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org
A
Seminar report
on

Radar
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree
Of Mechanical

SUBMITTED TO:

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SUBMITTED BY:

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Preface
I have made this report file on the topic Radar, I have tried my best to elucidate all the relevant
detail to the topic to be included in the report. While in the beginning I have tried to give a
general view about this topic.
My efforts and wholehearted co-corporation of each and everyone has ended on a successful
note. I express my sincere gratitude to ..who assisting me throughout the prepration of
this topic. I thank him for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and most importantly the
track for the topic whenever I needed it.

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Contents

Introduction
What is Radar
Characteristics
Types
Application
Principle
Advantages
Disadvantages
Conclusion

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Introduction

Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging. A radar is an electro-magnetic device
capable of transmitting a electro-magnetic wave near 1 Ghz, receiver back a reflection from a
target and based on the characteristics of the returned signal determine things about the target.
Radars have become indispensable in several major fields of research and in commerce.

The Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) makes extensive use of radars not only to track aircraft, but
to make sure landings and take-offs are uneventful. Meteorologist use radars to track severe
weather and to estimate the amount of rainfall. Radar meteorology means many things to many
people. Depending on what your research interests is your definition may be very different from
mine. As a working definition I will use the following.

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What is Radar
Radar meteorology is the study of the atmosphere using radar as a tool.Radar Meteorology is not
a true branch of meteorology because it is use by several true branches of meteorology, such as
cloud physics and severe storms, as a tool for that particular branch.

Radar meteorology is also not a branch of radio meteorology; Radio meteorology is the study of
how electro-magnetic waves travel through the atmosphere. As such radio meteorology deal with
refraction, reflection and propagation of electro-magnetic waves.

Although these concepts are very important they are not the core of radar meteorology.

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Characteristics
Radar is a remote sensing tool in that it is not in contact with the object it is sensing Radar
measures the characteristics of the atmosphere from a distance. Further, radar is an active sensor
in that it modifies the atmosphere and then measures the atmospheres response.

Radar is not a prognosticator, i.e. it does not make a forecast rather it samples the atmosphere
from a close distance and there appears to make a very accurate forecast. Radar is a means of
detecting locating identifying, measuring and then displaying the atmosphere and what is in it.
Radar is useful because of the following characteristics:
1. Radar scans a three-dimensional volume and can be pointed any where in space. The scale of the
smallest volume is meso-a.
2. Continuous scanning in space Typically with 5 -> 8 minutes between scans of the same volume.
3. Reasonable resolution. For a typical 2 msec pulse at 100 nm the volume is about 5 km x 5 km x
600m
4. Total variability of the atmosphere can be measured, i.e. Radar can measure all the components
of the total derivative.
5. Radar can make in-storm measurements
6. Radar can measure the actual severity of the storm, since Z e is a measure of the number of
hydrometers per cubic unit.
7. Radar, if coherent, can measure the three components of the wind.

Thus from the meteorologists point of view a radar provides a large number of advantages over
any other tool designed to look at the structure of severe storms and clouds. Much of what we
know about the inner workings of thunderstorms and other precipitating cloud systems come
from radar.
Radar uses an antenna producing a narrow beam of energy to scan a volume of space until a
reflection is obtained. The direction the antenna is pointing and the time interval between the
transmission and reception determine the location of the reflection in space. Further the strength
and polarization of the reflection determine the characteristics of the target.

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Types of Radars
Classification based on specific function
Classification based on the primary function of radar is shown in the following figure:

Primary Radar:
A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals toward the targets. The transmitted pulses are
reflected by the target and then received by the same radar. The reflected energy or the echoes
are further processed to extract target information.

Secondary Radar:
Secondary radar units work with active answer signals. In addition to primary radar, this type of
radar uses a transponder on the airborne target/object.
A simple block diagram of secondary radar is shown below

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The ground unit, called interrogator, transmits coded pulses (after modulation) towards the
target. The transponder on the airborne object receives the pulse, decodes it, induces the coder to
prepare the suitable answer, and then transmits the interrogated information back to the ground
unit. The interrogator/ground unit demodulates the answer. The information is displayed on the
display of the primary radar.

The secondary radar unit transmits and also receives high-frequency impulses, the so called
interrogation. This isn't simply reflected, but received by the target by means of a transponder
which receives and processes. After this the target answers at another frequency.
Various kinds of information like, the identity of aircraft, position of aircraft, etc. are
interrogated using the secondary radar. The type of information required defines the MODE of
the secondary radar.
Pulsed Radar:
Pulsed radar transmits high power, high-frequency pulses toward the target. Then it waits for the
echo of the transmitted signal for sometime before it transmits a new pulse. Choice of pulse
repetition frequency decides the range and resolution of the radar.

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Target Range and bearings can be determined from the measured antenna position and time-ofarrival of the reflected signal.
Pulse radars can be used to measure target velocities. Two broad categories of pulsed radar
employing Doppler shifts are

MTI (Moving Target Indicator) Radar

The MTI radar uses low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) to avoid range ambiguities, but these
radars can have Doppler ambiguities.

Pulse Doppler Radar

Contrary to MTI radar, pulse Doppler radar uses high PRF to avoid Doppler ambiguities, but it
can have numerous range ambiguities.
Doppler Radars make it possible to distinguish moving target in the presence of echoes from the
stationary objects. These radars compare the received echoes with those received in previous
sweep. The echoes from stationary objects will have same phase and hence will be cancelled,
while moving targets will have some phase change.
If the Doppler shifted echo coincides with any of the frequency components in the frequency
domain of the received signal, the radar will not be able to measure target velocity. Such
velocities are called blind speeds.

Where, fo = radar operating frequency.

Continuous Wave Radar:
CW radars continuously transmit a high-frequency signal and the reflected energy is also
received and processed continuously. These radars have to ensure that the transmitted energy

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doesnt leak into the receiver (feedback connection). CW radars may be bistatic or monostatic;
measures radial velocity of the target using Doppler Effect.
CW radars are of two types
1.

Unmodulated

An example of unmodulated CW radar is speed gauges used by the police. The transmitted signal
of these equipments is constant in amplitude and frequency. CW radar transmitting unmodulated
power can measure the speed only by using the Doppler-effect. It cannot measure a range and it
cannot differ between two reflecting objects.
2.

Modulated

Unmodulated CW radars have the disadvantage that they cannot measure range, because run
time measurements is not possible (and necessary) in unmodulated CW-radars. This is achieved
in modulated CW radars using the frequency shifting method. In this method, a signal that
constantly changes in frequency around a fixed reference is used to detect stationary objects.
Frequency is swept repeatedly between f1 and f2. On examining the received reflected
frequencies (and with the knowledge of the transmitted frequency), range calculation can be
done.

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If the target is moving, there is additional Doppler frequency shift which can be used to find if
target is approaching or receding.
Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave radars (FMCWs) are used in Radar Altimeters.

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Application

The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and therefore
position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields
where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military
purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into
applications for aircraft, ships, and roads.

In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or
approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. The first commercial device
fitted to aircraft was a 1938 Bell Lab unit on some United Air Lines aircraft. They can
land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA)
systems, in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio
landing directions to the pilot.
Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision
with other ships, to navigate, and to fix their position at sea when within range of shore or
other fixed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port or in harbour, vessel
traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship movements in busy
waters.
Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation and wind. It has become the primary
tool for short-term weather forecasting and watching for severe weather such as
thunderstorms, tornadoes, winter storms, precipitation types, etc. Geologists use
specialised ground-penetrating radars to map the composition of Earth's crust.
Police forces use radar guns to monitor vehicle speeds on the roads.

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Principal of RADAR

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in
predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are usually
reflected or scattered in many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by
materials of considerable electrical conductivityespecially by most metals, by seawater
and by wet lands. Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar
signals that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that make
radar work. If the object is moving either toward or away from the transmitter, there is a
slight equivalent change in the frequency of the radio waves, caused by the Doppler
effect.
Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter.
Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna are usually very
weak, they can be strengthened by electronic amplifiers. More sophisticated methods of
signal processing are also used in order to recover useful radar signals.
The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is what
enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long rangesranges at which other
electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are
too strongly attenuated. Such weather phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and
sleet that block visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio
frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric gases
(especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars, except when their detection is
intended.
Radar relies on its own transmissions rather than light from the Sun or the Moon, or from
electromagnetic waves emitted by the objects themselves, such as infrared wavelengths
(heat). This process of directing artificial radio waves towards objects is called
illumination, although radio waves are invisible to the human eye or optical cameras.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

1. The main advantage of RADAR, is that it provide superior penetration capability through
any type of weather condition, and can be used in the day or night time.
2. Radar uses electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium like Sonar (that uses
water) so can be used in space and air. Radar can be long range and the wave propagate
at the speed of light rather then sound (like with sonar). It is less susceptible to weather
conditions compared with Lasers.And be used at night unlike passive cameras. It does not
require target cooperation to emit any signals or emission.
3. Very flexible - can be used in a number of ways !
4. Stationary mode
5. Moving mode
6. Two Directional mode
7. Beam spread can incorporate many targets !
8. Can often select fastest target, or best reflection !
9. Still very reliable.

Disadvantages

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Time - Radar can take up to 2 seconds to lock on !

Radar has wide beam spread (50 ft diameter over 200 ft range)
Cannot track if deceleration is greater than one mph/second!
Large targets close to radar can saturate receiver !
Hand-held modulation can falsify readings !
More interference sources.

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Conclusion
There are many improvements that we can make to our system in order to create better results.
First of all, we need to increase the range of the detection, not having to limit our input signals as
much to get accurate results.
We need to adjust with the sampling rate that we use in order to be able to detect smaller
velocities as well as more accurate ranges. We could optimize the algorithm for the peak locator
in the velocity analysis to give more accurate results.
In the end, we managed to create a system that created signals to send out with a RADAR, as
well as simulate a returned signal for objects a specific distance away or moving at a certain
velocity. We were able to detect the range for objects that were fairly close, and calculate the
velocity for objects moving extremely fast.

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Reference
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www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com