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9
TRAVEL
DIRECTION
Power flux density S with unit W/m , should not be mixed up with power
spectral density, the unit of which is W/Hz, and with power spectral flux
2
density, the unit of which is W/(Hz m ).
The unit of measurement of field strength commonly used is the volt per
meter (V/m) and decimal sub-multiples thereof. This unit is rigorously only
applicable to the electric component (E) of the field but is generally also
used for expressing measurements of magnetic field strength or the
magnetic components of radiated fields by relation to the propagation
impedance, usually free space (377 ) in which case the magnetic field (H)
in amperes per meter in the far field is given by:
H=
E
377
over a frequency range. The IF filter bandwidth (RBW) should be such that
it does not spill over measurements from one frequency onto another, it is
recommended that the RBW is not wider than a three times the frequency
step used. On the other hand, spectrum analysers sweep quasi-continuously over a frequency range. This means that the START and STOP
frequencies are taken to define the SPAN which defines the frequency
resolution of the screen display. If the SPAN is too wide, pixel averaging
functions may show inaccurate traces.
8.- Integration or measuring time: Receivers also allow to choose a
certain measuring or integration (dwell) time for each frequency of
measurement. The required measurement time depends on the signal to
be measured (type of modulation, lowest modulation frequency etc.).
9.- The (intermodulation-free) dynamic range within which signals may be
accurately measured is limited by two parameters: the inherent noise
level (determined by noise figure and measurement bandwidth) and the
level of two signals, which can cause an intermodulation product
equal to that noise level. The noise level is summarized by the DANL
(Displayed Average Noise Level). For the FSP we have 155 dBm/Hz
DANL, and a level combined standard uncertainty of 0.5 dB. The third
order intercept (TOI) is typ. 10 dBm (for 0.2 to 3 GHz).
3 Antenna Cables
For an accurate measurement, all components including the antenna cable
should be calibrated. For this example, a HFU2-Z5, 7 m length, N-male/Nmale has been used. The following graphs on figure 3 show insertion loss
(IL) and Standing Wave Ratio (SWR). SWR or simply s, is directly related
to the reflection coefficient r or by:
SWR = s =
1+ r 1+
s 1
=
r = =
1 r 1
s+ 1
(3.1)
Where r equals s11. All sij parameters, which are complex values, can be
measured with a network analyser. The closer SWR is to 1, over the whole
band, the higher is the cable quality. Insertion loss is equal to s21.
Attenuation increases with frequency, thus signal level decreases with
frequency.
Marker 2: 2 GHz
Marker 2: 2 GHz
- 2.299 dB
- 37.02 dB
- 30.65 dB
4 Antennas
Field strength and power flux density measurement require calibrated
antennas. In order to suppress signals from other directions, a directive
antenna should be used with gain, as flat as possible over the whole
channel bandwidth. Rohde&Schwarz offers different antennas that can be
used to measure power flux density, one of them is HL040.
Gain, antenna factor and effective area, or at least one of them is to be
accurately measured for the correct measurement of field strength or power
flux density with a receiver/spectrum analyser and a directive antenna.
Rohde&Schwarz offers calibration services for antennas.
Polarization
Linear
Impedance
50
SWR
Front-to-back ratio
> 20 dB
3.- Half Power Beam Widths. Deviating from the direction of the main lobe
maximum to the direction where the radiation pattern has decreased by
3 dB, leads to -3dB/rad and -3dB/rad. For directive antennas (Dmax larger
than 15 dB), this parameter may be approximated by
-3dB -3dB (.7)
4.- Near/Far field boundary. There are different boundaries, but one most
commonly used is called the Fresnell/Fraunhofer boundary and it is
2
defined as 2L /, where L is an imaginary ball diameter that tightly would
wrap up the complete antenna. (.8)
5.- Effective Area. A parameter proportional to the antenna gain but also
proportional to the square of the wavelength is the effective area, Ae. It can
be used to calculate power flux density S from the measured power P.
Ae =
P 2 G (84,62m) 2
=
=
G
4 ( f / MHz ) 2
S
(4.1)
(4.2)
Ae =
1
Ke
Z0
RN
ae
and
dB(m )
= 8,77dB
ke
(4.3)
dB(m 1 )
6.- Antenna gain G: It is the power gain on the main lobe direction relative
to the isotropic antenna.
7.- Antenna factor, Ke: Antennas are transducers that convert E-field or Hfield into voltage across a certain load. Ke(f) converts V/m into V.
The antenna factor for a load of 50 can be calculated as follows:
Ke =
f / MHz
(4.4)
30.81 G
(.4a)
H =
E
377
(5.1)
E = K e Vo
(5.2)
S=
P
Ae
(5.5)
s
2
dB(W / m )
ae
p
dB(W ) dB(m 2 )
(5.6)
s
2
dB(W / m )
ae
p
30dB
dBm dB(m 2 )
(5.7)
s
2
dB(W / m )
ae
a
p
30dB + c
dB
dBm dB(m 2 )
(5.8)
1
N
2
i
(6.1)
Where N is the number of samples within a pixel, and vi is the voltage after
envelope detection. While using RMS detection, RBW SPAN/501 should
be ensured, where 501 is the number of screen pixels, for the FSP or ESPI.
The number of samples depends mainly on which SPAN, RBW and sweeptime is used.
While RMS detector is used, TRACE AVERAGE function should be
avoided.
3.- AVERAGE detection only averages those same N values, within a
pixel
Pixelj =
1
N
(6.2)
Tracei =
(N 1)Tracei 1 +
N
measurei
(6.3),
where now N is the SWEEP COUNTER status, not the number of samples
taken for a pixel.
4.- PEAK detection holds the maximum power level on the screen,
regardless of any lower level that might take place during any sweep. The
value is only changed when the level is increased, given the case. Peak
detector works directly comparing pixels values. MAX PEAK, and MIN
PEAK can be selected, or AUTO PEAK, to connect both MAX PEAK and
MIN PEAK values with a straight vertical line.
For CW carriers all detectors give the correct power level, provided
RBW/VBW (the coupling factor) is correct. However, for a complex
modulated signal (GSM, IS95, DVB-T, ..) only the RMS detector gives
power readings independent of the signal data contents.
The two following measurements show the difference between AVERAGE,
RMS and MAX PEAK detection for a PAL signal with DISPLAY CENTER
FREQUENCY 585.6 MHz and SPAN 18.5 MHz.
Att
10 dB
3 PK *
AVG
Att
10 dB
Marker 1 [T1]
-80.37 dBm
583.252000000 MHz
-20
-30
2 RM *
VIEW
-20
1 AV *
VIEW
Marker 1 [T1]
-80.37 dBm
583.252000000 MHz
-30
1 AV *
VIEW
-40
2 RM *
VIEW
-50
3 PK
MAXH
-40
-50
-60
-60
PRN
-70
-70
-80
-80
-90
-90
-100
-100
-110
-110
-120
-120
Date:
31.JUL.2001
1.85 MHz/
Date:
12:06:39
31.JUL.2001
1.85 MHz/
12:14:05
Att
10 dB
Delta 4 [T1]
-14.49 dB
5.740000000 MHz
Marker 1 [T1]
-40.08
583.252000000
Delta 2 [T1]
-38.65
3
4.440000000
Delta 3 [T1]
4
-7.64
5.500000000
-30
1
1 AV * -40
AVG
-50
dBm
MHz A
dB
MHz
dB
MHz
-60
PRN
-70
2
-80
-90
-100
-110
-120
Date:
31.JUL.2001
1 MHz/
Span 10 MHz
12:23:08
10
This PAL signal does not even have a symmetric spectrum, but if we set
frequency centre on 586 MHz, adjust RBW to 8 MHz, then SPAN 0, we
get the same signal in time domain. For the time domain measurement to
obtain field strength and power flux density, the RMS detector will be used.
In order to synchronise, we can adjust SWEEP TIME to 75 ms approx.
(which is a little bit more than a PAL single line delay). REF LEVEL is
reduced to 25 dBm, for instance, in order not to saturate the first mixer,
and RANGE LOG MANUAL is set to +20 dB, so this time trace does not
get stuck to the screen roof. To keep this time display steady on the same
lines we can use a video trigger line, TRIG VIDEO to 67% might do.
PAL TV signals are of pulsed nature, like radar. This is why MAX PEAK
detector is necessary to know the peak power that the signal might reach.
RMS is required for power flux density measurements, concerning
biological effects. Either every pixel value can show the RMS during the
pixel time on an amplitude-vs.-frequency spectrum display (for more details
see [6]) or even better: the summary marker can show the MEAN RMS
POWER for the whole sweep on an amplitude-vs.-time display. If the
resolution bandwidth is not wide enough, the spectral power density has to
be integrated within the whole spectrum.
A result is in Fig 8;
The level is fluctuating. Not reliable to be read.
RBW 10 MHz
* VBW 10 kHz
Att
10 dB
SWT 67 ms
-20
Marker 1 [T1]
-27.36
2.500000
Delta 2 [T1]
0.00
0.000000
-22
1 RM *
CLRWR
Delta 3 [T1]
0.00 dB
0.000000 s
-24
dBm
ms
dB
s
TRG
-26
2
1
3
-28
Triggering level
PRN
-30
-32
-34
Low voltages
are bright
correspond to a
bright image
-36
-38
-40
Date:
6.JUL.2001
6.7 ms/
15:15:11
27.36 dBm.
11
The above manual steps can easily be automated with a software option,
FSP-B6 (1192.8594.02). This option is also suitable to display any mobile
communications TDMA bursts, like GSM and NADC in time domain.
7 Measurement Uncertainty
The antenna is actually receiving 27.36 dBm + 1.05 dB = -26.31 dBm or
80.69 dB(V) after cable IL compensation.
Field-Strength
The HL040 calibration data [3] have the following antenna factor points:
ke(556 MHz) = 17.3 dB(1/m) and ke(608 MHz) = 18.0 dB(1/m). Linear interpolation gives ke(586 MHz) = 17.7 dB(1/m).
Using eq. (5.3), we get the field strength:
e = 80.69 dB(V) + 17.7 dB(1/m) = 98.4 dB(V/m)
Power-Flux Density
Using eq. (4.3), we get the effective area
ae = (8.77 17.7) dB(m2) = - 8.93 dB(m2)
and using eq. (5.7), resp. eq. (5.8), we get the pfd:
s = (-26,31 + 8.93 30) dB(W/m2) = - 47.38 dB(W/m2)
Measurement Uncertainty
Each result of a measurement of a physical quantity needs some
quantitative indication of the quality of the result, so that those who use it,
can assess its reliability.
Therefore it is common practice to evaluate the combined standard
uncertainty uc(y) of the estimate y of the measurand taking into account the
standard uncertainties u(xi) in decibels and the sensitivity coefficients ci of
each influence quantity, using:
uc ( y ) =
2
i
u 2 ( xi ) ................................................................. (7.1)
U = ku c ( y ) ....................................................................................... (7.2)
where k is the coverage factor. A coverage factor of k = 2 yields
approximately a 95% level of confidence for the near-normal distribution of
most measuring results.
The standard uncertainties u(xi) have to be given by the calibration
laboratories or by the manufacturers or have to be evaluated using type A
evaluation of standard uncertainty (see [7]).
Uncertainty budget
Similar to [4], the measurand x (e or s) is calculated from the receiver
reading vr, the cable attenuation ac and the antenna factor ke or effective
area ae. All known deviations (systematic errors, e.g. measured during a
Start id-number of application note
12
ke: For HL040 the antenna factor has been calibrated using the three
antenna method. Again, the calibration instrument is a Rohde&Schwarz
network analyser model ZVR. For HL040, the a tolerance of 1 dB is given
with the antenna factor. Therefore a rectangular distribution is assumed for
the uncertainty budget.
Signal
Stability
Measurement
Instrumentation
Spectrum Analyser
Integration
time
Cable
Antenna
OVERALL
UNCERTAINTY
Zero-span
measurement
Effect of
selectivity
Antenna
directivity
Mutual coupling
to environment
Measurement
Procedure
Effects
on Antenna
13
signal level. For measurements regarding biological effects, the signal level
is usually high above the noise level and the influence is negligible.
M takes the antenna/receiver mismatch uncertainy into account. The
amount depends on cable attenuation, receiver input VSWR and antenna
VSWR. See below for more details.
The following table is used for uncertainty calculations:
Input quantity
Xi
vr
ac
ke
vnf
vpa
M
ke
xi uncertainty
dB
Prdist; k
2
0,88
u(xi)
dB
0,44
ci
0,1
1,0
+ 0,1
0,05
0,58
0,05
0,29
0,484
0,05
1
1
1
1
1
1
0,5
+0,66/-0,71
0,1
2
Rectang.
2
Rectang.
U-shaped
2
ci u(xi)
dB
0,44
0,05
0,58
0,05
0,29
0,48
0,05
0,923
1,846
M = + 0.714 dB,
M = + 0.778 dB
M M +
2
= 0.746dB
14
2
M = 20 log (1 a S11 )(1 r S 22 ) S 21
a r .......................................... (7.6)
However, all parameters inside the logarithm function are complex and
usually only magnitudes, no arguments, are available. In this case, only the
extreme values can be used to approximate M.
For the cables, usually s11 = s22 (here 0,018) and s12 = s21 (here 0,886 for
1.05 dB attenuation). a and r are the antenna and receiver input reflection
coefficients.
With all these inputs then, (7.7) gives
M , M = 20 log[10.0786], M = - 0.711 dB and M = + 0.657 dB
-
M + M
2
= 0.684dB
This shows that even a low-attenuation cable, with low reflection can be
used to reduce total instrumentation measurement uncertainty.
Comments on the uncertainty budget table
In column u(xi), standard uncertainties in decibels are used as required by
equation (7.1). If the distribution function is Gaussian with a value of k = 2,
then the input value has to be divided by 2. For other distribution functions,
other factors must be applied (see [7]):
Rectangular distributions are used where only a tolerance is given for the
accuracy of a value. In this case a given value is divided by 3.
The effect of mismatch increases rapidly with increasing VSWR. Therefore
U-shaped distribution is assumed. In this case the input value is divided
by 2.
s = - 47.4 dB(W/m )
both with 1.8 dB uncertainty at a confidence level of 95%.
8 References
[1] Spectrum monitoring handbook: pages 197 and 198. ed. ITU.
ISBN 92-61-05761-6.
[2] Spectrum analyser R&S FSP30 and test receiver R&S ESPI operating
manuals, chapter 4. R&S ref. 1093.4495.30.
[3] R&S HL040 calibration data.
[4] CISPR 16-4:2002: Accounting for measurement uncertainties
when determining compliance with a limit. Pages 6 and 11.
Start id-number of application note
15
frequency range
9 kHz ... 3 GHz
400 ... 3000 MHz
Ordering number
1093.4495.07
4035.8755.02
16