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· Broadcast links
· Point-to-point links
At the top we have personal area networks (PAN), networks meant for
a single person. For example a wireless network connecting a computer
with its mouse, keyboard and a printer can constitute a personal area
network.
· LAN
· MAN
· WAN
We will see these three networks in detail later. Finally the connection
of two or more networks is called an inter-network. The world wide Internet
is a well known example of inter-network. Distance is important as a
classification metric as different techniques are used at different scales.
Local Area Networks are generally called LANs. They are privately
owned networks within a single building or campus of up to few kilometers
in size. Most of LAN’s use Bus or ring topology for connection and is
illustrated as shown in fig. 1.5. They are used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share
resources and exchange information. Traditional LANs run at speeds of
10Mbps to 100Mbps, have low delay (microseconds and nanoseconds) and
make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at 10Gbps. Various topologies
are possible for broadcast LANs.
Metropolitan Area Networks
Wireless Networks
System interconnection
It is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using
short range radio. Every computer has a monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer
connected to the main unit by cables. Bluetooth configuration is as shown
in figure 1.9(a). Some companies got together to design a short range
wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components without
wires.
Wireless LANs
These are systems in which every computer has a radio modem and a
antenna with which it can communicate with other systems. Often there is
an antenna on the ceiling that the machines talk to as shown in figure
1.9(b). Wireless LANs are becoming common in small offices and homes,
where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. Also used in older
buildings, company cafeterias, conference rooms etc. IEEE 802.11 is the
standard for wireless LANs.
Wireless WANs
Physical Layer
The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to
transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct
errors that may occur in the Physical layer. That is it makes sure that the
message indeed reach the other end without corruption or without signal
distortion and noise. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break
the input data up into the frames called data frames. The DLL of
transmitter, then transmits the frames sequentially, and processes
acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. After processing
acknowledgement frame, may be the transmitter needs to re-transmit a
copy of the frame. So therefore the DLL at receiver is required to detect
duplications of frames.
The best known example of this is Ethernet. This layer manages the
interaction of devices with a shared medium. Other examples of data link
protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched
networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802 local area
networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may be
split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the IEEE 802.2 Logical
Link Control (LLC) layer. It arranges bits from the physical layer into logical
chunks of data, known as frames.
This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is
provided only among locally attached network nodes forming layer 2
domains for unicast or broadcast forwarding. Other protocols may be
imposed on the data frames to create tunnels and logically separated layer
2 forwarding domain.
The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and
acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is
the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and
LAPD. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding
window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not
used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its
flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding
window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layers by
protocols such as TCP.
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
· It maintains the integrity and controls the data exchanged between the
end-users.
· The end-users are aware of each other when the relation is established
(synchronization).
6. Presentation Layer
The TCP/IP did not originally distinguish between the service, interface &
protocols. The only real services offered by the internet layer are SEND IP
packets and RECEIVE IP packets.
The OSI model was devised before the protocols were invented. Data link
layer originally dealt only with point-to-point networks. When broadcast
networks came around, a new sub-layer had to be hacked into the model.
With TCP/IP the reverse was true, the protocols came first and the model
was really just a description of the existing protocols. This TCP/IP model did
fit any other protocol stack.
Then OSI model has seven layers and TCP/IP has four layers as shown in
figure below
· Bad timing
· Bad technology
· Bad implementations
· Bad politics
A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model
Problems:
Network standardization
These are those that have just happened without any formal plan.
These are formats that have become standard simply because a large
number of companies have agreed to use them. They have not been
formally approved as standards E.g., IBM PC for small office computers,
UNIX for operating systems in CS departments. PostScript is a good
example of a de facto standard.
Benefits of standardization:
· CCITT (an acronym for its French name): one of the organs of ITU (i.e., ITU-
T), specialized for telephone and data communication systems.
In 19th century, the French mathematician Fourier proved that any periodic
function of time g (t) with period T can be constructed by summing a
number of cosines and sines.
(3.1)
Where f=1/T is the fundamental frequency, and are the sine and cosine
amplitudes of the n harmonics. Such decomposition is called a Fourier
th
series.
Consider the signal given in figure below. Figure shows the signal that is the
ASCII representation of the character ‘b’ which consists of the bit pattern
‘01100010’ along with its harmonics.
Any transmission facility cannot pass all the harmonics and hence few
of the harmonics are diminished and distorted. The bandwidth is restricted
to low frequencies consisting of 1, 2, 4, and 8 harmonics and then
transmitted. Figure 3.1(b) to 3.1(e) shows the spectra and reconstructed
functions for these band-limited signals.
Limiting the bandwidth limits the data rate even for perfect channels.
However complex coding schemes that use several voltage levels do exist
and can achieve higher data rates.
For a noisy channel with bandwidth is again H, knowing signal to noise ratio
S/N, the maximum data rate according to Shannon is given as
Many protocols have been used for use in an internet. One suite
known as The TCP/IP internet protocol stands out most widely used for
internets. Most networking professional simply refer this protocol as TCP/IP.
Work on the transmission control protocol (TCP) began in the 1970’s. The
U.S military funded the research in TCP/IP and internetworking through the
Advanced Research Projects Agency in short known as ARPA.
· And new features have been adapted that allow the protocols to transfer
data across the internets
Internet uses the TCP/IP reference model. This model is also called as
Internet layering model or internet reference model. This model consists of
5 layers as illustrated in figure 1.3.
Layer 3: Internet
This layer specifies the format of packets sent across an internet. It also
specifies the mechanism used to forward packets from a computer through
one or more routers to the final destination.
Layer 4: Transport
This layer deals with opening and maintaining connections, ensuring that
packets are in fact received. The transport layer is the interface between
the application layer and the complex hardware of the network. It is
designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry
on conversations.
Each protocol of this layer specifies how one application uses an internet.
A) Primary addresses
Out of five the three classes are called Class A, Class B, and Class C.
These three classes together are often referred to as "classful" addressing
or primary address class.
Each class fixes the boundary between the network-prefix and the
host-number at a different point within the 32-bit address. The formats of
the fundamental address classes are illustrated in Figure 2.1(a). One of the
fundamental features of classful IP addressing is that each address contains
a self-encoding key that identifies the dividing point between the network-
prefix and the host-number.
B) Subnet Masks