disease, and what regulations need to be enforced to ensure it is distributed
properly and safely.
I then applied the theoretical approach of pharmacovigilance in order to analyze
the data gathered from my interviews on the safety, contaminants, and manufacturing
risks surrounding herbal medicine. Pharmacovigilance is defined as the study of the
safety of marketed drugs and their clinical use in the local healing systems.
Pharmacovigilance is essential to developing reliable information on the safety and
efficacy of herbal medicines. Tags or labels on herbal products are often overlooked
because people assume that natural means safe, which is inaccurate. As herbal

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medicines increase in popularity and use, so do the reports of toxins and unwanted or
adverse side effects. Quality control issues, such as adulterated, contaminated, or
misbranded herbal products, cause toxicity in herbal medicines. Herbs can also have
varying levels of chemical compounds based on the geographical location they are
grown or on the genotype of the plants. Some other factors that can influence the
chemical levels of herbs include harvesting time and environmental conditions such as
storage, processing, extraction, and combining the herbs into compound formulas. I
applied this concept of pharmacovigilance to analyze the data gathered from my
interviews on the possible manufacturing contaminants and risks surrounding the use of
herbal medicine (Shaw et al. 2012:513-518).
Lastly, after I gathered all my data from the interviews and field notes, I applied
Dumonts (1980) theory of holism to further illustrate how these alternative systems of
healing illuminate the relationship between the whole person and their parts, and how
those systems of healing include treating the whole person in order to treat the affected
parts. Dumonts (1980) theory of holism is based on a social hierarchy not as a chain of
power, dignity, or commands, but around the idea of encompassing the contrary.
Encompassing the contrary means that an element belongs to a set, viewed as identical
to it, however it is also distinct, and set apart, as an opposition to the set. For Dumont
(1980), hierarchy can be categorized into superior and inferior parts but as a whole,
there is simultaneously unity and distinction between them. Chinese and Native
American healing systems believe in holistically treating the whole body rather than
solely focusing on the specific parts affected. They believe that all parts of the body are
interconnected and defined with reference to the whole and that ultimately a patients

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treatment should encompass physical, psychological, and social aspects (Winston

2003:10; personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Methodology Chapter
Sample
The choice of participants in my research is based on the access I had to local
practicing herbalists in the Tampa area, and their willingness to participate in the study.
In my research, I target sampled two different herbalists approaches to herbalism as a
comparative sample of complementary and alternative medicine healing systems. I also
target sampled their most commonly used herbs and the benefits and risks of using
those herbal remedies. The different styles of complementary and alternative medicine
sampled were Chinese herbal medicine, and Native American herbal medicine. I also
compared the different ways each herbalist manufactured, gathered and prepared the
herbal medicines they employed in clinical practice. I targeted an herbalist that is more
corporate and orders herbal products from large manufacturing companies and a
smaller scale herbalist that grows and manufactures their own herbal products. I used
referral sampling from each herbalist during the interviews, to put me in contact with
other practicing herbalists as to gain a larger sample size.
Research Sites
For my literature review, the research was conducted in the library through the
online anthropology databases. The research and data collection of my interviews was
done online through email, regular mail, and actually meeting up face-to-face with the
herbalist at their local place of business. The local Chinese herbalist office I am using in

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my study is located in St. Petersburg, Florida. I analyzed all data collected at the
University of South Florida library.
Methods
As a way to collect data, I conducted a literary analysis on articles and books
relating to the efficacy, beliefs, and practices of herbal medicine in alternative healing
systems. I utilized my findings from the literature review to examine what I learned and
gathered from the data collected from my interviews. As part of my research, I
conducted semi-structured interviews of a Chinese and a Native American herbalist
about their beliefs and practices in regards to the herbs they use to treat illnesses. The
interviews were conducted at a place of convenience for herbalists: either online
through email or actually meeting up at the herbalists place of business with field notes
taken.
The Native American herbalist interview was done through regular mail and email
with field notes taken on her responses. To interview the Chinese herbalist, I went to
his place of business and recorded my notes using a tape recorder as well as taking
extensive field notes on his responses. Included in my methods regarding the Chinese
herbalist interview was a workplace observation used to compile data on where the
herbs were gathered or combined. During the workplace observation, I focused on
collecting data regarding the manufacturing of herbal products because contaminants
such as pesticides and heavy metals can be introduced to herbal products during the
manufacturing or combination process.

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The adverse effects of herbal medicine may be attributed to the quality, or rather
poor quality, of the manufacturing and production of these herbal products. The issues
associated with quality of herbal medicine can be divided into two categories: external
and internal. Internal and external factors can affect both the quality of herbal medicine
and the products sold. Some examples of external factors include toxic metals,
pesticides, and microbes. Internal factors include non-uniform ingredients (Zhang et al.
2012:100-106). I used the list of internal and external factors affecting the quality of
herbal medicine from the Zhang study and built upon it while conducting my own
interviews. During the interviews, I asked each herbalist if they knew of any factors
having a direct connection to the products they use, sell, and manufacture. Lastly, I
applied this idea of internal and external factors affecting the quality of herbal products
during my workplace observation of the Chinese herbalist (Zhang et al. 2012:100-106).
Data collected from the herbalists on the efficacy of the herbal remedies was
used to determine if the herbal products are safe or not by providing a list of risks and
possible drug interactions to avoid. Included in the interviews, I inquired about how the
proper dosage of each herbal product is determined and how are they administered.
(See Appendix A for full set of interview questions). I also targeted the herbs that were
used most often by each of the herbalists. After the conclusion of the interviews and
data collection, I analyzed and compared the different types of herbs used by each of
the herbalists. I also compared the different types of alternative medicine employed by
each herbalist as a comparative study of complementary and alternative medicine
healing systems. The herbalists interviewed gave their own interpretation of the

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alternative healing system that each employs and the herbal products which are most
commonly used.
An angle of my project that I used to deepen my analysis was to compare the
local alternative healing systems of Chinese and Native American medicine to other
alternative healing traditions. I also looked at consistencies within Native American
medicine by comparing my findings to other traditional Native American styles of
healing, such as the Cherokee and Lakota. David Winston was also used as a point of
comparison in my research because he is a practicing Chinese herbalist also trained as
a traditional Cherokee healer (Winston 2012). Using Winston in my research allows me
to further my analysis on the consistencies within Chinese and Native American
medicine. I also collected data from another semi-structured interview with the head of
the local University of South Florida organization Complementary Alternative and
Naturopathic Medicine (CANM), through email and field notes taken on responses. I
examined how CANM increases awareness of herbal medicine to students and the
community, as well as how they inform the public not only of benefits but also of the
possible risks associated with certain herbal products.
Data Analysis
For my data analysis, I analyzed the data extracted from the literature review and
each herbalist to determine if there is a general theory to how or why herbal medicine
works. I then gathered data and compared the different styles of complementary and
alternative medicine employed by the Chinese herbalist and Native American herbalist.
From my interviews, recordings, and field notes I analyzed the beliefs and practices of

20

Chinese medicine and Native American medicine in regards to the herbal medicine they
use to cure illness and disease. I did this by asking each herbalist about his or her
clinical practice and beliefs about using herbal medicine.
From the data collected during the interviews, I analyzed the possible benefits and
risks of using herbal medicine as well as how the herbs are administered with proper
dosage. I did this by inquiring if the herbalist informed patients of all benefits and risks
before prescribing the herbal medicines and how they were administered to patients.
Proper dosage for the Chinese herbalist was established by age, sex and weight
(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). I then asked the Chinese and
Native American herbalist which herbs they used most often. Each of the two herbalists
interviewed gave their own interpretation of the commonly used herbs and their
individual type of complementary and alternative medicine.
Included in my data analysis is a list of all possible manufacturing risks, to examine if
the efficacy or quality of herbal medicine is influenced by manufacturing contaminants. I
analyzed manufacturing risks to determine if there needs to be more quality control over
manufacturing and producing herbal medicines. Also included in my analysis was how
Chinese and Native American medicine beliefs and practices differ from the culturally
defined western model of healing. The Western model of healing with pharmaceuticals
is viewed by many as harmful, invasive, too powerful, and in direct conflict with
complementary and alternative healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279).
Next, I analyzed the data collected from the semi-structured interview with
CANM. I examined how CANM increases awareness of herbal medicine to students and

21

the community, as well as how they inform the public not only of benefits but also of the
possible risks associated with certain herbal products. CANM increases awareness of
herbal medicines to students and the community by holding meetings on campus with
guest speakers trained in herbalism or other complementary and alternative systems of
healing. These guest speakers bring with them a vast understanding of herbal
medicines and they are more than willing to answer any questions one has.
Finally, as a way to deepen my analysis, I compared the alternative healing systems
of Chinese and Native American medicine to other alternative medicine traditions I
researched in my literature review. While conducting the literature review I found two
studies that were significant to my research. The first study was on Ethnopharmacology
and examined the side effects of using herbal medicines and conventional drugs used
at the same time. Ethnopharmacology can be used to study the safety of traditional
herbal medicines. With the increased use of herbal medicine, comes an increase in
cases of adverse or unwanted side effects, such as abnormal liver function. The Jeonga
et al study sampled three hundred and thirteen patients using herbal medicine while in
the hospital. Fifty-seven patients received only herbal medicine for treatment and two
hundred and fifty-six patients received both herbal medicine and conventional drugs for
treatment. The study showed that none of the patients in the herbal medicine only group
showed signs of abnormal liver function. However, six people in the combined herbal
medicine and conventional drug group showed signs of abnormal liver function. The
results of this study are significant to the data analysis of my research because it shows
that when herbal medicine is used alone it is relatively safe, but the risk of adverse or

22

unwanted side effects increases when herbal medicine and conventional drugs are
taken at the same time (Jeonga et al. 2012).
The second significant study from my literature review examines herbalism from
Northern Peru. The Bussmann et al. study researches the herbal ingredients used in
traditional medicine in Northern Peru. The researchers gathered plants in the markets
and in the homes of the traditional healers, known as curanderos. Collecting nine
hundred and seventy-four different herbal preparations used to treat one hundred and
sixty-four different afflictions. The researchers used cluster analysis to group the similar
herbs together. Their data showed what family of plant species the medical herbs
belonged to and how many diseases they were each used to treat. Concluding that the
local healers understand the complexity of treating disease because they carefully
chose remedies based on the underlying cause of the aliment or disease (Bussmann et
al. 2010:1-10). This study is relevant to the data analysis part of my research because
it explains the way herbs are categorized and the extensive traditional knowledge that is
utilized by these alternative healing systems, while using herbal medicines. The
Bussmann et al. study was used to deepen my analysis by comparing the traditional
herbal medicine used in Northern Peru to the herbal medicine styles from my interviews
with the Chinese and Native American herbalist.
Results
The beliefs and practices surrounding Native American herbal medicine are
centered on the idea of a supreme God known as the Creator, the Great One, or the
Great Spirit. Herbal medicine and everything else in nature was created by the Great

23

Spirit and is viewed as part of him (Lame Deer 1972:198). The Great Spirit is one, yet
he is many. He is part of the sun and the sun is part of him. He can be in a thunderbird
or in an animal or plant (Lame Deer 1972:198). This quote exemplifies the Native
American belief that the Great Spirit is in all of nature and all of nature is the Great
Spirit.
The Native American herbalist from my interview describes herself as a Native
American Ethnobotanist. She was trained to be a Naturalpathic Doctor (ND) but turned
it down because as such she would have to give up her spiritual beliefs as a Native
American healer. She requires patients to sign a waiver stating they know that she is a
Native American healer not a medical doctor. Her method of treatment is not to talk
about disease but rather she does biofeedback work and energy balancing by talking to
patients about stressors in their life and ways to reduce that stress. She teaches people
about diet and lifestyle changes as well as how the systems of the body work or do not
work (personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
According to the Chinese herbalist, the beliefs and practices of Chinese medicine
are centered on what he describes as the construct of yin and yang. This construct of
yin and yang describes all things in the world as in constant transition and balance.
They transform into one other and are viewed as mutually dependent of each other.
According to him, yin and yang are rarely practiced in Chinese herbal medicine but the
construct of this concept that everything is in constant balance is used as a different set
of beliefs in the practice. Chinese herbal medicine is a different paradigm that uses
observational based medicine by looking at patterns of disharmony in the body
(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

24

The Chinese herbalist from my interview has a PhD in Chinese medicine that he
received from a four years masters program in St. Petersburg, Florida. He is also selftaught in Western herbal medicine from knowledge he acquires through books and
conferences. After his schooling, he opened a unique multi-practitioner and multimodality practice for alternative medicine located in St. Petersburg. His clinic is unique
because it offers four acupuncturists, a massage therapist, a mental health therapist, a
MD, and a Chiropractor. His practice also offers a two-year herbal training program for
students. The students are supervised but get clinical practice through a low cost
community outreach program. This program allows individuals to come get a health
evaluation and recommendation for herbal medicines from the students at a lower cost
than his regular clinic (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).
According to the Chinese herbalist some examples of manufacturing
contaminates that can affect the quality of herbal medicine include toxic heavy metals,
pesticides, and microbes (Zhang et al. 2012:100-106). He controls for these
manufacturing risks by ordering his herbs from a credible distributor and asking for a
copy of the spec sheets on testing before he purchases new herbal products. He also
always tests the herbs on himself first to look for side effects such as digestive trouble
or insomnia. The Native American herbalist notes that factors such as where the herbs
are harvested, the location they are grown, and the frame of mind of the person
gathering the herbs can all affect the quality of herbal products. She controls for these
factors by growing herbs at home and having the knowledge and information on which
herbs are the best to use and what they are used for (personal communication,
Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).

25

The DSHEA and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) are the laws that govern
herbal manufacturing and labeling in the United States (personal communication,
Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Herbs are classified as dietary substances not
prescription drugs. Unlike prescription drugs, dietary supplements do not have to claim
to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent illness. Because medical herbs are classified as
dietary supplements, they can be produced and sold in the marketed without testing or
proven the safety and efficacy (Bent 2008:854-859). DSHEA/GMP laws regulate the
herbs with known risks, or herbs that have false or misleading claims. DSHEA regulates
if herbs have been adulterated or misbranded, if so the FDA takes action. DSHEA and
GMP laws only regulate labeling and false claims they do not regulate the quality control
of manufacturing herbal products or the chemical levels of the herbs (Kamboj 2000:3539; personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The efficacy of herbal
products will remain uncertain unless there are changes to regulate the standardization
of herbal products (Bent 2008:854-859).
Winstons book on Herbal Therapeutics (2003) provides guidelines for how to
stay safe when using herbal remedies. He recommends when using an herb for the first
time to that you only take one quarter of the recommended dosage to make sure you do
not have an adverse reaction to the herb. Following the proper recommended dosage is
very important, more does not mean better with herbal medicine. If you are pregnant or
breast feeding, make sure you know which herbs are safe to use because during
pregnancy, a majority of herbs can be harmful to the mother and the baby if ingested.
Taking prescription drugs and herbal medicine at the same time can have unwanted or
adverse reactions, it is recommended to always check with an expert herbalist before

26

consuming both types of medicine (Winston 2003:10-14). By better knowing the benefits
and risks associated with an herb, one can determine if an herbal product is safe to use
or not.
I then applied Dumonts (1980) theory of holism and part/whole relations to
illustrate further how these alternative systems of Chinese and Native American
medicine illuminate the relationship between the whole person and their parts, and how
those systems of healing include treating the whole person and organs in order to treat
the affected parts (Dumont 1980). Dumonts theory of holism is the idea of hierarchies
being based upon the idea of encompassing the contrary (Dumont 1980).
Encompassing the contrary means that an element belongs to a set, viewed as
identical to it on one level; however, it is also distinct, and set apart, as an opposition to
the set on another level. For Dumont (1980), hierarchy can be categorized into superior
and inferior parts but as a whole, there is simultaneously unity and distinction between
them. Chinese and Native American healing systems believe in holistically treating the
whole body and organs rather than focusing solely on the specific parts affected. They
believe that all parts of the body are interconnected and defined with reference to the
whole and that ultimately a patients treatment should encompass physical,
psychological, and social aspects (Winston 2003:10; personal communication,
Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). Chinese herbal medicine also views
the body organs as being in a system of hierarchy with the five primary zong organs,
which are the heart, liver, lungs, spleen, and kidneys (personal communication, Robert
Linde, April 10, 2013).

27

A major difference between Chinese and Native American medicine is the beliefs
about the general theories to why herbal medicine is effective. The Chinese herbalist
believes the general theory to why herbal medicine works is because they do not looks
at organs as singular but rather they look at the whole body for answers. Chinese
medicine looks at seasonal patterns and the rotation of planets around the sun, as the
rotation of everything changes so do our bodies (personal communication, Robert
Linde, April 10, 2013). On the other hand, the Native American herbalist believes the
general theory to why herbal medicine works is because The Creator did a great job,
science is not needed to correct his work (personal communication, Yakoswathete of
the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). She believes that all the components in herbal
medicine were put there purposely for the best results and that herbs are the Creators
form of food used as fuel for healthy bodies (personal communication, Yakoswathete of
the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Another major difference is the types of commonly used herbal medicines they
preferred to use. Native American herbalists mostly used whole herbs whereas the
Chinese herbalists mostly used powdered solutions of herbs. The Native American
herbalist believes that what you need grows where you are and each person should use
different herbs depending on where he or she lives and what grows there. The herbs
she uses most commonly are jewelweed, dandelion, mullein, plantain, rosehips, witch
hazel, cedar, violets, wintergreen, spearmint, peppermint, burdock, Echinacea,
hydrangea, red clover, red raspberry, and bergamot (personal communication,
Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). The Chinese herbalist believes that
it is better to use herbs from all over the world because you gain a wider vary of herb

28

benefits and treatments. For example, he uses herbs from China, North America, South
America, and hopes to expand to Africa in the near future. The Chinese herbalist uses
powdered concentrated solutions of single herbs, which are combined and customized
for each patient. To make the powdered solution 100 pounds of a single herb are
cooked down into a mud like consistency then sprayed with a starch binder. According
to the Chinese herbalist, using powdered concentrated solutions is unique and only
used in Chinese medicine. The herbal compounds he used most frequently are curing
pills, chuan xin lian, bupleurum dragon bone oyster shell teapills (chai hu long gu mu li
wan), Trauma 1 formula, and xanthium and magnolia formula (personal communication,
Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Curing pills are used for acute symptoms of food
stagnation and contain poria, coix, magnolia, atractylodes, agastache, pueraria,
angelica, auchlandia, massa fermentata, trichosanthes, chrysanthemum, citrus,
gastrodia, and menthe. Chuan xin lian translates as andrographis fight inflammation
pills. It is a strong antiviral containing the herbs andrographis, taraxacum, and isatis.
Bupleurum dragon bone oyster shell teapills (chai hu long gu mu li wan) are used for
anxiety, neurotic disorders, and irregular hearts that are worse at rest, it contains
bupleurum, pinellia, poria, cinnamomum, scutellaria, zizyphus jujube, condonopsis,
draconis, ostrea, zingiberis, and rheum. Trauma 1 formula is used immediately after a
trauma or injury to stop inflammation and swelling so that healing is not hindered, it
contains peach kernel, persica seed, forsythia fruit, honeysuckle flower, lonicera,
safflower, carthamus flower, frankincense, myrrh, skullcap root, scutellaria, scute, tang
kuei root, bupleurum root, rhubarb root and rhizome, Chinese angelica root, and licorice
root. Xanthium and magnolia formula is used to treat severe nasal congestion, it

29

contains purple angelica, xanthium fruit, Siberian cocklebur, magnolia flower, Chinese
red peony, Chinese lovage, ligusticum, ligusticum wallichii rhizome, tetrapanax, rice
paper plant pith, kudzu root, pueraria, Chinese licorice root, and green tea leaf
(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).
The complementary and alternative medicine belief systems of Chinese medicine
and Native American medicine differ because Native American medicine has a Supreme
God that they believe gave them plant medicine whereas Chinese medicine used a
construct centered on the idea of yin and yang and two opposing forces that consume
each other. The Chinese herbalist believes yin and yang consume each other because
if one imagines the yin and yang symbols as two snakes, they are both consuming the
tail of the other. He also believes that in every part of yin, there is yang and in every part
of yang, there is yin, which describes this idea of all things in the world as in constant
transition and balance with each other (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,
2013). Another major difference is the location in which each herbalist obtained his or
her supply of herbs. For personal use, the Native American herbalist gathered her herbs
from her own back yard and for her clients she purchases commercially prepared
bottled herbs. She also teaches her clients how to identify, gather, and use herbal
medicines (personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6,
2013). The Chinese herbalist makes sure he purchases his herbal products from a
credible distributing company, his Western herbs come from Star West in California and
his Chinese herbs come from May Way in China (personal communication, Robert
Linde, April 10, 2013).

30

A common quality control test employed by both the Chinese herbalist and Native
American herbalist when receiving the herbal products from the manufacturer is
organoleptic characterization. One simply smells, tastes, and looks to identify visually
the herb as the correct one you wish to use. Organoleptic characterization is not an
accurate way to test if the herbal product was contaminated during the manufacturing
process because you cannot see visually see or smell contaminants and tasting the
contaminant is extremely rare, unless it contains large amounts of heavy metals
(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013 ). The Chinese herbalist uses
chromatography in addition to organoleptic characterization as a more accurate way to
test for heavy metals. Testing herbs with chromatography ensures that the
manufacturing companies are held to a higher standard of quality control of
manufacturing herbal medicines (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,
2013).
One similarity between the Native American herbalist and the Chinese herbalists
is that both informed patients of the benefits and risks of using herbal medicine by
teaching them about the herbs. The Native American herbalist teaches her clients about
herbs and offers books suggestions on any herbal medicines they choose to use.
However, she does not prescribe herbal medicine, but rather teaches her clients using
pamphlet information to identify and gather the herbs for themselves, in conjunction with
her or individually (personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April
6, 2013). The Chinese herbalist gives his patients pamphlets on the herbal medicine he
prescribes. The pamphlets list what the herbs are used for and any possible herb/drug
interactions. He also provides pamphlets translating the complicated ideas of Chinese

31

medicine for the consumer to understand (personal communication, Robert Linde, April
10, 2013). Kava is an example of an herb commonly used to treat anxiety. Kava is
associated with both high benefits and risks, and several cases have reported liver
damage from using kava (Ernst 2004:985-988). The Chinese herbalist stated that the
liver damage reports from using kava are incorrect because they reports fail to
document all substances a person is using at the time of liver damage and doctors just
assume that it is the herb causing it. Most people mix kava with alcohol, and alcohol is
known to cause liver damage. Further research is needed on the known risks of kava to
determine if in fact it causes liver damage or if there are other factors at work such as
alcohol consumption (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).
Another major similarity is that they both employ the use of herbal medicine to
treat illness and disease and believe that illness is defined as a disharmony of the body.
A disharmony of the body means that the body is not working together in harmony and
there is less holism for the individual. Chinese and Native American medicine both
employ a more holistic theory of treatment than in the culturally defined western model
of healing. Chinese and Native American healing systems believe in holistically treating
the whole body rather than focusing on the specific parts affected. They believe that all
parts of the body are interconnected and defined with reference to the whole and that
ultimately a patients treatment should encompass physical, psychological, and social
aspects. Another similarity is that both the Native American herbalist and the Chinese
herbalist were patients first and then got interested in practicing herbal medicine
because of their experiences with its successful treatments. Both herbalists also
stressed that diet and lifestyle changes were a big part of their beliefs and practice of

32

alternative medicine (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013,

Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Native American medicine beliefs center around a holistic style of healing the
whole person, both body and mind using numerous types of plants, roots and herbs
found in nature, along with rituals songs, ceremonies, dancing and drumming (Lame
Deer 1972). Winston asserts that a holistic approach to herbal medicine is the most
effective way of addressing the underlying cause of imbalance in the body rather than
focusing a specific disease (Winston 2003:10). Some consistencies within Native
American Medicine are that they believe in a supreme Creator also referred to as the
Great Spirit who created all of nature and plant based herbal medicines (Lame Deer
1972:198). They also use similar Western herbs and herbal formulas to heal and treat
disease such as dandelion, mullein, witch hazel, cedar, peppermint, ginseng,
Echinacea, hydrangea, red clover, and bergamot. A common practice with Native
Americans when gathering herbs is to only pick every fourth plant you come across to
ensure it is around for future generations to use (Mooney 2008: 64). The Cherokee
believe plant medicine has the power to regain and maintain proper health of the mind,
body, and spirit. Native Americans believe that every plant has a special power and
purpose to heal diseases given to them by the Creator or Great Spirit (Mooney 1890:44;
Garrett and Garrett 2002:118-119).
Traditional herbal medicine is used internationally and its beliefs and practices
differ from western medicine model of healing. Many people view western
pharmaceuticals as harmful, invasive, too powerful, and in direct conflict with alternative
medicine healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277-279). The Native American herbalist

33

believes that the culturally defined western model of healing is best suited for
emergencies, repair, reconstruction and in times of war. She believes that western
doctors only look for a set of symptoms that they can make go away. Most often, what
ends up happening is that the recommended solution causes a different set of
symptoms that now require another medication for treatment. In other words, western
pharmaceutical doctors are just putting band-aids on problems that cause more
problems. A major difference between Western medical doctors and Chinese and Native
American herbal medicine is that these alternative medicine systems focus a large part
of their treatment on lifestyle and diet changes based on proper nutrition. On the other
hand, Western medical doctors mostly focus on new prescription drugs and on how to
identify illness and disease rather than curing individuals (personal communication,
Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Another field were Chinese and Native American herbal medicine differs from
culturally defined Western medicine is in the treatment of cancers. Western medicine
has three ways of dealing with cancer treatment. They can cut it out, burn it off with
radiation or treat is with chemotherapy. A combination of all three treatments can also
be utilized (personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6,
2013). Western medicine doctors only try to eliminate the cancers they do not look for
its underlying cause. According to Western medicine, early detection for cancer is
necessary because finding cancer early enough can add twelve days to the life person
suffering from breast cancer. The Native American herbalist stated that when it comes to
cancer Western medicine doctors do not talk about prevention, or the importance of a
good diet and healthy lifestyle, they are only concerned with detecting it early or getting

34

rid of it rather than preventing it in the first place (personal communication,

Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
The Chinese herbalist from my interviews believes that western medicine is
superior in its diagnostics, CT scans, and biopsies of cancer. He believes that Chinese
medicine is superior in determining what organs the cancer originated from and where it
will spread it next. This is because Chinese medicine has the unique ability to see the
root of cancer because they see the emotional influence of things such as holding on to
the loss of a loved one causing chi stagnation leading to physical manifestations of
illness and disease (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The
Chinese herbalist also believes that it is better to work with Western medicine and
oncologists when treating aggressive cancers. He works with the oncologists and helps
minimize the effects of chemotherapy and radiation. Both chemotherapy and radiation
can cause your white and red blood cells levels to drops, which causes you to stop
treatments. The Chinese herbalist can use diet and herbal medicines to monitor the red
and white blood cell levels ensuring the continuity of chemotherapy and treatment
(personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). He can also minimize the
nausea, diarrhea, diet, and hair loss associated with chemotherapy cancer treatments.
The Chinese herbalist uses shiitake and reishi mushrooms as a way to increase the
effectiveness of chemotherapy. He helps cancer patients by providing them with what
questions to ask the oncologist about their care and treatment while also providing a list
of counseling, group therapy, and cancer support groups (personal communication,
Robert Linde, April 10, 2013).

35

Conclusion
In conclusion, I examined the beliefs and practices surrounding herbal medicine
by comparing and contrasting the alternative healing systems of Chinese medicine and
Native American medicine and then applying the paradigm of Dumonts (1980)
part/whole relations to my findings. Herbal remedies are mostly compounds and
mixtures of various types of herbs used to treat illness and disease throughout the
entire body. Chinese and Native American medicine employ a different set of beliefs
regarding herbal medicine. Native Americans believe that every plant has a special
power and purpose to heal diseases given to them by the Creator (Mooney 1890:44;
Garrett and Garrett 2002:118-119). On the other hand, Chinese medicine uses a
construct centered on the idea of yin and yang and all things in the world as in constant
transition and balance. Another difference between these two systems is that the
Chinese herbalist used single herbs less commonly than herbal compounds of powered
concentrated herb formulas. He believes that herbs are more effective when combined
together and that it is better to use herbs from all over the world to gain more benefits of
most effective treatments (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The
Native American herbalist mostly use whole herbs gathered from her local area because
she believes that every herb you need grows in your local area (personal
communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
As for a general theory to why herbal medicine works, the Chinese herbalist
believes that herbal medicine works because they do not looks at organs as singular but
rather they holistically look at the whole body for answers (personal communication,
Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The Native American herbalist believes that all the

36

components in herbal medicine were put there purposely for the best results and that
herbs are the Creators form of food used as fuel for healthy bodies (personal
communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Chinese medicine and Native American medicine both employ a more holistic
theory of treatment than in the culturally defined western model of healing. Chinese and
Native American healing systems believe in holistically treating the whole body rather
than solely focusing on the specific parts affected. Both believe that all parts of the
body are interconnected, and defined with reference to the whole, and that ultimately a
patients treatment should encompass physical, psychological, and social aspects
(Winston 2003:10; personal communication, Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April
6, 2013). Chinese herbal medicine also views the body organs as being in a system of
hierarchy with the five primary zong organs, which are the heart, liver, lungs, spleen,
and kidneys (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Dumonts (1980)
theory of holism illustrates how this hierarchy can be categorized into superior and
inferior parts but as a whole, there is simultaneously unity and distinction between them.
Many people view western pharmaceuticals as harmful, invasive, too powerful,
and in direct conflict with alternative medicine healing systems (Whyte et al. 2004:277279). A major difference between Western medicine and Chinese and Native American
medicine is that the alternative healing systems described in this thesis, focus a large
part of their treatment on lifestyle and diet changes based on proper nutrition. On the
other hand, Western medical doctors mostly focus on new prescription drugs and on
how to identify illness and disease rather than curing individuals. The Native American
herbalist believes that the culturally defined western model of healing is best suited for

37

emergencies, repair, reconstruction and in times of war (personal communication,

Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013).
Herbs are classified as dietary substances not prescription drugs. Unlike
prescription drugs, dietary supplements do not have to claim to diagnose, cure, treat, or
prevent illness. Because medical herbs are classified as dietary supplements, they can
be produced and sold in the marketed without testing or proven safety and efficacy
(Bent 2008:854-859). China does not regulate herbal medicine even though they are
one of the leading distributers of herbal products (personal communication, Robert
Linde, April 10, 2013). DSHEA and GMP are the laws that govern herbal manufacturing
and labeling in the United States (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10,
2013). DSHEA and GMP laws regulate the herbs with known risks, or herbs that have
false or misleading claims. DSHEA regulates if herbs have been adulterated or
misbranded, if so the FDA takes action. DSHEA and GMP laws only regulate labeling
and false claims they do not regulate the quality control of manufacturing herbal
products or the chemical levels of the herbs (Kamboj 2000:35-39; personal
communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). The efficacy of herbal products will
remain uncertain unless there are changes to regulate standardization of herbal
products.
Consumers need to educate themselves about herbal medicine rather than
exploring different over-the-counter market products to avoid adverse reactions. One
needs to be aware of what herbs one is ingesting and of all possible risks and drug
interactions of each herb to avoid adverse side effects. The efficacy of herbal medicine
can be complicated because each plant contains a diverse number of chemical

38

compounds even within the same species (Winston and Maimes 2007). The same plant
species can have varying levels of chemicals based on the way it is manufactured or
grown (Zhang et al. 2012:100-106). A solution to this problem is implementing better
manufacturing, collection and production standards for the herbal products.
With more research conducted on gaining a stronger understanding of health and
illness, we can better understand the efficacy of herbal medicine, the reasons behind
why it is successful in treating illness and disease, and what regulations need to be
enforced to ensure it is distributed properly and safely. My research is significant
because I examined manufacturing risks involved with preparing herbal medicines and
showed the need for testing for possible manufacturing risks before using store bought
herbal products. Another reason is that my research shows the need for standardizing
the chemical levels of herbal products because the same type of herb can contain
varying levels of chemical compounds based on the area it is grown or how it is
manufactured. Standardizing the chemical levels of herbal products would make testing
efficacy more consistent in clinical trials. Lastly, my research is significant because can
directly influence the way we view our own medical beliefs and practices by drawing our
attention to the possible alternatives of a more preventative, less invasive, and less
costly system of healing through herbal medicines. This includes documenting
alternative ways of conceptualizing illness, healing, and the importance of holistic
treatments. Upon concluding my research, I am reminded of a quote by the Lakota
medicine man Lame Deer (1972:137) All of nature is in me, and a bit of myself is in all
of nature. This is consistent with Dumonts (1980) idea of holism that on one level there
is unity but also simultaneously distinction on another level. The alternative healing

39

systems described in this thesis are consistent with how Lame Deer saw the
relationship between humanity and nature. We are part of nature and herbs are part of
nature; therefore, because of the connection herbal medicine should work
synergistically with the body to heal. Both Chinese and Native American medicine
beliefs center around the concept that we are simultaneously connected and dependent
on nature, while also being influenced by our environment. Recalling David Winstons
idea at the beginning of the thesis, humans have evolved the ability to absorb and
digest the bioactive chemical compounds found in plants (Winston 2003:10). This again
shows the connection between humans and plants and the logic behind why they
should work to heal.
Implications
Future research is needed on continuing to comparatively study alternative
systems of healing in order gain the possible benefits of a more preventative, less
invasive, and less costly system of healing. Previous clinical trials on the benefits and
efficacy of herbal medicine have focused on single herbs or chemicals extracted from
the herbs rather than studying herbal compounds as whole. From my comparative
research, I gathered that herbalists use single herbs less commonly than herbal
compounds (personal communication, Robert Linde, April 10, 2013). Therefore, clinical
trials testing efficacy on single herbs are ineffective. A more reliable method to test
efficacy and possible benefits would be to study the herbs in compound form as they
are used in alternative systems of healing.

40

Another lack of consistency in clinical trials to test the efficacy of herbal medicine
comes from the fact that there are no standards to regulating the quality of
manufacturing herbal products. Future research needs to be conducted on the quality
control of manufacturing herbal products because currently there are no regulations
over the quality control of manufacturing herbal products to prevent contaminants, such
as heavy metals and pesticides from polluting the finished herbal products sold in
stores. If one buys over-the-counter herbal medicines, there is an increased risk of
using contaminated products that can alter the safety and effectiveness of the herbs.
Therefore, it is safer and more effective to go to a trained professional herbalist to
receive a more regulated herbal product and a proper dosage for your age, sex, and
weight.
Future research is also needed on the chemical levels or chemical composition
of herbs. Currently there are no regulations on chemical levels or chemical composition
of herbal products. The same type of herb can have varying levels of chemical
compounds based on the way it is grown (Snodgrass 2001:724-737). The geographical
location the herbs are grown in and the way they are manufactured both effect the
quality and chemical makeup of the final product (personal communication,
Yakoswathete of the Oneida Nation, April 6, 2013). This makes testing efficacy difficult
without a standard level of chemicals for every herb. If we know the chemical
composition of herbs, we can target and regulate an average chemical level based on
different types of herbal products. My study directly influences how we see our own
medical beliefs and practices by drawing our attention to the possible alternatives of a
more preventative, less invasive, and less costly system of healing through herbal

41

medicines. This includes documenting alternative ways of conceptualizing illness,

healing, and the importance of holistic treatments.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Napora, Dr. Lende, and both my informants for their help
and assistance throughout my research.

42

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Appendix A: Interview Questions

Interview Questions:
How/why did you get interested in herbal medicine?
What made you decide to start treating patients?
How were you trained in alternative medicine?
Do you continue with ongoing trainings?
Can you describe your practice how does it work, and what do you do?
Do you bring certain beliefs in to your practice? If so, please explain.
Are there spiritual, emotional, or psychological aspects involved? If so, explain how and
why.
What type of people do you usually treat? Why do you think they choose to visit you?
Can you describe what a typical or average treatment would involve?
How do you decide which herbs to give a patient?
How do you provide patients with information on the herbs that you prescribe?
Where do you obtain your supply of herbs?
Do you mix the herbal products yourself or order them from a company/distributer?
Are there any factors that can affect the quality of the herbal products? If so, how do
you control for these factors?
Is there a general theory about how or why what you do works?
Why do you believe prescribing herbal medicine is effective?
How does herbal medicine differ from Western medicine or the Western model of
healing?
Are herbs are considered safer than western medicine?
Which aspect of your job do you like the most?