The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table is used to organize the 114 elements

in a meaningful way.
As a consequence of this organization, there are periodic
properties associated with the periodic table.

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 2

Development of the
Periodic Table
Arrange elements to reflect the trends in chemical and
physical properties.
First attempt (Mendeleev and Meyer) arranged the
elements in order of increasing atomic weight.
Certain elements were missing from this scheme.
Example: In 1871, Mendeleev noted that As properly belonged underneath P and not
Si, which left a missing element underneath Si. He predicted a number of
properties for this element. In 1886 Ge was discovered. The properties of Ge
match Mendeleevs predictions well.

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

Development of the
Periodic Table
Modern periodic table: arrange elements in order of increasing
atomic number.
Periodic Law: When the elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic masses, certain sets of properties recur
periodically.
Henry Moseley developed the concept of atomic numbers. He
identified the atomic number with the number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom and the number of electrons in the atom.
The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers. (Henrey Moseley, 1913).

The Periodic Table

Columns in the periodic table are called groups
(numbered from 1A to 8A or 1 to 18).
Rows in the periodic table are called periods.
Metals are located on the left hand side of the periodic
table (most of the elements are metals).
Non-metals are located in the top right hand side of the
periodic table.
Elements with properties similar to both metals and
non-metals are called metalloids and are located at the
interface between the metals and non-metals.
Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 2

Noble Gas
Halogen

Group

Alkali Metal

Alkali Earth Metal

Period

2.4

The Periodic Table

Some of the groups in the periodic table are given
special names.
These names indicate the similarities between group
members:
Group 1A: Alkali metals.
Group 2A: Alkaline earth metals.
Group 6A: Chalcogens.
Group 7A: Halogens.
Group 8A: Noble gases.

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 2

Distribution of Electrons
Electrons in an atom exist in principal energy
levels or shells.
All principal energy levels are divided into
subshells designated by the letters s, p, d, and
f.
Within each subshell, electrons are grouped
into orbitals.
Region of space that can hold two electrons with
paired spins

Bohrs Model of
the Atom (1913)

n (principal quantum number) = 1,2,3,

7.3

Electron Configurations
Rules in Writing Electronic Configuration
Electron configurations tells us in which orbitals the
electrons for an element are located.
Three rules:

electrons fill orbitals starting with lowest n and moving

upwards (Aufbau);
no two electrons can fill one orbital with the same spin
(Pauli);
for degenerate orbitals, electrons fill each orbital singly
before any orbital gets a second electron (Hunds rule).

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 6

Electron Configurations

Three ways:
Orbital box diagram
Orbital notation
Noble gas notation

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 6

Orbitals and Their Energies

Many-Electron Atoms

Order of orbital (filling) in multi-electron atom

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
7.7

Electron configuration is how the electrons are

distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an
atom.
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell

1s1
principal quantum
number n

angular momentum
quantum number l

Orbital diagram
H

1s1
7.8

Fill up electrons in lowest energy orbitals (Aufbau principle)

? ?
Be
Li
B 6534electrons
C
electrons
21s
22s
12 1
BBe
Li1s1s
2s222s
2p
H
He12electron
electrons

He
H 1s
1s12
7.9

The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells

is the one with the greatest number of parallel spins
(Hunds rule).

Ne967810
C
N
FO
electrons
electrons
electrons
22s
22p
Ne
C
O
N
F 1s
1s
1s222s
2s222p
2p25346

7.7

What is the electron configuration of Mg?

Mg 12 electrons
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s2

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons

Abbreviated as [Ne]3s2

[Ne] 1s22s22p6

What are the possible quantum numbers for the

last (outermost) electron in Cl?
Cl 17 electrons
1s22s22p63s23p5

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons

7.8

7.8

Sizes of Atoms and Ions

Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii
As the principle quantum number increases (i.e., we
move down a group), the distance of the outermost
electron from the nucleus becomes larger. Hence, the
atomic radius increases.
As we move across the periodic table, the number of
core electrons remains constant. However, the nuclear
charge increases. Therefore, there is an increased
attraction between the nucleus and the outermost
electrons. This attraction causes the atomic radius to
decrease.
Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

8.3

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM:

Using only the periodic table, rank each set of main group
elements in order of decreasing atomic size:

(a) Ca, Mg, Sr

PLAN:

Ranking Elements by Atomic Size

(b) K, Ga, Ca

Elements in the same group decrease in size as you go up;

elements decrease in size as you go across a period.

SOLUTION:
(a) Sr > Ca > Mg

These elements are in Group 2A(2).

(b) K > Ca > Ga

These elements are in Period 4.

Cation is always smaller than atom from which

it is formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from which it
is formed.
8.3

 Other Guidelines
1. The sizes of cations decrease from left to right
across a period.
2. The sizes of anions decrease from left to right
across a period.
3. Within an isoelectronic series, radii decrease
with increasing atomic number because
of increasing nuclear charge.
4. Both cation and anion sizes increase going
down a group.

Ionization Energy
The first ionization energy, I1, is the amount of energy
required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom:
Na(g) Na+(g) + e-.
The second ionization energy, I2, is the energy required
to remove an electron from a gaseous ion:
Na+(g) Na2+(g) + e-.
The larger ionization energy, the more difficult it is to
remove the electron.
Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

Ionization Energy
Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies
Ionization energy decreases down a group.
This means that the outermost electron is more readily
removed as we go down a group.
As the atom gets bigger, it becomes easier to remove an
electron from the most spatially extended orbital.
Ionization energy generally increases across a period.
As we move across a period, Zeff increases. Therefore, it
becomes more difficult to remove an electron.

Two exceptions: removing the first p electron and

removing the fourth p electron.
Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

General Trend in First Ionization Energies

Increasing First Ionization Energy

Increasing First Ionization Energy

8.4

SAMPLE PROBLEM
PROBLEM:

Using the periodic table only, rank the elements in each of the
following sets in order of decreasing IE1:

(a) Kr, He, Ar

PLAN:

Ranking Elements by First Ionization Energy

(b) Sb, Te, Sn

IE increases as you proceed up in a group; IE increases as you go

across a period.

SOLUTION:

(a) He > Ar > Kr

Group 8A(18) - IE decreases down a group.

(b) Te > Sb > Sn

Period 5 elements - IE increases across a period.

Electron Affinities
Electron affinity is the opposite of ionization energy.
Electron affinity is the energy change when a gaseous
atom gains an electron to form a gaseous ion:
Cl(g) + e- Cl-(g)
Electron affinity can either be exothermic (as the above
example) or endothermic:
Ar(g) + e- Ar-(g)

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

Electronegativity
Electronegativity
Electronegativity: The ability of one atoms in a molecule
to attract electrons to itself.
Pauling set electronegativities on a scale from 0.7 (Cs) to
4.0 (F).
Electronegativity increases
across a period and
down a group.

Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 8

Electronegativity
Electronegativity

Metals, Nonmetals, and

Metalloids

Metals
Metallic character refers to the properties of metals
(shiny or lustrous, malleable and ductile, oxides form
basic ionic solids, and tend to form cations in aqueous
solution).
Metallic character increases down a group.
Metallic character decreases across a period.
Metals have low ionization energies.
Most neutral metals are oxidized rather than reduced.
Prentice Hall 2003

Chapter 7

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

EXAMPLE
1. Along period :arrange the elements in
increasing metallic property ( Li, C, B, Be)
Answer
CB Be Li

2. Along group: arrange the elements in

decreasing metallic property (Na, Rb, K, Cs)
Answer
Cs Rb K Na