Print Cryomachining Tech Assessment

Technology Assessment
On
Current Advanced Research

Projects in Cryogenic Machining
AMT The Association for Manufacturing Technology

January 2006
A Report Compiled and Prepared

By
Ranajit Ghosh, Ph.D.
(610) 570-6009
Rana01@hotmail.com
for
AMT The Association for Manufacturing Technology
Published by:
AMT The Association For Manufacturing Technology
7901 West Park Drive, McLean, VA 22102
Printed in the United States of America
Copyright 2006 AMT The Association for Manufacturing
Technology all rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ii
Preface
1
Introduction . 1
1.1
What is cryogenic machining? 2
1.2
Early history of cryogenic machining (1950 1975) . 3
Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

2.1
Cryogenic properties of work materials . 4
2.2
Cryogenic cooling effects on tool properties . 5
2.3
Properties of high pressure cryogenic fluids .. 12
Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

3.1
Modeling of cryo-cooled machining processes . 13
3.2
Temperatures under cryogenic cooling . 16
Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures

4.1
Friction behavior of coatings under cryo-cooling 19
4.2
Chip/tool friction at cryogenic temperatures . 22
Cryogenic turning of ferrous materials

5.1
Machining of steels ...
5.2
Machining of austenitic stainless steels ...
5.3
Machining of martensitic and PH stainless steels .
5.4
Chip breaking in steels by cryogenic cooling .
23
25
28
30
Cryogenic machining of hardened materials

6.1
Machining of hardened steels and irons ..
6.2
Machining of hardened composites ..
6.3
Machining of ceramics and refractory materials .
6.4
Machining of heat-treated powder metals ..
31
32
34
35
Cryogenic machining of heat resistant alloys

7.1
Turning of Ni-based alloys under cryogenic cooling .
7.2
Cryogenic machining of Ti-alloys .
7.3
Machining of Ta and Ta-based alloys ..
7.4
Cryogenic machining of cobalt chrome alloys
37
38
41
42
Cryogenic machining of non-ferrous materials

8.1
Machining of aluminum alloys .. 43
8.2
Machining of plastics/polymers ... 45
Cryogenic cooling and interrupted cuts

9.1
Use of alumina ceramics in hardened interrupted cuts . 46
10
Cryogenic milling and drilling

10.1
Cryogenic cooling in milling . 48
10.2
Cryogenic drilling of plastics ... 50
10.3
Cryomilling of nanocrystalline materials 51
11
Cryogenic grinding
11.1
Cryogenic cooling effects in grinding 55
11.2
Cryogenic grinding of steels and stainless steels .. 56
iii
11.3
11.4
Grinding of Ti-alloys with cryogenic cooling .. 58

Grinding of viscoelastic and plastic materials 60
12
Work material behavior under cryogenic cooling

12.1
Changes in hardness, residual stresses and white layer .. 61
12.2
Wear and fatigue behavior of a cryo-machined surface 64
13
Other cryogenic/cold applications

13.1
Ice jet machining .
13.2
Abrasive/LIN jet machining .
13.3
High pressure CO2 jet machining
13.4
End milling with chilled air cooling .
13.5
Grinding with cold gas cooling ..
13.6
Machining with supercritical CO2, N2 and NH3 ..
66
68
70
71
73
76
References . 77
iv
Preface
The present report tries to document the increasing use of cryogenic cooling in the
various fields of machining. The document is based on an extensive literature review
of published work and patents, as well as information obtained on commerciallylaunched products and processes. Despite the authors best efforts, some of the
information contained in this document might be outdated or incorrect. While the
author has tried to include all well-known research in the area of cryogenic
machining, a significant portion of the reviewed information still comes from our own
research at Air Products and Chemicals over the last decade. While there are a
number of ongoing activities by several research groups throughout the world, the
area of cryogenic machining is still an emerging area and less mature than some of
the fields that has been covered in previous AMT Technology Assessment reports.
The author would like to thank his colleague Zbigniew Zurecki for his help in putting
this report together. The author would also like to acknowledge the help provided by
Prof. I.S. Jawahir in literature search. Finally, the author would like to express his
appreciation to AMT for the opportunity to put this work together and hopes that the
manufacturing community finds the work to be useful.
Ranajit Ghosh
Allentown, PA
January 25, 2006
1. Introduction
In recent years, as low-cost manufacturing has driven down unit part costs,
manufacturers are striving harder to improve productivity and maintain part quality.
Continuing improvements in productivity through better cutting tools, machine tools
and processes have resulted in significant increases in cutting speeds.
An
unintended consequence of improving productivity gains is the significant increase in
heat, generated in the cutting process. Management of this increased heat and the
resulting high temperature it produces is critical in formulating a stable, optimized
machining process with improved tool life and part quality.
While innovations in the areas of tool/work/machine interaction and material
treatment processes have enhanced productivity and part quality, the same is not
true for cooling and temperature management of the machining process. This is due
to the fact that the conventional coolants, such as air, oils, or aqueous emulsions,
whether in flood or mist form, have a limited potential to meaningfully impact the
extremely high temperatures produced during the modern machining processes. The
heat transfer coefficient of conventional coolants is still less than that of water and
consequently, the convective heat transfer process is not efficient enough to counter
the accelerated thermal wear of the tool.
Cryogenic fluids have been used in industrial quenching and cold treating
applications for quite some time, but their application in the machining industry as
coolants is relatively new. However, the history of cryogenic machining research
traces back more than 50 years. One of the earliest known applications of cryogenic
machining involved the application of liquid carbon dioxide in machining in the early
1950s. Use of liquid nitrogen as a coolant in machining was first documented in the
mid-1960s. However, issues related to economical machining with cryogenic fluids,
variable material behavior at cryogenic temperatures and lack of efficient delivery
systems prevented industrial adoption and caused the level of research to drop off
significantly in the seventies and early eighties. Since then, the need for more
efficient machining of difficult-to-machine materials, as well as the desire to
eliminate the use of oil or water-based cutting fluids has prompted renewed interest
from several research groups and industries. This interest has also spawned the
development of other cryogenic material removal processes, which are highlighted in
the latter part of this review.
1.1 What is cryogenic machining?

Cryogenic machining involves the application of a cryogenic fluid in the machining
process, primarily as a coolant (figure 1.1). In certain material removal processes, it
could also be used as a cutting/abrading medium. The cryogen could be applied as
an external spray through a nozzle to perform both conductive and convective
cooling of the cutting process or could be applied indirectly to cool the cutting tool
through conduction alone.
Figure 1.1: Cryogenic cooling during machining

Generally the term cryogenic refers to fluids that have boiling point lower than 150C (-238F). By that definition, cryogenic fluids include liquefied gases of air,
nitrogen, argon, oxygen, hydrogen and helium. Liquid nitrogen has been the most
widely used cryogenic coolant in machining operations, mainly because of its inert
behavior and low cost. However, there have been other efforts involving liquid
carbon dioxide, cold gases and solid/gas mixtures as coolants or cutting medium.
For the purpose of this report, the term cryogenic would be broadened to include
those approaches as well.
1.2 Early history of cryogenic machining (1950 1975)

The earliest known application of cryogenic machining occurred in the 1950s. Bartle
[1953] describes a setup for the application of high-pressure (850 - 900 psi) liquid
carbon dioxide coolant in machining of heat-resistant steel. Doubling of cutting
speeds and feeds were reported. Hollis [1961] adopted a similar approach for
machining of titanium and nimonic alloys with 1000 psi liquid carbon dioxide coolant.
Cryogenic cooling and inert gas shielding were shown to significantly improve tool life
at higher speeds, but simultaneous hardening of the work material was observed,
due to possible dissociation of the CO2 gas and absorption of the carbon. A few years
later, researchers at Grumman Aircraft Manufacturing [1965] reported increased
material removal rates in machining of titanium, with liquid nitrogen and liquid
carbon dioxide as coolants. Uehara and Kumagai [1969, 1970] experimented with
cooling of workpiece in liquid nitrogen during machining of titanium, carbon and
stainless steels and concluded that material behavior at cryogenic temperatures was
different for different metals and resulted in significant variability in tool life, surface
roughness and flank wear parameters. Hindhede [1970] conducted machining tests
on low carbon and stainless steels by partially submerging the workpiece in a liquid
nitrogen bath. He concluded that cutting forces, dynamic shear stress, friction
coefficient and chip hardness were all functions of the workpiece temperature.
Philonenko et al. [1975] cryogenically cooled stainless and titanium workpiece
materials during cutting and reported an improvement in surface roughness and
microhardness of the finished surface.
A few patents related to cryogenic machining were also filed during this period.
Dudley [US3971114] filed a patent on machining of superalloys utilizing cryogenic
coolant jetting on the flank face of the tool using the through-the-tool cooling
approach.
Lightstone et. al. [US3900975] developed a process for cryogenic
grinding of copper by immersing the copper workpiece in a liquid nitrogen bath,
thereby minimizing adhesive wear at high material removal rates.
Vayda
[GB1387693] developed an approach for cryogenic drilling of printed circuit boards
to generate cleaner hole-surfaces.
2.
Cryogenic Properties of Materials and Fluids
2.1
Cryogenic properties of work materials
2.1.1
Cryogenic material properties database
Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Sub-category: Cryogenic properties of work materials
Contact Information
E. D. Marquardt
National Institute of Standards and Technology
MS 838, Boulder, CO 80303
ericm@boulder.nist.gov
Abstract
The researchers compiled and correlated work material properties of various ferrous
and non-ferrous materials under cold and cryogenic conditions. The initial phase of
the program has focused on picking simple models for thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion and specific heat. The temperature scales were broken down into four
ranges: (a) less than 4K (b) 4K to 77K (c) 77K to 300K and (d) 300K to the
melting point.
Initial materials studied, include oxygen-free copper, 6061-T6
aluminum, G-10 fiberglass epoxy alloy, 718 Inconel, Kevlar, niobium titanium (NbTi),
beryllium copper, polyamide (nylon), polyimide, 304 stainless, teflon and Ti-6Al-4V
alloy. The researchers plan to add other materials and property correlations to the
database in future.
Key research issues for this program

Understanding cryogenic material properties
Reference
Marquardt E. D., Le J. P. and Radebaugh R., Cryogenic material properties
database, 11th International Cryocooler Conference, June 20 22, 2000.
2.2.1
Cryogenic machining with brittle tools and effects on

tool life

Sub-category: Cryogenic cooling effects on tool properties
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
Air Products and Chemicals
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
ghoshr@airproducts.com
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of cryogenic cooling on tool life in machining of
hardened steels at high cutting speeds. In accelerated cutting of hardened A2 tool
steel (62 HRc) with alumina ceramic tools, it was observed that tools under
cryogenic cooling significantly outperformed dry and flood-cooled cutting operations
(figure 2.2.1). The researchers attribute this to the increase in bulk hardness of the
cutting tool and reduction in thermal softening. However, it was observed by the
researchers, somewhat surprisingly, that a cryogenically-cooled ceramic tool
outperformed all other tool/cooling methods in an increasing feed experiment
designed to test the tool fracture toughness (figure 2.2.2). Contrary to prior
machining research and teachings on fluid coolants, a cryogenic jet impinged on the
rake surface did not induce fractures, chipping or cleavage of oxide-based ceramic
tool materials.
The researchers explain the unexpected increase in fracture
toughness to a combination of the following factors: (1) cryogenic hardening of the
entire tool material (2) reduction in thermal expansion-driven stresses within the
entire tool and (3) reduction in thermal gradients at the tool surfaces due to the
boundary film effect and the Liedenfrost phenomenon. From prior art, it was also
shown that the transverse rupture strength (TRS) of alumina crystals increased
significantly at liquid nitrogen temperature, while the presence of moisture reduced
the TRS, compared to dry nitrogen gas atmosphere.
Cryogenic machining of ferrous, nonferrous and composites
Effects of cryogenic cooling on surface properties
Efficient cryogenic delivery systems
Reference
Ghosh R., Zurecki Z. and Frey J. H., Cryogenic machining with brittle tools and
effects on tool life, Proceedings of ASME IMECE2003-42232, Nov. 2003.
300
W o rk M a te ria l: A 2 (6 2 H R c)
O p e ra tio n : O D T u rn in g / C o n tin u o u s C u ts
T o o l: C N G A 4 3 2 (A l 2 O 3 ce ra m ic)
d o c: 0 .0 1 5 in . (0 .3 8 m m ) f = 0 .0 0 9 in . (0 .2 3 m m ) U = 7 0 0 S FM (2 1 3 m /m in .)
C o o la n t: L IN , D R Y , H ig h P re ssu re Flo o d (H P F), Lo w P re ssu re Flo o d (L P F)
250
Feed Force (lbf)
L IN
DRY
200
HPF
LPF
150
100
50
C ircle d d o ts in d ica te o n se t o f to o l fa ilu re
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
C u t T im e (s e c .)
Figure 2.2.1: Feed force comparison between LIN, Dry and Flood cooling
300
W ork Material: A2 (62 HRc)
Operation: Increasing feed (0.004" - 0.020") @ 1 sec. interval
Tool: CNGA 432 (Al2O 3 ceramic)
doc: 0.015" (0.38 mm) U = 600 SFM (183 m/min.)
Coolant: LIN, DRY, High Pressure Flood, Low Pressure Flood
250
Feed Force (lbf)
Actual Feed
0.012
LIN
200
0.016
DRY
HPF
150
0.008
LPF
100
0.004
50
Cirlced dots indicate onset of tool failure
0
0
10
12
14
Cut Time (sec.)
Figure 2.2.2: Feed force comparison under variable load for LIN, Dry and Flood cooling
2.2.2
Cryogenically treated carbide tool performance in

drilling thermoplastic composites

Contact Information
M. Ramulu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195
ramulum@me.washington.edu
Abstract
The performance of cryogenically-treated and conventional carbide drills were
compared by the researchers in drilling of Al6061, Ti6Al4V and thermoplastic
composite materials. Cryogenically treated carbide tools were shown to generate
less cutting forces in drilling of both Al6061 and Ti6Al4V. In composite drilling, holequality evaluated in terms of material integrity, surface finish, delamination and area
of uncut fibers, was shown to be better with the cryogenically-treated drills, but
cutting forces were marginally higher. The improvement in surface finish and
delamination were attributed to superior abrasion resistance of the cryo-treated tools.
However, pitting of the cutting lip was observed in the cryogenically treated drills,
while only gradual flank wear was observed in conventional drills. The brittleness
and residual stresses of the binder cobalt material were thought to play a role in the
accelerated wear of cryogenically-treated tools.
Cryogenic machining of composites
Reference
Kim D. and Ramulu M., Cryogenically treated carbide tool performance in drilling
thermoplastic composites, Transactions of NAMRI/SME, vol. 32, 2004, pp. 79-85.
2.2.3
Performance evaluation of
carbide cutting tool inserts
cryogenically
treated

Contact Information
M. Rahman
National University of Singapore,
10 Kent Ridge Crescent
119260 Singapore
mpemusta@nus.edu.sg
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of various cold treatments on tungsten
carbide cutting tools and compared the metallurgical properties and cutting
performance. The six treatment conditions were: (a) as received (b) quenching
treatment (c) cryogenic quenching (d) cryogenic quenching followed by tempering
(e) cold treatment and (f) cold treatment followed by tempering. The researchers
did not observe any significant differences in hardness between the six samples.
However, abrasion wear and chipping resistance were significantly better with the
treated tools (c, d, e and f) at all cutting speeds. No observable difference in tool
performance was recorded between cold treatment at -80C and cryogenic treatment
at -196C.
Microstructure analysis showed distinct differences between the samples, especially
the amount and distribution of -phase carbides. The researchers attributed the
increase in wear resistance of the treated tools to the presence of these -phase
carbides. Relatively low change in fracture toughness of the treated tools was
ascribed to the fineness and even distribution of the phase.
Cryogenic treatment of cutting tools
Reference
Seah K. H. W., Rahman M. and Yong K. H., Performance evaluation of cryogenically
treated tungsten carbide cutting tool inserts, Proceedings of Institute of Mechanical
Engineers, vol. 217(B), 2003, pp. 29-43.
2.2.4
Effects of cryogenic treatment on carbide tool life

Contact Information
John T. Roth
Pennsylvania State University,
Behrend College
Erie, PA 16563.
jtr11@psu.edu
Abstract
This research group attempted to relate the effects of cryogenic treating of tungsten
carbide tools to changes in the tool microstructure and subsequent tool life
performance. The tools were slowly cooled to -150C (45 hrs.), held at that
temperature for an extended period (20 hrs.) and slowly returned to room
temperature (35 hrs.). Five different insert geometries were treated.
Results show that changes in the -phase caused the most significant changes in tool
life. Cryogenic treatment produced mixed results, with the -phase increasing in
some tool materials and decreasing in others. Increase in -phase was associated
with a corresponding decrease in tool life. Cryogenic treatment increased the
dispersion of the -phase and also caused the -grain size to decrease, resulting in a
net positive effect on tool life. In different tools, the net effect of these three
opposing transformations determined the overall increase or decrease in tool life.
Reference
Gallagher A. H., Agosti C. D. and Roth J. T., Effect of cryogenic treatments on
tungsten carbide tool life: micro-structural analysis, Transactions of NAMRI/SME,
vol. 33, 2005, pp. 153-160.
2.2.5
Machining of medium density

cryogenically treated carbide tools
fiberboard
with

Contact Information
Harold A. Stewart
Forest Products Laboratory
100 Blackjack Rd.
Starkville, MS 39759
sstewart@cfr.msstate.edu
Abstract
The researcher evaluated cryogenically treated tungsten carbide tool performance in
machining of medium density fiberboard (MDF). A slight reduction in cutting and
thrust forces was observed with the cryo-treated insert, over the untreated tool. The
researcher concludes that cryogenic treatment reduced chemical degradation of the
cobalt matrix when machining dry wood and reconstituted wood products.
Reference
Stewart H. A., Cryogenic treatment of tungsten carbide reduces tool wear when
machining medium density fiberboard, Forest Products Journal, vol. 54(2), 2004, pp.
53-56.
10
2.2.6
Cryogenic properties of tool materials

Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
National Chiao Tung University
Hsinchu, Taiwan 30050
hong@mail.nctu.edu.tw
Abstract
Mechanical properties and microstructures of several commercial tungsten carbide
and high speed tool steel grades were evaluated by the researchers over a range of
temperatures, down to cryogenic conditions (-196C). The researchers observed
that carbide tool materials generally maintain their transverse rupture strength and
impact strength, while the hardness increases significantly as the testing
temperature decreases.
Most carbide grades tested, showed increased crack
resistance at cryogenic temperature, with reduced crack lengths, compared to room
temperature. The quantity of the binder material was shown to have a predominant
effect on the cryogenic transverse rupture strength of certain carbide grades. For
high speed tool steel (M46), cryogenic temperatures resulted in increased hardness
and a significant reduction in transverse rupture strength.
Cryogenic machining of ferrous, non-ferrous and heat-resistant alloys
Cryogenic material properties
Chip breaking with cryogenic jets
Modeling of cryogenic machining processes
Reference
Zhao Z. and Hong S. Y., Cryogenic properties of some cutting tool materials,
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 1(5), 1992, pp. 705-714.
11
2.3.1
The formation of cryogenic and abrasive cryogenic jets

Sub-category: Properties of high pressure cryogenic fluids
Contact Information
M. Hashish
Flow International Corporation
23500 64th Avenue South,
Kent, Washington 98032
Abstract
The thermodynamics of formation of several ultra-high pressure (UHP) cryogenic
fluid jets were studied by the researchers, including the effects of adding abrasives in
The
the jet stream.
The selected cryogenic fluids were CO2, N2 and NH3.
researchers were able to generate UHP mixed phase liquid/vapor/solid CO2 jets with
capabilities of cutting, drilling and surface removal of common materials. The cutting
power of CO2 jets was found to decrease rapidly with distance.
For cryogenic liquid nitrogen (LIN) jets (figure 2.3.1), careful control of
thermodynamic state of the cryogenic liquid was found to be more important than
that required for liquefied CO2 jets. With addition of abrasives, the jets were shown
to be similar to abrasive waterjet (AWJ) in cutting performance. For UHP liquid
ammonia and abrasive-ammonia jets, temperature control upstream of the UHP
pump was found to be critical. The downstream thermodynamic conditions were not
critical for the formation of effective ammonia cutting jets.
Formation and application of cryogenic jets
Reference
Hashish M. and Dunsky C. M., The formation of cryogenic and abrasive cryogenic
jets, Proc. 14th Intl. Conf. On Jetting Technology, BHR group, Brugge, Belgium,
1998, pp. 329-343.
Figure 2.3.1: Schematic of UHP LIN jet experiment (Hashish et al.)
12
3.
Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures
3.1
Modeling of cryo-cooled machining processes
3.1.1
Role of cryogenic cooling on cutting temperatures
Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Sub-category: Modeling of cryo-cooled machining processes
Contact Information
Soumitra Paul
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
spaul@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in
Abstract
The researchers have developed a two-dimensional heat transfer model to compare
the tool temperature distribution under both dry and cryogenic cooling. The work
material selected was C-40 steel. For modeling purposes, the interface boundary
between the insert and the toolholder was set at 200C for dry cutting and -196C
with LIN cooling. The convective heat transfer coefficient with LIN cooling (0.02
W/mm2) was calculated assuming the flow of liquid nitrogen over a flat plate
maintained at a particular temperature.
Comparison between the finite element and experimental results show slight
overestimation of the average chip/tool temperature, especially at low speed/feed
combination, which the authors believe to be a result of neglecting the residual strain
energy retained in the chips. The results show significant reduction in overall and
interface temperature with cryogenic cooling. The reduction in temperature was
attributed to a reduction in the chip contact length, favorable chip/tool interaction,
better chip breaking, reduced cutting forces and enhanced heat transfer situation
under cryogenic cooling.
Modeling of tool temperatures under cryogenic cooling
Reference
Dhar N. R., Paul S. and Chattopadhyay A. B., Role of Cryogenic Cooling on Cutting
Temperature in Turning Steel, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
(ASME), vol. 124, 2002, pp. 146-154.
13
3.1.2
The effects of temperature on the machining of metals

Contact Information
O. W. Dillon
Department Of Engineering Mechanics
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
odillon@pop.uky.edu
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of pre-heating or pre-cooling the workpiece on
the final micro-structure, surface finish and chip form in milling. The workpiece
materials selected, were OHFC copper, 304 stainless steel and Ti-alloy (Ti-8-1-1).
Preheating of the workpiece to 280 - 300C was accomplished by using a heating
coil in the workpiece fixture. For pre-cooling, the workpiece was immersed in a bath
of liquid nitrogen (-196C). A third set of experiments were run without either preheating or pre-cooling the workpiece.
Results show significant improvement in surface finish for stainless steel and Ti,
machined at cryogenic temperatures.
For copper, the surface roughness was
relatively constant under all three conditions. Based on machine loads during plunge
cuts, the authors conclude that both copper and stainless are easier to machine after
pre-heating, while Ti was better machined at the cryogenic temperature.
Machining of Ti-8-1-1 at cryogenic temperatures resulted in the smallest-sized chips,
while the largest-sized chips were formed at ambient temperature. The authors
attribute the better chip breakability at low temperatures to greater strain
localization, leading to higher twinning and cracking. Stainless exhibited an increase
in toughness at cryogenic temperatures, while machining performance in copper was
independent of temperature, potentially due to its excellent thermal conductivity.
Machining behavior of metals at cryogenic temperatures
Reference
Dillon O. W., De Angelis R. J., Lu W. Y., Gunasekara J. S. and Deno J. A., The
effects of temperature on the machining of metals, Journal of Material Shaping
Technology, vol. 8(1), 1990, pp. 23-29.
14
3.1.3
Cooling approaches and cutting

cryogenic machining of Ti-6Al-4V
temperatures
in

Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers present a finite element simulation of cutting temperatures in cryocooled machining of Ti-6-4. The effect of liquid nitrogen (LIN) coolant jets on the
cutting processes is evaluated by using an experimentally estimated convective heat
transfer, which is assigned to the boundaries in the cutting zone. Five cooling
strategies are used: (i) cryogenic tool back cooling (ii) cryogenic workpiece precooling (iii) applying a single LIN jet to the tool rake (iv) applying a single jet to the
tool flank and (v) applying two LIN jets simultaneously to the tool rake and flank
surfaces.
FE simulations of dry cutting of Ti-6-4 show that the maximum temperature at the
tool/chip interface reaches 1070C, at a cutting speed of 300 ft/min. Using a single
LIN jet on the rakeface, this temperature is shown to decrease significantly to 437C.
The maximum temperature drops to 265C, by simultaneous jetting of the tool rake
and flank surfaces. At lower cutting speeds, the application of a single LIN jet to
either the tool rake or flank was shown to be competitive with emulsion cooling in
terms of reducing the temperature. Cooling approaches in order of effectiveness in
reducing the maximum tool/chip interface temperature were: (1) simultaneous rake
and flank cooling (2) cryogenic rake cooling (3) cryogenic flank cooling (4) cryogenic
pre-cooling of the workpiece (4) emulsion cooling (5) cryogenic tool back cooling and
(6) dry cutting.
Reference
Hong S. Y. and Ding Y., Cooling approaches and cutting temperatures in cryogenic
machining of Ti-6Al-4V, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol.
41, 2001, pp. 1417-1437.
15
3.2.1
Heat transfer process during cryogenic machining

Sub-category: Temperatures under cryogenic cooling
Contact Information
Zbigniew Zurecki
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
zureckz@airproducts.com
Abstract
The
researchers
investigated
the
increase in hardness and toughness of
the cutting tool with cryogenic cooling
during the machining process.
The
degree of convective cooling during the
machining process was shown to be
directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the rakeface and the
boiling temperature of the coolant. With
liquid nitrogen, this T is much larger,
compared to conventional coolants,
resulting in a more effective convective
heat transfer process.
Figure 3.2.1: Schematic of conductive

and convective cooling
The conductive heat transfer process through the cutting tool was also shown to be
dependent on the temperature difference between the surface and bulk temperature.
The researchers explained that with cryogenic cooling, the bulk of the tool is at
cryogenic temperature, which results in a steep temperature gradient between the
hot cutting zone and the insert subsurface. This not only results in an efficient heat
removal process, but also generates significant compressive residual stresses within
the bulk of the tool, increasing its fracture toughness.
Reference
Zurecki Z. and Harriott G., Development of industrial systems for cost effective
machining of metals using an environmentally friendly liquid nitrogen coolant,
Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Conference, Long Beach, CA, June 1998.
16
3.2.2
Insert stress analysis in hybrid machining of ceramics

Contact Information
Z. Y. Wang
Nevada Manufacturing Research Center
University of Nevada
Las Vegas, NV
zwang@nscee.edu
Abstract
The researchers developed a finite element model for estimating temperature and
stress distributions in a CBN insert, during machining of reaction-bonded silicon
nitride (RBSN).
The analyses were performed on two different models:
a
geometrically perfect model having no cracks and another with a pre-existing crack.
For both models, stress and thermal analyses were conducted by considering
structural and thermal loads separately. The FE analysis shows that the maximum
stress in the cutting tool decreases significantly (> 50%) when the maximum
temperature in the tool is reduced by a similar margin. The stress reduction was
shown to be more drastic for tools with pre-existing cracks.
Cryogenic machining of ceramics and superalloys
Reference
Wang Z. Y. and Petrescu G., Stress analyses of CBN insert in hybrid machining of
RBSN ceramic, International Journal of Machining Science and Technology, vol. 8,
2004, pp. 1-19.
17
3.2.3
Grinding zone temperature under cryogenic cooling

Contact Information
Soumitra Paul
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of cryogenic cooling on grinding zone
temperature for five commonly used steels, using both experimental and
computational techniques. The heat transfer in grinding was modeled as a twodimensional transient heat conduction problem with convective heat losses,
isothermal surfaces and heat input. The variation in thermal properties of steels with
temperature was also taken into account in developing the present model.
The experimental results show that cryogenic cooling substantially reduced the
grinding zone temperature, which was particularly evident at higher infeeds and
higher ductility of the work material. The effectiveness of conventional flood cooling
with soluble oil decreased with increase in infeed and temperature.
The
computational estimates of temperature were shown to match closely with the
experimental values, but the distribution pattern indicated some deviation, which
was attributed to the assumptions in the model regarding contact length and heat
flux distribution.
Cryogenic machining of steels and heat-resistant alloys
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Paul S. and Chattopadhyay A. B., Determination and control of grinding zone
temperature under cryogenic cooling, International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, vol. 36(4), 1996, pp. 491-501.
18
4.
Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic

temperatures
4.1
Friction behavior of coatings under cryo-cooling
4.1.1
Friction and wear behavior of hard and superhard

coatings at cryogenic temperatures
Category: Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures

Sub-category: Friction behavior of coatings under cryo-cooling
Contact Information
Ye. L. Ostrovskaya
B. Verkin Institute of Low Temp. Physics and Engg.
National Academy of Science of Ukraine
Lenin Ave., 47, 61164,
Kharkov, Ukraine
root@srdb.kharkov.ua
Abstract
The researchers present data on friction and wear behavior of pin-on-disc pairs with
superhard diamond-like-carbon (DLC) coatings and hard coatings of zirconium nitride
(ZrN) and titanium nitride (TiN) in liquid nitrogen (LIN). It is shown that at
cryogenic temperatures, the friction coefficients of hard and superhard DLC coatings
are dependent on the properties of both coatings and substrate material of a pin-ondisc assembly. It was also shown that cryogenic environment leads to a decrease in
friction coefficient for uncoated steel sample pairs, while it leads to a significant
increase for DLC-coated pairs.
Tribological behavior of materials in a cryogenic environment
Reference
Ostrovskaya Ye. L., Strelnitskij V. E., Kuleba V. I. and Gamulya G. D., Friction and
wear behavior of hard and superhard coatings at cryogenic temperatures, Tribology
International, vol. 34, 2001, pp. 255-263.
19
4.1.2
Frictional behavior and wear resistance of

lubricant coatings at cryogenic temperatures
solid

Contact Information
T. P. Yukhno
B. Verkin Institute of Low Temp. Physics and Engg.
National Academy of Science of Ukraine
Lenin Ave., 47, 61164,
Kharkov, Ukraine
sktb@ilt.kharkov.ua
Abstract
The researchers studied the tribological characteristics of polymer-based solid
lubricant coatings under frictional stressing in vacuum at 293, 120 and 77K.
Vacuum friction apparatus with cryogenic pumps and low temperature tribometer
were used for the sliding tests. It was found by the researchers that the coefficient
of friction was somewhat higher at cryogenic temperatures. No clear trend was
found between the temperature decrease and wear life of solid lubricant coatings.
The wear life was determined by the direction of changes in physical and mechanical
characteristics of a solid lubricant coating under cooling and by the rate of the binder
tribo-destruction process.
Reference
Yukhno T. P., Vvedensky Yu. V. and Sentyurikhina L. N., Low temperature
investigations on frictional behavior and wear resistance of solid lubricant coatings,
Tribology International, vol. 34, 2001, pp. 293-298.
20
4.1.3
Tribological behavior of polymers, composites and TiN

coatings at cryogenic temperatures

Contact Information
W. Hbner
Division of Tribology and Wear Protection
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM)
Unter den Eichen 44-46
D-12200, Berlin, Germany
wolfgang.huebner@bam.de
Abstract
The researchers investigated the tribological behavior of polymers, composites, TiN
and carbon coatings at cryogenic temperatures. The researchers observed that selfmating sliding pairs of AISI 304 type steel show intense adhesive wear all the way
down to 77K. For TiN-coated self-mated sliding pairs, lowering of the temperature
also had virtually no effect. For carbon coatings/steel pairs, both in liquid nitrogen
and liquid helium, the coatings failed at cryogenic temperatures by spalling at the
interface region between the coating and substrate. No such spalling was observed
at room temperature.
The researchers concluded that material properties at
cryogenic temperatures are not only influenced by the low temperature itself, but
also by the particular environmental medium.
Reference
Hbner W., Gradt T., Schneider T. and Borner H., Tribological behavior of materials
at cryogenic temperatures, Wear, vol. 216, 1998, pp. 150-159.
21
4.2.1
Friction and cutting forces in cryogenic machining of

Ti-6Al-4V

Sub-category: Chip/tool friction at cryogenic temperatures
Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of cryogenic temperature on chip/tool
friction coefficient in machining of Ti-6-4. Results of cutting force measurements
indicated that the cold-strengthening of the titanium material increased the cutting
force in cryogenic machining, but lower friction reduced the feed force.
A
mathematical model developed by researchers to convert the cutting, feed and radial
forces into normal and frictional force components showed that the effective friction
coefficient at the chip/tool interface was significantly reduced. From experimental
results, the researchers also concluded that flank-only cooling was inferior to rakeonly cooling, as the former resulted in insufficient heat removal from the tool/chip
interface and increased the possibility of work pre-cooling.
Reference
Hong S. Y., Ding Y. and Jeong W., Friction and cutting forces in cryogenic machining
of Ti-6Al-4V, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol. 41, 2001,
pp. 2271-2285.
22
5.
Cryogenic Turning of Ferrous Materials
5.1
Machining of steels
5.1.1
Cutting forces in cryogenic turning of steels
Category: Cryogenic turning of ferrous materials

Sub-category: Machining of steels
Contact Information
Berce Petru
Faculty of Machine Building
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Str. Constantin Daicoviciu nr 15, 400020
Cluj - Napoca, Romania
Petru.Berce@tcm.utcluj.ro
Abstract
The researchers machined alloy steels with cryogenically-cooled carbide cutting tools
and recorded cutting forces. Compared to dry cutting, significant reduction in cutting
forces was observed with cryogenic cooling. Energy expenditure was also reduced
by 85%, which the researchers attribute to reduction in friction coefficient at the
chip/tool interface with cryogenic cooling.
Cryogenic turning of steels
Reference
Petru B., Horatiu I. and Iosif T., Optimization of the technological parameters in
cryogenic turning, Gepgyartastechnologia (Hungary), vol. 32(11), 1992, pp. 489494.
23
5.1.2
Benefits of cryogenic cooling on tool wear and surface

finish in steels

Sub-category: Machining of steels
Contact Information
Soumitra Paul
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of cryogenic cooling in machining of AISI
1060 steel with carbide inserts and compared the effectiveness of cryogenic cooling
with that of dry machining and conventional cutting fluids. Liquid nitrogen (LIN) was
jetted through dual nozzles to cool the rake and flank surfaces. Flank wear, surface
roughness and cutting forces were measured.
Experimental results indicate that cryogenic cooling provided reduced tool wear and
improved surface finish, compared to dry and wet operations. The improvements
were shown to be higher for groove-type inserts, compared to flat-faced inserts.
The researchers attribute this to better penetration of liquid nitrogen close to the
cutting area through the grooves of the integrated chip-breaker. In both dry and
wet machining, severe groove wear and notch wear at the main and auxiliary cutting
edges were also observed.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Paul S. Dhar N. R. and Chattopadhyay A. B., Beneficial effects of cryogenic cooling
over dry and wet machining on tool wear and surface finish in turning of AISI 1060
steel, Journal of Material Processing Technology, vol. 116, 2001, pp. 44-48.
24
5.2.1
Cutting forces and surface roughness in cryogenic

machining of austenitic stainless steels

Sub-category: Machining of austenitic stainless steels
Contact Information
I. Mitelea
Department Of Metal Science
Polytechnic Institute
Blv. Mihai Viteazu 1, RO-300222
Timisoara, Romania
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of cryogenic cooling on the machinability of
austenitic stainless steels. Comparison tests were carried out between oil emulsion
and liquid nitrogen cooling with both high speed and carbide tools. Results show a
10 20% reduction in cutting forces with LIN cooling at all speeds and an increase in
the cutting speed with both carbide and HSS tools. LIN-cooled machining was shown
to improve the surface finish with HSS tools, while an opposing effect was observed
with carbide tools.
Cryogenic machining of stainless steels
Reference
Mitelea I. and Popovici G., Cutting forces and surface roughness in cryogenic
machining of austenitic stainless steels, Utensil, vol. 15, 1993, pp. 31-35.
25
5.2.2
Cryomachining of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steels

Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of injecting a small amount of liquid nitrogen
towards the chip/tool interface in AISI 304 stainless steel. By preventing cooling of
the workpiece, the researchers documented significant tool life improvement,
compared to conventional emulsion cooling. The rate of improvement was shown to
be higher at higher cutting speeds. The researchers also observed that flooding the
cutting area with sub-cooled liquid nitrogen resulted in tool fracture, possibly due to
increase in hardness and toughness of the work material. Dual cooling of the flank
and the rakeface was shown to enhance tool life at the higher cutting speeds, but
had a detrimental effect at the lower speeds.
Reference
Hong S. Y. and Broomer M., Economical and ecological cryogenic machining of AISI
304 austenitic stainless steel, Clean Products and Processes, vol. 2, 2000, pp. 157166.
26
5.2.3
Cryogenic cutting of austenitic steels A method of

improving tool life

Contact Information
I. Mitelea
Department Of Metal Science
Polytechnic Institute
Blv. Mihai Viteazu 1, RO-300222
Timisoara, Romania
Abstract
The researchers evaluated the effects of cryogenic cooling in machining of
12TiNiCr180 austenitic stainless steel. The liquid nitrogen (LIN) was supplied to the
cutting area through an external nozzle. With cryogenic cooling, a 3-5 fold increase
in tool life was observed with high-speed steel tools as compared with dry cutting or
flood cooling. With carbide tools, a 150% improvement in tool life was observed.
The significant improvement in tool life was attributed to reduction in interface
friction coefficient and diffusion wear.

Cryogenic machining of stainless steels
Reference
Mitelea I., Cryogenic cutting of austenitic steels A method of improving tool life,
Bulletin du Cercle d'Etudes des Metaux., vol. 15(20), 1990, pp. 1-11.
27
5.3.1
Cryogenic diamond turning of stainless steel

Sub-category: Machining of martensitic and PH stainless steels
Contact Information
Chris Evans
Zygo Corporation
Laurel Brook Road
Middlefield, CT 06455-0448
Abstract
The researcher investigated the nature of tribo-thermal and tribo-chemical wear in
machining of 440V stainless steel with PCD. Benchmark tests with mineral oil
cooling at room temperature produced a significantly higher rate of tool wear,
compared to cryogenic cooling. Cryogenic cooling of the tool was achieved through
thermal conduction along the tool shank by immersing the back of the tool in a LIN
bath. The researchers concluded that both diffusion and catalyzed graphitization of
the diamond was slowed at low temperatures.
Cryogenic machining of stainless steels with diamond tools
Reference
Evans C., Cryogenic diamond turning of stainless steel, Annals of the CIRP, vol.
40(1), 1991, pp. 571-575.
28
5.3.2
Cryogenic ultra-precision machining of ferrous metals

with natural diamond tools

Sub-category: Machining of martensitic and PH stainless steels
Contact Information
Li Jinnian
Harbin Institute of Technology
92 West Da-Zhi St.,
Harbin, 150001, China
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of cryogenic cooling in machining of ferrous
materials with natural diamond tools. Experimental results show a significant
reduction in flank wear rate and overall flank wear over 20 min. of machining. The
researchers claim that lowering of the cutting temperature and inert atmosphere
reduced the oxidative wear process, making it feasible to cut ferrous materials with
diamond tools.
Cryogenic machining of stainless steels with diamond tools
Reference
Li J., Yuan Z. and Zhou M., Cryogenic ultra-precision machining of ferrous metals
with natural diamond tools, Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 25(1),
1989, pp. 69-72.
29
5.4.1
Improving chip breakability in low carbon steels by

cryogenic chip cooling

Sub-category: Chip breaking in steels by cryogenic cooling
Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers presented an approach to improve chip breakability in low carbon
steels by targeted cryogenic jetting of the chip surface. The researchers observed
that by selectively bringing the chip temperature down to the embrittlement
temperature of the work material, while minimizing the cooling effect on the primary
shear plane, it is possible to expand the feed range for which selectable chips will be
produced. For the same feed rate, chip shape at higher cutting speed was shown to
be minimally affected by the cooling process.
The researchers concluded that
although the use of liquid nitrogen (LIN) tends to reduce chip thickness and increase
chip curvature radius, the cooling effect of LIN was enough to counter the
unfavorable changes in chip geometry for the acceptable range of speeds and feeds.
Reference
Hong S. Y., Ding Y. and Ekkens R. G., Improving low carbon steel chip breakability
by cryogenic chip cooling, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture,
vol. 39, 1999, pp. 1065-1085.
30
6.
Cryogenic Machining of Hardened Materials
6.1
Machining of hardened steels and irons
6.1.1
Machining of hardened steels with LIN-cooled Al2O3

ceramics
Category: Cryogenic machining of hardened materials

Sub-category: Machining of hardened steels and irons
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
Machining tests were conducted on several hardened steel samples, including A2,
52100, and M50 tool steels. All samples were hardened to 61-62 HRc and machined
with commercial alumina ceramic inserts. The researchers compared the effects of
cryogenic liquid nitrogen (LIN) cooling against conventional flood cooling and dry
turning, in terms of tool life, surface finish and cutting forces.
In ultra-finishing of 52100 bearing steel, LIN-cooled Al2O3 inserts recorded a 100%
improvement in tool life over conventional dry or flood cooling. Surface finish
recorded with LIN-cooled insert, was below the theoretical limit of the feed/nose
radius combination, while that for the conventionally-cooled inserts was higher than
the theoretical limit. The researchers attribute this to the possible flattening of the
surface profile due to brittle fracture of the peaks, with LIN cooling. Cutting tests
with A2 and M50 steel also showed similar surface finish results.
The dynamometry tests show that under accelerated cutting conditions, LIN-cooled
Al2O3 insert clearly outperformed other conventional conditions, both under constant
and variable feed cutting.
High-pressure flood coolant performed the worst,
confirming earlier observations related to reduction of fracture toughness of Al2O3
inserts with moisture. With M50 steel, a 60% improvement in compressive residual
stress was also observed with cryogenic cooling, compared to flood cooling.
Reference
Ghosh R., How cryogenic machining offers greater ceramic tool performance, IMTS
Manufacturing Conference, Sept. 2004.
31
6.2.1
Cryogenic machining
composites
of
tungsten
carbide/cobalt

Sub-category: Machining of hardened composites
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
The researchers evaluated machining of carbide dies and compared the effectiveness
of cryogenic cooling to conventional flood cooling with PCD tools. The sharpness of
the PCD tool engaged in cutting was monitored at the CNC panel by recording the
spindle torque required to keep up with the cutting force developing at an
increasingly dull cutting edge. Each tool life test was considered completed when the
power drawn from the spindle approached or just exceeded 50% of available spindle
power. Changes of spindle torque from one OD-cutting pass of the tool to another
are plotted in figure 6.2.1. It was observed that the wear was limited to the cutting
edge area with deep abrasive grooves on the flank and a light discoloration on the
rake. Thermal discoloration of the braze film under the diamond layer was also
observed by the end of edge life in each test (figure 6.2.2). Subsequent examination
of worn PCD edges involved scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental spot
analysis using X-ray diffraction (XRD).
Spindle torque measurements (figure 6.2.1) indicate that cutting with LIN is less
force and heat-intensive than cutting wet. The LIN-cooled tool cut about 40% more
material at higher speed (120 ft./36.6 m /min.) than the flood-cooled tool (60
ft/18.3 m/min.) Also, when the flood-cooled tool was run at the same speed as the
LIN-cooled tool (120 ft/min.), tool life was reduced substantially.
Thus, the observed enhancement of PCD tool, known to be heat-sensitive, appears
to result from a combination of generic LIN cooling as well as an unexpected effect
of reducing the cutting force. In figure 6.2.3, the edge and rake surface stays
clean or micro-cleavaged when cooled with LIN but builds-up a layer of workpiece
material during wet machining. XRD tests confirm that the built-up material on the
rakeface with flood cooling is primarily tungsten. The researchers attribute this builtup layer to the observed difference in the cutting forces between flood and LINcooled inserts.
32
Reference
Ghosh R., Zurecki Z. and Frey J. H., Cryogenic machining with brittle tools and
effects on tool life, Proceedings of ASME IMECE2003-42232, Nov. 2003.
0.5 mm
Figure 6.2.1: Spindle load comparison in machining of WC/Co rolls
PCD layer
Carbide
holder
Overheated
braze
Flank wear
(abrasion)
Figure 6.2.2: Worn tool, showing heat built-up in the braze layer
FLOOD (60 SFM)
LIN (120 SFM)
Figure 6.2.3: Comparison of PCD rake surfaces, showing smearing with flood
33
6.3.1
Cryogenic turning of silicon nitride ceramics

Sub-category: Machining of ceramics and refractory materials
Contact Information
Z. Y. Wang
Deptt. Of Mechanical Engg.
Las Vegas, NV
zwang@nscee.edu
Abstract
The researchers describe a closed-loop reservoir system for cryogenic cooling of the
insert during machining of reaction-bonded silicon nitride (RBSN) ceramic with PCBN
tools. Results show that flank wear and cutting temperature were significantly
reduced with cryogenic cooling, compared to dry cutting. The chips were fragmented
into powder in the primary deformation zone, limiting the chip/tool contact to the
cutting edge and eliminating the possibility of crater wear. The surface roughness
with cryogenic cooling was shown to be significantly lower, compared to no cooling,
but this was attributed to the accelerated tool wear under the dry cutting condition.
Reference
Wang Z. Y., Rajurkar K. P. and Murugappan M., Cryogenic PCBN turning of ceramic
(Si3N4), Wear, vol. 195, 1996, pp. 1-6.
34
6.4.1
Finish turning of hardened powder metallurgy steel

parts using cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Machining of heat treated powder metals
Contact Information
Zbigniew Zurecki
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
The researchers examine a new, cost-effective alternative for the P/M finish-turning
which involves replacing slow and expensive PCBN dry turning with cryogenicallycooled ceramic tools and eliminates the environmental and safety issues. Presented
analysis includes comparative tool-life, cutting force, and surface integrity study.
Iron, graphite, copper and nickel powders were premixed to obtain the FN-0208
(MPIF) composition, pressed into P/M disks, and sintered to achieve two different
density levels: 6.67 g/cm3 (low density Ld) and 7.20 g/ cm3 (high density Hd). Half
of the disks from each density group was subsequently heat-treated for a high-level
apparent hardness at least 30 HRC in the case of the low density material, and at
least 40 HRC in the case of the high density material. Two types of cutting tools and
cooling conditions were selected for machining tests on the four resultant materials:
CBN tool combined with the conventional cutting fluid cooling, and an Al2O3-TiC tool
combined with liquid nitrogen cooling.
Results show that following machining, both soft (LdS & HdS) and hard (LdH & HdH)
materials became surface hardened, but the degree of that hardening is somewhat
higher for the Al2O3-LIN cutting than for the CBN-flood cutting. Since higher surface
hardness and density are usually associated with an improved part performance, the
researchers suggest that the Al2O3-LIN cutting method may positively affect service
performance. Both LdS and HdS materials were hardened by the combined effect of
subsurface densification, and cold work that is apparently higher in the case of Al2O3LIN cutting (figure 6.4.1). However, in case of the heat-treated material, the
original hardness was simply retained during the Al2O3-LIN cutting and it dropped
below the original value during the CBN-flood cutting. The effect can be explained
by a more effective cooling of work material in LIN machining which prevents overtempering of the heat-treated case.
Tool life results indicate significant improvement with LIN-cooled Al2O3 tools over
flood-cooled CBN tools in all examined cases (figure 6.4.2). The Al2O3-LIN cutting
was also found to significantly improve surface finish in the case of soft materials
(LdS & HdS) but not in the case of hard ones. In general, the finish (1/Ra) scaled
with the true hardness of P/M material rather than density and, in contrast to
wrought steels, showed less dependence on cutting edge profile.
35

Reference
Zurecki Z. Ghosh R. and Frey J. H., Finish turning of hardened powder metallurgy
steel using cryogenic cooling, International Conference on Powder Metallurgy and
Particulate Materials, Las Vegas, NV, June 2003.
Figure 6.4.1: Subsurface hardness changes between LIN and flood cooling
Figure 6.4.2: Tool life comparison between LIN and flood cooling
36
7.
Cryogenic machining of heat resistant alloys
7.1
Turning of Ni-based alloys under cryogenic cooling
7.1.1
Hybrid machining of Inconel 718
Category: Cryogenic machining of heat resistant alloys

Sub-category: Turning of Ni-based alloys under cryogenic cooling
Contact Information
Z. Y. Wang
Las Vegas, NV
zwang@nscee.edu
Abstract
The researchers compared three different machining methods in machining of IN 718
with whisker-reinforced ceramic tools. These include the conventional approach
using emulsion coolants, plasma-enhanced machining and hybrid turning (combining
plasma heating of the material and cryogenic cooling of the tool). Flank wear,
surface roughness and cutting forces were measured after each cut.
Results show that plasma-enhanced machining reduced tool life (a limiting flank
wear criterion of 0.5 mm) by 10%, compared to conventional flood cooling. The
researchers attribute this reduction to the increase in heat flow to the cutting area,
accelerating tool wear. Hybrid machining was shown to increase tool life by 150%
over conventional machining. Surface roughness was the most improved with hybrid
machining, possibly as a result of reduced friction coefficient between the flank face
and the newly generated work surface, due to a decrease of cutting tool temperature.
Cutting forces were also significantly lower with hybrid machining, due to the
combined effect of hardening of the tool due to cryogenic cooling and softening of
the workpiece with plasma heating.
Reference
Wang Z. Y., Rajurkar K. P., Fan J., Lei S., Shin Y. C. and Petrescu G., Hybrid
machining of Inconel 718, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture,
vol. 43(13), 2003, pp. 1391-1396.
37
7.2.1
Turning of titanium alloy with TiB2-coated carbides

under cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Cryogenic machining of Ti-alloys
Contact Information
A. B. Chattopadhyay
abcme@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in
Abstract
The researchers investigated the performance of TiB2-coated carbide tools in
cryogenic machining of Ti-alloy (Ti-5Al-5Mo-2Sn-V). Cutting forces, surface quality,
surface roughness and tool wear aspects were studied under both dry and cryogenic
cooling conditions. Results show higher cutting and feed forces under dry cutting, as
well as significant smearing of the as-finished surface. Micro-welding between the
chip and the tool increased significantly at higher cutting speeds under dry cutting,
due to increased reactivity of Ti at higher temperatures. Cryogenic cooling, on the
other hand, was shown to better retain cutting edge sharpness and prevent plastic
deformation of the tool, even at high cutting speeds. The researchers concluded that
TiB2-coated carbide inserts were ineffective in machining of Ti alloys, even under
cryogenic cooling, mainly due to the removal of coating under fluctuating cutting
forces.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Venugopal K. A., Tawade R., Prashanth P. G. and Chattopadhyay A. B., Turning of
titanium alloy with TiB2-coated carbides under cryogenic cooling, Proceedings of
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 217(B), 2003, pp. 1697-1707.
38
7.2.2
New cooling approach and tool life improvement in

cryogenic machining of Ti-6Al-4V

Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of simultaneous rake and flank cooling in
machining of Ti-6-4. Liquid nitrogen (LIN) was applied directly to the cutting tip and
the flow rate was proportional to the heat generated in the cutting process. The
researchers compared conventional flood cooling to LIN flooding and LIN jetting
through a nozzle built into the chipbreaker.
The results indicate that LIN flooding resulted in a reduction of tool life by 68%,
compared to conventional flood cooling. In contrast, LIN cooling with optimized
nozzle position improved tool life by 57%, compared to flood. The improvements
were even more significant at higher cutting speeds. The researchers conclude that
the cooling approach and cooling location are far more important than the amount of
LIN flow.

Reference
Hong S. Y., Markus I. and Jeong W., New cooling approach and tool life
improvement in cryogenic machining of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, International
Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol. 41, 2001, pp. 2245-2260.
39
7.2.3
Cryogenic turning and drilling of Ti-alloys

Contact Information
V. C. Venkatesh
Multi Media University
Jalan Ayer Keroh Alam, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia
v.c.venkatesh@mmu.edu.my
Abstract
Researchers at Multimedia University and University of Technology, Malaysia have
investigated the effects of cryogenic cooling in turning and drilling of Ti-alloys. In
turning with uncoated carbide tools, lowering of cutting forces, improvement in
surface finish and increase in Taylors n and C components were observed. In
drilling with solid carbide drills (K type), reductions in torque and thrust,
improvement in surface finish and reduction in drill wear were recorded.

Cryogenic turning, drilling and grinding
Reference
Venkatesh V. C., Brevern P., Izman S. and Vichare P., Cryogenic machining of Tialloys, International Conference on Machining Science and Technology (ICOMAST),
Melaka, Malaysia, August 2006 (to be published).
40
7.3.1
Cryogenic machining of tantalum

Sub-category: Cryomachining of Ta and Ta-based alloys
Contact Information
Z. Y. Wang
Deptt. Of Mechanical Engg.
Las Vegas, NV
zwang@nscee.edu
Abstract
The researchers carried out a set of ultra-finishing tests in machining tantalum,
comparing conventional flood cooling to cryogenic cooling methods. Results show
that over the same cutting length, cryogenic cooling produced 70% less flank wear,
compared to conventional flood cooling. Surface roughness also improved by 40%,
some of which could be attributed to the lower rate of tool wear with cryogenic
cooling. Statistical analysis of cutting forces suggests that cryogenic cooling not only
resulted in a significant reduction in cutting forces, but the variance was also reduced.
Reference
Wang Z. Y., Rajurkar K. P. and Petrescu, G., Cryogenic machining of tantalum,
Journal of Manufacturing Processes (SME), vol. 4(2), 2002, pp. 122-127.
41
7.4.1
Machining of medical cobalt chrome with ceramic tools

Sub-category: Cryogenic machining of cobalt chrome alloys
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of cryogenic cooling in machining of medical
grade cobalt chrome material, used for manufacture of artificial hip joints.
Conventional machining with flood coolant and carbide inserts is a slow, expensive
process, with cutting speeds of 60 90 m/min. (200 300 ft/min.). Accelerated
tool wear and smearing of finished surface were also investigated, for both wrought
and cast parts.
Cryogenic machining enabled the use of Al2O3 and SiAlON inserts for machining of
wrought and cast material. Material removal rate was increased by 200 300%,
while tool life improved by over 50%. Surface finish was also shown to improve
considerably, with significant reduction in surface smearing.
The researchers
attribute the improvement in surface finish to better integrity of the cutting edge and
reduced rate of tool wear.
Reference
Ghosh R., How cryogenic machining offers greater ceramic tool performance, IMTS
Manufacturing Conference, Sept. 2004.
42
8.
Cryogenic Machining of Non-ferrous Materials
8.1
Machining of aluminum alloys
8.1.1
Wear of diamond cutting tool in single point turning
Category: Cryogenic machining of non-ferrous materials

Sub-category: Machining of aluminum alloys
Contact Information
Q. Zhao
92 West Da-Zhi St.,
Abstract
The researchers investigated the machining of aluminum alloy (LY12), OFHC copper
and single crystal silicon with monocrystalline diamond cutting tool under cryogenic
conditions. The effect of tool wear on surface roughness was examined, and the
macro and micro tool wear morphologies were observed using optical and atomic
force microscopes. Turning copper by use of oxygen-free coolant or under reduced
oxygen environment was suggested to abate the cutting tool wear. In turning
aluminum alloy, application of an "inhibitor" such as a lubricant was recommended,
while in turning single crystal silicon, best results were obtained in a cryogenic,
reduced-oxygen environment. In addition, reasonably small depths of cut and feed
rate were suggested to eliminate the vibration impact and reduce the wear rate of
the diamond tool.
Cryogenic machining of non ferrous materials
Reference
Zhao Q., Chen M., Liang Y. and Dong S., Wear of diamond cutting tool in ultraprecision single point turning, Mocaxue Xuebao (Tribology) [China], vol. 22, 2003,
pp. 321-327.
43
8.1.2
Machining and fluidity of 356Al/SiC(p) composites

Sub-category: Machining of aluminum alloys
Contact Information
C. B. Lin
Tamkang University
Taipei 25137, Taiwan
cblin@mail.tku.edu.tw
Abstract
The researchers compared the fluidity and machining of 356Al/0-20 wt% SiC
composites with PCD cutting tools under conventional and cryogenic cooling. A total
of 15 work materials were tested (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% SiC, each under three
different heat treatment conditions: as cast, annealed, and T6). Results show that
under the same cooling condition and %SiC, the least level of flank wear was
observed with T6, followed by cast and annealed conditions. Cryogenic cooling
resulted in a smaller flank wear than conventional cooling, especially when the
composite was treated with T6 heat treatment.
Surface roughness of the T6 composite was the smallest among all heat treated
conditions. Again, cryogenic cooling resulted in better surface finish than
conventional flood coolant. Chip control was also significantly better under all %SiC
and heat treatment conditions with cryogenic cooling.
Cryogenic machining of non ferrous materials
Reference
Lin C. B., Hung Y. W., Liu W. C. and Kang S. W., Machining and fluidity of
356Al/SiC(p) composites, Journal of Material Processing Technology, vol. 110, 2001,
pp. 152-159.
44
8.2.1
Cryogenic machining of Kevlar composites

Sub-category: Machining of plastics/polymers
Contact Information
Debes Bhattacharya
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Auckland
Private Bag 92019
Auckland 1020, New Zealand

d.bhattacharyya@auckland.ac.nz
Abstract
The researchers investigated the machining of Kevlar aramid fiber reinforced plastic
(KFRP) under cryogenic conditions. The workpiece cooling was achieved by jetting of
liquid nitrogen (LIN) or dipping the workpiece in a cryogenic bath. Machining tests
show that the cryo-cooled workpiece generated less smearing and surface cracks.
Cryogenic machining of plastics
Reference
Bhattacharya D., Allen M. N. and Mander S. J., Cryogenic machining of Kevlar
composites, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, vol. 8(6), 1993, pp. 631-651.
45
9.
Cryogenic Cooling and Interrupted Cuts
9.1
Use of alumina ceramics in hard interrupted cuts
9.1.1
Interrupted hard turning with cryo-cooled ceramic tool
Category: Cryogenic cooling and interrupted cuts

Sub-category: Use of alumina ceramics in hardened interrupted cuts
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
The researchers investigated the applicability of cryogenically-cooled Al2O3 ceramic
tools in hard interrupted turning. Current interrupted hard turning applications
involve the use of expensive PCBN cutting tools, usually in a dry cutting process.
The use of coolants is generally avoided, as the coolant hardens the free edges of
the interruptions, causing detrimental effects on tool life. Cheaper Al2O3 ceramic
tools have very low fracture toughness, and as such, are not used in interrupted
cutting operations.
The objective of the presented work was twofold. Firstly, to explore the possibility of
indirect cooling of the insert in interrupted hard turning, so as to cool the insert, but
minimize the detrimental effects of workpiece hardening by eliminating coolant
interaction with the work surface. The second objective was to investigate the
applicability of using less expensive alumina ceramic inserts in such applications,
using the new cooling process. The coolant selected, is liquid nitrogen (LIN), which
has been shown to improve tool life predictability in Al2O3 ceramics, in continuous
hard turning process. Work material selected was 52100 steel, hardened to 56 and
62 HRc, with single and multiple slot configurations and varying slot-widths.
Results show that at a high cutting speed of 900 ft/min., the cryogenically-cooled
Al2O3 ceramic tool significantly outperformed the conventional PCBN/Dry and
PCBN/Flood solutions (figure 9.1.1). The variance in tool life with the alumina tool
was also lower than the PCBN inserts. Increasing the severity of the interruption has
been shown to slightly reduce the performance of the Al2O3/LIN combination, while
boosting the performance of the PCBN/Dry and PCBN/Flood. In case of severe
interruptions, PCBN/LIN was the best choice, outperforming PCBN/Dry, PCBN/Flood
and Al2O3/LIN combinations.
Among the three variables tested (varying width, frequency of interruptions and
work hardness), the hardness of the work material is shown to have the biggest
effect on tool life, irrespective of the cooling medium (figure 9.1.2).
46

Reference
Ghosh R., Interrupted hard turning with cryogenically cooled ceramic tools,
Transactions of NAMRI/SME, vol. 33, 2005, pp. 161-169.
0.35
BNC200 / DRY
ZC4 / LIN
BNC200 / FLOOD
0.25
0.2
Key issues for this program

0.15
Cryogenic machining of ferrous and nonferrous alloys
Cryogenic machining of composites
and polymers
Work Material:
52100 Steel (50 - 56 HRc)
0.1
DOC: 0.007" Feed: 0.005" Speed: 900 SFM
0.05
Cryogenic milling and drilling Interruption: Single 3/16" slot
Test Sets: LIN/Al2O3, DRY/PCBN, FLOOD/PCBN
0
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
# of interruptions ('000s)
Figure 9.1.1: Comparison of nose wear (Al2O3/LIN, PCBN/Dry and PCBN/Flood)
0.9
0.8
Material: 52100 Steel Slot: 3/16" wide single slot
Insert: CNGA 432 (PCBN) Coolant: DRY
0.6
0.7
0.5
62 HRc
TL: 0.2 min.
0.4
0.3
Material: 52100 Steel Slot: 3/16" wide single slot

Insert: CNGA 432 (Al2O3) Coolant: LIN
0.8
Nose Wear (m m )
0.7
N ose Wear (m m )
Nose Wear (mm)
0.3
56 HRc
TL: 3.13 min.
0.2
0.1
0.6
0.5
0.4
56 HRc
TL: 14.82 min.
62 HRc
TL: 3.55 min.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Cut Time (min.)
Figure 9.1.2: Comparison of tool life for varying hardness
10
12
14
Cut Time (min.)
(a) Dry (b) LIN
47
16
10.
Cryogenic Milling and Drilling
10.1
Cryogenic cooling in milling
10.1.1
Cryogenic milling of metallic and non-metallic parts
Category: Cryogenic milling and drilling

Sub-category: Cryogenic cooling in milling
Contact Information
Shane Y. Hong
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of cryogenic cooling in milling of various metals
and non-metallic materials, including AISI 1018, AISI 4140, Ti6Al4V, Al 6061, A390
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A 4-flute HSS end-mill fitted with a rotary liquid
nitrogen distributor was used for the tests. Results show significant improvement in
tool life with cryogenic cooling over dry or wet machining in both steel samples.
Similar trends were observed in machining of Ti6Al4V. In machining of Al 6061, test
results were inconclusive, as the tool lasted too long and tool life tests were not
completed. However, in machining of A390, the cryogenically cooled tool showed a
10-fold increase in tool life over dry cutting.
The researchers attribute this
improvement to significantly higher abrasion resistance with cryo-cooling, due to
hardening of the tool material. In machining of PVC, cryogenic cooling also reduced
flank wear significantly, compared to dry cutting and conventional cooling.
Reference
Hong S.Y., Qu X. and Lee A., Economical cryogenic milling for environmentally safe
manufacturing, Transactions of NAMRI/SME, May 19-22, 1998, MR98-177.
48
10.1.2
End milling of elastomers

Sub-category: Cryogenic cooling in milling
Contact Information
Albert J. Shih
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI 48109.
shiha@umich.edu
Abstract
The researchers evaluated machining of elastomers by using very sharp, down-cut
woodworking router tools and cryogenically cooling the elastomer with solid carbon
dioxide (dry ice) to -79C, before machining. The researchers observed that cooling
the elastomer workpiece in solid CO2 improved the effectiveness of the tools in
producing a burr-free groove, compared to room-temperature machining. However,
workpieces, cooled to 0C did not show any appreciable burr reduction over roomtemperature machining.
Cryogenic milling of elastomers
Reference
Shih A. J., Lewis M. A. and Strenkowski J. S., End milling of elastomers fixture
design and tool effectiveness for material removal, Journal of Manufacturing Science
and Engineering (ASME), vol. 126, 2004, pp. 115-126.
49
10.2.1
A study of hole drilling in Kevlar composites

Sub-category: Cryogenic drilling of plastics
Contact Information
Debes Bhattacharya
University of Auckland
Private Bag 92019
Auckland 1020, New Zealand

d.bhattacharyya@auckland.ac.nz
Abstract
The researchers investigated the drilling of Kevlar composites and studied the
effectiveness of cryogenic cooling compared to conventional dry drilling. Thrust force,
torque, roundness error and surface roughness were measured for each test.
Average surface finish and dimensional quality of holes were shown to improve
significantly by the continual application of liquid nitrogen at the drilling site. While
the characteristic deficiency of drilling Kevlar fiber reinforced plastic (KFRP)
laminates is highlighted by the fuzzy, uncut and protruding fibers at entry and exit
faces, the problem was minimized with cryogenic cooling.
The torque values
remained relatively unchanged, but the thrust force was higher at cryogenic
temperatures.
Cryogenic machining of plastics
Reference
Bhattacharya D. and Horrigan D. P. W., A study of hole drilling in Kevlar
composites, Composites Science and Technology, vol. 58, 1998, pp. 267-283.
50
10.3.1
Synthesis of nanocrystalline M50 steel by cryomilling

Sub-category: Cryomilling of nanocrystalline materials
Contact Information
M. L. Lau
Department of Chemical Engineering and Material Science
University of California,
Davis, CA 95616
Abstract
The researchers investigated the synthesis of nanocrystalline high speed tool steel
M50 powders by cryogenic high energy ball milling (cryomilling). Pre-alloyed M50
steel was spray atomized and subsequently cryomilled in liquid nitrogen (LIN) for 25
hours. Elemental Al powder was added prior to cryomilling to promote the formation
of nanoscale Al2O3 and AlN dispersoids to improve the thermal stability of the
nanocrystalline M50 steel.
High resolution transmission electron microscopy
revealed the formation of various carbides (V8C7, Fe3C and FeC), oxides (Al2O3, MoO3
and V3O7) and a nitride phase (AlN) during cryomilling. An average grain size of 50
nm was maintained for the cryomilled M50 powder after heat treatment at 1323K
(approximately 75% of the melting temperature of M50) for 1 hour. According to
the researchers, the enhanced thermal stability may be attributed to the formation of
nanoscale particles, such as Cr2O3 and V2O3.
Cryomilling of nanocrystalline materials
Reference
Lau M. L., Jiang H. G., Perez R. J., Juarez-Islas J. and Lavernia E. J., Synthesis of
nanocrystalline M50 steel powders by cryomilling, NanoStructured Materials, vol.
7(8), 1996, pp. 847-856.
51
10.3.2
Formation of nanocrystalline aluminum by low-energy

cryomilling

Contact Information
F. Zhou
Department of Chemical Engineering and Material Science
University of California,
Davis, CA 95616
fzhou@uci.edu
Abstract
The researchers studied the microstructure evolution mechanism of nano-crystalline
pure Al powders by cryogenic ball milling, using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Two types of representative nanostructures
were identified: primarily a random dispersion of equiaxed grains with an average
diameter of ~ 26 nm and a less-frequently observed lamellar structure with a length
scale of ~ 100 300 nm and an average width close to the average grain size. The
cryomilled Al contained a large number of high angle grain boundaries formed by the
grain subdivision mechanism. According to the researchers, this microstructure is
similar to that of large strain cold-rolled materials. The researchers also believe that
recrystallization mechanism may be operative for the nanostructure formation during
cryomilling.
Reference
Zhou F., Witkin D., Nutt S. R. and Lavernia E. J., Formation of nanostructure in Al
produced by low energy ball milling at cryogenic temperature, Materials Science and
Engineering, vol. A 375377, 2004, pp. 917-921.
52
10.3.3
Nanocrystalline
cryomilling
NiCrAlY
powder
synthesis
by

Contact Information
J. A. Picas
Light Alloys and Surface Treatments Design Center
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya
08800 Vilanova i la Geltru, Spain
josep.picas@upc.es
Abstract
The researchers used commercially available Ni-22Cr-10Al-1Y powder and
mechanically cryomilled for 12 hours in a liquid nitrogen environment.
The
microstructure, identified as being composed of two phases (Ni, Cr-rich) and
(Ni3Al), led to the formation of irregular and flake-shaped agglomerates. The
average sizes of the as-received and cryomilled powder was 29 and 106 m,
respectively. The increase in particle size is attributed to a higher cold welding
tendency, overcoming the fracture process.
Reference
Picas J. A., Forn A., Ajdelsztajn L. and Schoenung J., Nanocrystalline NiCrAlY
powder synthesis by mechanical cryomilling, Powder Technology, vol. 148, 2004, pp.
20-23.
53
10.3.4
Consolidation behavior of nanocrystalline Al-5at%Ti

alloys synthesized by cryomilling

Contact Information
Kyoung Il Moon
Plasma Technology R&D Division
Korea Institute of Industrial Technology
ChonAnSi 330-825, South Korea
kimoon@kitech.re.kr
Abstract
The researchers studied the formation of nanocrystalline Al powder with titanium
addition (5at%Ti) by cryogenic milling at -85C. The mean particle and average
grain sizes of as-milled powders was 6 m and 16 nm for cryogenic milling and 19
m and 21 nm for room temperature milling, respectively. The significant reduction
in particle and grain sizes of Al-5at%Ti powder during cryomilling was attributed to
suppression of dynamic recovery and promotion of fracture in the parent material.
The powder synthesized by cryomilling was also shown to have better sinterability
than powder synthesized by room temperature milling.
Reference
Choi J. H., Moon K. I., Kim J. K., Oh Y. M., Suh J. H. and Kim S. J., Consolidation
behavior of nanocrystalline Al-5at%Ti alloys synthesized by cryogenic milling,
Journal of Alloys and Compounds, vol. 315, 2001, pp. 178-186.
54
11.
Cryogenic Grinding
11.1
Cryogenic cooling effects in grinding
11.1.1
A study of effects of cryo-cooling in grinding
Category: Cryogenic grinding

Sub-category: Cryogenic cooling effects in grinding
Contact Information
Soumitra Paul
Abstract
The researchers studied the effects of cryo-cooling on grinding forces, surface
characteristics, residual stresses and chip form in various steels. The steels tested,
include mild steel (AISI 1020), high carbon steel (AISI 1080), cold die steel (D2),
hot die steel (H11) and high speed steel (M2). It was observed that for most steels,
the grinding forces were higher in wet grinding than in dry grinding, suggesting
softening of the work material at high temperatures. However, for all steels tested,
the forces under cryo-grinding were less than those under conventional grinding.
Cryo-grinding also provided more benefits at higher infeeds and in harder materials.
Surface defects that were studied, included micro-cracks, surface oxidation, plastic
deformation of the high points of the asperities due to local Hertzian pressure, micropitting and redeposition. Dry grinding of AISI 1020 provided all types of surface
defects except cracks, indicating the ductile nature of the material. Under cryocooling, micro-pitting was the major surface defect, depicting brittle behavior. In D2
steel, both dry and wet grinding produced micro-cracks along with other defects and
the width of the cracks increased with infeed. Cryo-grinding eliminated cracks and
reduced redeposition. In H11 steel, oxidation occurred under both dry and wet
grinding. Surface cracks appeared at higher infeeds and only in wet grinding. Cryocooling provided a crack-free surface. Dry and wet grinding were shown to produce
significant tensile residual stresses, especially at higher infeed rates. Cryo-grinding
resulted in significant reduction of tensile residual stresses, particularly with H11 and
M2 steels. The researchers conclude that since these steels possess high thermal
stability, reduction of temperature at the grinding zone with cryo-cooling prevented
thermo-mechanical yielding and thus reduced tensile residual stresses.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Paul S. and Chattopadhyay A. B., A study of effects of cryo-cooling in grinding,
International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol. 35(1), 1995, pp. 109-117.
55
11.2.1
Grinding of steels with cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Cryogenic grinding of steels and stainless steels
Contact Information
A. K. Chattopadhyay
akc@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in
Abstract
The researchers compared the effects of coolants in grinding of steels with varying
hardness. The steels compared, include mild steel (14 HRc), 4340 steel (31 HRc),
4340 steel (44 HRc) and high speed steel (62 HRc). The researchers observed that
the actual temperature at the grinding point is drastically reduced due to cryocooling. The extent of reduction is 50 75% compared to dry grinding and 30
70%, compared to wet grinding with soluble oil. The rate of reduction was found to
decrease with increases in grinding depth and ductility of the material.
The researchers also observed reduction in surface roughness and specific cutting
energy requirement with cryo-cooling.
Substantial improvement in surface
properties was achieved through elimination/reduction of tensile residual stresses,
plastic flow, micro-cracking, thermal fracturing and oxidation.
The degree of
reduction was found to vary with the work material and grinding conditions.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Chattopadhyay A. B., Bose A. and Chattopadhyay A. K., Improvement in grinding
steels by cryogenic cooling, Precision Engineering, vol. 7(2), 1985, pp. 93-98.
56
11.2.2
Ground surface improvement of austenitic stainless

steels using cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Cryogenic grinding of steels and stainless steels
Contact Information
Nabil Ben Fredj
Laboratoire de Mecanique,
Materiaux et Procedes, LAB-STI-03,
ESSTT, 5, Avenue Taha Hussein,
1008, Tunis, Tunisia
nabil.benfredj@esstt.rnu.tn
Abstract
The researchers evaluated ground surface quality in AISI 304 with cryogenic cooling
based on grindability, surface integrity and corrosion resistance characterization.
Grinding experiments at constant stock removal rates were conducted under three
different environments: dry, soluble oil and cryogenic cooling.
The grindability results show that while cryogenic cooling generates the lowest
grinding temperature, it did not result in any major variation of the specific grinding
force components. However, significant surface quality improvements were recorded,
including a 40% reduction in surface roughness, a higher level of work hardening,
reduction in tensile residual stresses and better resistances to stress corrosion
cracking and pitting. The improvements in grindability and surface integrity were
shown to be particularly significant for high work speed and low depth of cut values.
It was also shown that these improvements are essentially due to a reduction of the
grinding temperature, which lowers the tensile residual stresses, favors material
removal by shearing and limits ground surface damage.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Fredj N. B., Sidhom, H. and Braham C., Ground surface improvement of the
austenitic stainless steel AISI 304 using cryogenic cooling, Surface and Coatings
Technology, 2006 [to be published].
57
11.3.1
Grinding of Ti-6Al-4V by cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Grinding of Ti-alloys with cryogenic cooling
Contact Information
B. Zhu
92 West Da-Zhi St.,
Abstract
The researchers investigated the effects of cryogenic cooling on grinding forces in
grinding of Ti-6Al-4V.
The measured grinding temperature was shown to be
significantly less with cryogenic cooling, compared to dry or wet grinding. Cryocooling was also shown to substantially reduce the grinding forces throughout the
entire feed range tested. This was attributed to retention of grit sharpness, inert
atmosphere and less primary ploughing. Dry and wet-ground surfaces also exhibited
significant thermal damage, including plastic deformation, ploughing and side-flow,
which was absent in the cryo-ground surface. The researchers concluded that
cryogenic grinding enhances the brittleness of the titanium alloy, thereby minimizing
adhesion and side-flow and reducing grinding temperature.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Zhu B., Zhang F. H. and Niu H., Grinding titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) by cryogenic
cooling, Key Engineering Materials, vol. 202-203, 2001, pp. 309-314.
58
11.3.2
Grinding of Ti-6Al-4V by brazed type mono-layered

superabrasive grinding wheels

Sub-category: Grinding of Ti-alloys with cryogenic cooling
Contact Information
U. Teicher
Dresden University of Technology
01062 Dresden, Germany
Abstract
The researchers evaluated the grindability of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V with monolayered brazed type superabrasive grinding wheels. These wheels consist of a single
layer of superabrasive grits bonded by brazing onto a metal core. The combination
of grit material, brazing material as well as core material is characterized by high
thermal conductivity to ensure heat dissipation from the grinding tool tip of the grits.
The researchers compared the use of a cryogenic coolant with other grinding
environments in terms of chip morphology, grinding forces and grinding wheel
condition. The other grinding environments included alkaline soap, oil, dry with
MoS2 coating and dry grinding. Results show that the best results were obtained
with conventional grinding fluids, in terms of lowest cutting forces, minimum surface
smearing and chip adherence. Dry grinding, as expected, produced the worst results,
which was only marginally improved with the application of liquid nitrogen as a
cutting fluid. MoS2 as a lubricant, was somewhat effective, but the results were
worse than with conventional fluids.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Teicher U., Ghosh A., Chattopadhyay A. B. and Kunanz K., On the grindability of
titanium alloy by brazed type mono-layered superabrasive grinding wheels,
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 2006 [to be published].
59
11.4.1
Cryogenic grinding of viscoelastic materials

Sub-category: Grinding of viscoelastic and plastic materials
Contact Information
Michael Wilczek
Fraunhofer Inst. of Environ., Safety and Energy Tech. UMSICHT
Osterfelder Strae 3
D-46047 Oberhausen
Germany
michael.wilczek@umsicht.fhg.de
Abstract
The researchers developed a two-stage low-temperature fine grinding plant for
grinding viscoelastic and plastic materials. The first stage involves a mechanical
refrigeration unit, which cools the material to be ground to about -60C. For many
materials, this temperature is sufficient for embrittlement. For materials that need
further cooling, it is then exposed to liquid nitrogen in a cryo-screw. While the twostage process reduces the operating cost by reducing usage of liquid nitrogen,
additional upfront cost of the refrigeration unit needs to be considered.
Cryogenic grinding
Reference
Wilczek M., Bertling J. and Hintemann D., Optimized technologies for cryogenic
grinding, International Journal of Mineral Processing, vol. 74S, 2004, pp. S425
S434.
60
12.
Work Material Behavior Under Cryo-cooling
12.1
Changes in hardness, residual stresses and white

layer
12.1.1
Investigation of white layers formed in conventional

and cryogenic hard turning of steels
Category: Work material behavior under cryo-cooling

Sub-category: Changes in hardness, residual stresses and white layer
Contact Information
Zbigniew Zurecki
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
The researchers investigated the formation of white (non-etching) layer and dark
(overtempered) layer at the machined surface in hard turning. The present study
examined the impact of liquid nitrogen spray cooling, tool and work materials, as
well as machining speed on white layer formation. Results are evaluated using XRD,
SEM, EDS, AES, residual stress measurement and microhardness profiling. Work
materials selected, were 52100 and A2 steels, hardened to 62 HRc. Each material
was machined with Al2O3 and PCBN tools, under dry and cryogenic cooling conditions.
All 52100 samples revealed the presence of thin white and dark layers following hard
turning as shown on figure 12.1.1. The thickness of white layers scaled with the
cutting speed and was markedly reduced by the use of LIN cooling (figure 12.1.2.).
The effect of tool material was more complex; alumina tools produced thinner white
layers at the lower cutting speed than CBN, and the trend reversed at the higher
cutting speed.
Considering a low thermal conductivity alumina, both these
observations indicate the key effect of the contact temperature on white layer
thickness. No white and dark layers were observed on the A2 samples which
retained a virtually intact microstructure, even though the thermomechanical energy
dissipated at the A2 work surface must have been quite similar to the energy in the
52100 tests. The researchers attribute the observed difference to the higher thermal
stability of alloyed carbides and matrix of the heat-treated A2 steel.
A series of XRD scans on hard turned surfaces detected a thin, nanocrystalline layer
comprising ferrite and carbides, as well as some martensite and retained austenite,
the secondary phases. A composite sketch with XRD results shows that the fraction
of martensite and austenite becomes more significant only under the white layer,
within the overtempered dark layer. Tempering just as well as austenitizing of the
hard turned, 52100 samples restores the conventional structures expected for a
61
tempered or annealed material and provides no evidence of surface reaction

products.
Presented data indicates that the cryogenic, LIN-spray cooling effectively reduces the
thickness of white layer by affecting the first two steps of material evolution it
reduces the temperature of cutting tool (conductive cooling), and cools the work
surface around and behind the contact area (convective cooling).
Reference
Zurecki Z., Ghosh R. and Frey J. H., Investigation of white layers formed in
conventional and cryogenic hard turning of steels, Proceedings of ASME IMECE200342313, Nov. 2003.
Figure 12.1.1: 52100 steel microstructure,

showing white and dark layers
Figure 12.1.2: White layer thicknesses on

various hard-turned samples
62
12.1.2
Microstructure and room temperature hardening of

ultra-fine-grained copper prepared by cryomilling
Category: Work material behavior under cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Changes in hardness, residual stresses and white layer
Contact Information
U. Martin
Institut fur Metallkunde,
Technische Universitat Bergakademie Freiberg
D-09596 Freiburg, Germany
martin@ww.tu-freiberg.de
Abstract
The microstructure of ultra-fine grained oxide-dispersion strengthened (ODS) copper,
produced by cryomilling and subsequent hot pressing under protective argon
atmosphere was studied by the researchers. A mixture of copper with 3 vol% of
oxide was mechanically alloyed in a high energy planetary ball mill. Rods with
98% of the theoretical density were produced by uniaxial hot pressing with 650 MPa
at 600C for 20 min.
The deformation behavior of ODS copper alloys was
characterized at room temperature using compression tests.
The homogeneous distribution of the dispersoids was believed to have prevented
significant grain growth of the copper matrix during exposure to high temperatures,
yielding a sub-micron grain size of 150 nm. The very high ambient temperature
yield strength (0.2 600 MPa) was attributed by the researchers to a simultaneous
occurrence of grain boundary strengthening and particle hardening.
Reference
Kudashov D. V., Baum H., Martin U., Heilmaier M. and Oettel H., Microstructure and
room temperature hardening of ultra-fine-grained oxide-dispersion strengthened
copper prepared by cryomilling, Materials Science and Engineering, vol. A 387389,
2004, pp. 768771.
63
12.2.1
Wear/fatigue behavior of steel and P/M components
Category: Work material behavior under cryogenic cooling

Sub-category: Wear and fatigue behavior of a cryo-machined surface
Contact Information
Ranajit Ghosh
7201 Hamilton Blvd.
Allentown, PA 18195
Abstract
Cryogenically machined powder metal (P/M) and hardened steel parts were
evaluated by the researchers to determine the effects of liquid nitrogen quenching on
the surface and subsurface characteristics. Due to lack of ASTM or FALEX standards
on determination of wear/fatigue characteristics of machined parts, the researchers
developed a proprietary equipment/method, called the rolling ball tribometer to
evaluate these surfaces, using existing ASTM standards, a dynamometer and a lathe.
The new process is fast (~ 200,000 cycles/hr), inexpensive and well-suited for
machined surfaces (including non-flat surfaces).
The process involves a carbide/sapphire ball that is in rolling/sliding contact with the
part. The part is held in a lathe chuck and rotated at a constant rpm. A constant
force is applied to hold the ball against the part, which is monitored by the
dynamometer. The growth of wear track (figure 12.2.1) is measured with time to
determine the wear/fatigue characteristics.
Wear track measurements clearly show significant improvement with the
cryogenically machined part (figure 12.2.2), compared to conventional dry or floodcooled samples. Microhardness measurements within the wear track and on the asmachined surface also show minimum loss of hardness with the cryogenically-cooled
part.
For P/M samples, the improvements are more significant, compared to
wrought hardened steel parts.
Reference
Ghosh R., Cryogenic Machining of Functionally Critical Hardened Steel and Powder
Metal Components, 1st Annual Manufacturing Technology Summit (SME), Aug 2004,
Dearborn, MI.
64
60 minutes
30 minutes
Sn = 22.6 ksi
Sn = 50.9 ksi
Figure 12.2.1: Growth of wear track width due to rolling/sliding contact
0.025
Wear Track Width

Atmosphere: Emulsion Coolant
Total # of cycles: 210,000
Wear Track Width (in.)
0.020
PCBN/FLOOD sample
PCBN/DRY sample
0.015
Al2O3/LIN sample
0.010
Sample Preparation
Depth of Cut: 0.020" Feed: 0.003"
Coolant: DRY, FLOOD, LIN
Speed: 600 SFM
0.005
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Test Time (min.)
Figure 12.2.2: Comparison of wear track width between LIN, flood and dry samples
65
13.
Other Cryogenic/Cold Applications
13.1
ICEJET machining
13.1.1
Study of ice particles in IceJet machining
Category: Other cryogenic/cold applications

Sub-category: ICEJET machining
Contact Information
Yos Morsi
Industrial Research Institute
Swinburne University of Technology
Hawthorn Victoria 3122
Australia
ymorsi@swin.edu.au
Abstract
The primary focus of this research, undertaken at Swinburne university, was to study
the effects of the parameters such as temperature and flow rate of water on the
phenomenon of ice particle formation in a cryogenic jet. An ultrasonic atomizer was
used for producing fine water droplets (45 90 microns), which were fed into the
liquid nitrogen stream. A microscopic study of the size and shape of the ice particles
was conducted and the percentage of water droplet conversion into ice particles was
experimentally determined. Experimental results show that the mean diameter of
the ice particles is directly proportional to the amplitude of the ultrasonic probe and
inversely proportional to the temperature.
Ice jet machining
Reference
Shanmugam D. K., Chen F. L. and Morsi Y., Analysis of Ice Particles Using
Visualisation Techniques, Symposium on Engineering Plasticity and its Applications,
Sydney, December, 2002.
66
13.1.2
Investigation of ICEJET machining

Sub-category: ICEJET machining
Contact Information
E. S. Geskin
New Jersey Institute of Technology,
University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102
ernest.s.geskin@njit.edu
Abstract
The researchers developed an Icejet (IJ)
machining
system
by
replacing
the
abrasives in abrasive waterjet (AWJ) system
with a mixture of ice and dry ice, ground to
the appropriate size. The schematic of the
setup is shown in figure 13.1.1. In this
system, ice cubes produced by a regular
icemaker were fed into the grinder.
In
order to prevent ice melting, dry ice (solid
The particles
CO2) was added to ice.
generated in the grinder were fed into an
abrasive nozzle through a conventional
system for abrasive supply. A coil installed
prior to the nozzle was submerged into
liquid nitrogen and used for water cooling
prior to expansion.
The researchers
conducted cutting and drilling tests in steel,
aluminum, titanium and composite samples.
Figure 13.1.1: Schematic of Icejet setup
In initial tests, productivity was much lower than AWJ machining, mainly due to
clogging of ice particles and the low cutting ability of ice, compared to abrasive
particles. However, a significantly narrower kerf was generated with IJ machining of
stainless steels, compared to AWJ machining.
The researchers attribute this
phenomenon to the prevention of steam formation in the icejet, resulting in a
reduction of the jet diameter. Similar kerf width reductions were also reported in
cutting of Ti, Al and Cu. With IJ, depth of penetration in drilling was significantly
higher, compared to waterjet machining, in all materials tested.
Icejet machining
Reference
Geskin E., Shishkin D. and Babets K., Investigation of Icejet machining,
Proceedings of 1999 NSF Design and Manufacturing Grantees Conference, Long
Beach, California, January 1999.
67
13.2.1
High-pressure cryogenic cutting of energetic materials

Sub-category: Abrasive/LIN jet machining
Contact Information
James Stratta
US Army Corps of Engineers
Construction Engineering Research Laboratories
ERDC-CERL,
Champaign, IL 61826-9005.
Abstract
The researchers evaluated several alternative approaches to destroy energetic
materials (EM), including ZAWCAD (zero added waste cutting, abrading and drilling).
The system was tested for use in the destruction (pre-treatment) of selected
energetic materials: three propellant samples (M131A1E1, Benite and NOSIH-AA2)
and three explosive samples (246 TNT, Composition B and Composition A5). The
research explored the applicability and efficiency of ZAWCAD on pristine EM samples,
using only liquid nitrogen (LIN). The study was done by Lockheed Martin Idaho
Technologies Inc. personnel at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL).
The ZAWCAD system is a high pressure cutting system where LIN can be pressurized
up to 400 MPa (60000 psi). The LIN is then ejected through a small orifice at
velocities of 900 meters/sec. (3000 ft/sec.) or higher. The system includes a
cryogenic fluid supply system, a pressurization system, a temperature control
system, a nozzle system, a recovery system and a manipulation system. The
pressurization system uses intensifiers with the potential to increase the LIN
pressure from 100 to 400 MPa. After pressurization, the LIN is cooled to -140C.
The LIN flowrate can be varied from 1 to 10 liters/min.
The researchers conclude that the high-pressure liquid nitrogen cutting system is a
very promising pre-treatment technology for EM. The ZAWCAD process, using LIN,
was able to cut the selected EM easily and safely without detonation, deflagration,
ignition or scorching. After processing, the explosives and the propellant materials
were quite small and ranged in size 0.008 to 6.1 mm.
Alternative destruction approaches for energetic materials
Reference
Stratta J., Schneider R., Adrian N., Weber R. and Donahue B., Alternatives to open
burning/open detonation of energetic materials, USACERL Technical Report, 98/104,
August, 1998.
68
13.2.2
NITROCISION cryogenic jet technology

Sub-category: Abrasive/LIN jet machining
Contact Information
NitroCision, L.L.C.
151 North Ridge Avenue, Suite 260
Idaho Falls, Idaho, 83402
Abstract
NitroCisions proprietary cryogenic equipment, NitroJet, uses a
patented method of controlling the temperature and pressure
of liquid nitrogen to create an ultra high pressure (UHP) jet of
supercritical liquid nitrogen that has a density comparable to
UHP water. The NitroJets liquid nitrogen temperature can be
varied from 500 degrees F to -235 degrees F, and the pressure
can be adjusted from 5,000 PSI to 55,000 PSI. Various nozzle
configurations are used to control flow properties.
The
technology was originally developed by researchers at the
Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) as a nonthermal method to cut open barrels of combustible waste.
The NitroJet is applicable in material cutting, surface cleaning
and coating removal, in environments where controlling
contamination, chemical reactions, environmental hazards,
secondary waste cleanup, heat and/or bacteria, or fulfilling
regulatory oversights are critical. The company claims that
extremely hard materials like hardened steels and ceramics of
significant thickness could be cut by this cryogenic abrasive jet.
The NitroJet can be deployed manually or robotically and can
be equipped with a vacuum exhaust system. Additionally, the
NitroJet can have soluble or insoluble abrasives entrained in
the liquid nitrogen stream for more aggressive cleaning,
cutting or profiling.

High pressure nitrogen jet system
Reference
http://www.nitrocision.com/
69
13.3.1
Application of high-pressure CO2 jet in turning

Sub-category: High pressure CO2 jet machining
Contact Information
John D. Christopher
METCUT Research
3980 Rosslyn Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45209
Abstract
The researchers evaluated the performance of a high pressure cryogenic jet (FLOJET),
in machining of several ferrous and nonferrous alloys. The cryogenic jet was created
by blending liquid carbon dioxide with a typical water-based cutting fluid. The
researchers claim that the high velocity flow of the cold mixture did not produce
icing and frosting problems on the tool, workpiece or the machine.
The objective of the present research was to provide better chip control in machining
of gummy materials, while eliminating the heat-build up problems associated with
standard high pressure coolant systems. The researchers presented chip samples of
AISI4340, M50, 17-4 PH Al7075, Ti6Al4V and IN718 materials, which clearly show
that the high pressure cryogenic coolant system resulted in well-broken chips in all
cases. Tool wear data with FLOJET shows a 70% improvement over conventional
flood cooling, in machining of 4340 steel.
High pressure cryogenic jet cooling
Reference
Christopher J. D., The influence of high pressure cryogenic coolant on tool life and
productivity in turning, SME Advanced Machining Technology Conference, MR90-249,
Chicago, Illinois, 1990.
70
13.4.1
End milling with chilled-air cooling

Sub-category: End milling with chilled air cooling
Contact Information
M. Rahman
National University of Singapore,
10 Kent Ridge Crescent
119260 Singapore
mpemusta@nus.edu.sg
Abstract
Researchers at the National University of Singapore compared the performance of
conventional dry cutting and flood cooling with chilled air cooling (~ -30C) in end
milling of P20 tool steel (35 HRc). Cutting forces, surface roughness, flank wear and
chip forms were monitored and recorded for each cut.
The researchers observed that flank wear was lower with chilled air cooling,
compared to flood at low federates and cutting speeds. The average surface
roughness was also lower with chilled air cooling, but only at high federates and
depths of cut.
Dry cutting recorded the highest cutting forces, although no
significant difference in cutting forces was observed between chilled air and flood
cooling.
Cold air end milling
Reference
Rahman M., Kumar A. S., Ul-Salam M. and Ling M. S., Effect of chilled air on
machining performance in end milling, International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, vol. 21, 2003, pp. 787-795.
71
13.4.2
End milling with cold air and dry ice flow

Sub-category: End milling with chilled air cooling
Contact Information
Koichi Kitajima
Kansai University
3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi,
Osaka 564-8680 Japan
Abstract
The researchers conducted a series of end milling tests, comparing dry cutting with
oil mist, cold air and dry ice cooling. Both cold air and dry ice were supplied to the
cutting edge either through the coolant channels or using external jets. Cutting
forces, surface roughness, tool wear and cutting temperature were recorded during
these tests.
Results show that dry ice cooling was the most effective option, with reduced surface
roughness and tool wear. Cutting forces were also reduced, especially at high
feed/tooth conditions. Oil mist was the next best option, in terms of surface
roughness and tool wear, although the heat affected zone was expected to be larger,
in comparison to the cold air and dry ice options.
Cold air end milling
Reference
Kitajima K., Miyazaki K., Minamino S. and Akamatsu T., End milling characteristics
using cold air and dry ice flow, Technology Reports of Kansai University (Japan), vol.
43, 2001, pp. 1-9.
72
13.5.1
CBN wheel grinding with CO2 gas cooling

Sub-category: Grinding with cold gas cooling
Contact Information
H. Gao
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation
Northeastern University,
Shenyang, 110004 China
Abstract
The researchers experimented with electroplated CBN grinding wheels and compared
dry grinding to gas-cooled processes. CO2 gas at -15C was piped to the inner
surface of the grinding wheel and vented out to the grinding zone through tiny radial
vents. The researchers observed that the measured grinding temperature was
reduced by 25 35% with the electroplated wheel and no cooling, compared to a
conventional wheel. The grinding temperature dropped by 30 40%, when the
electroplated wheel was internally cooled with CO2 gas. Additional reduction in
temperature was observed by increasing the pressure of the cold gas.
Cold gas grinding
Reference
Gao H., Wang J. X. and Lan X. H., Development of CBN wheel with cold gas inner
cooling, Key Engineering Materials, vol. 202-203, 2001, pp. 215-218.
73
13.5.2
CBN Grinding with Chilled Air Cooling

Contact Information
Kazuhiko Yokogawa
School of Science and Technology
Meiji University
1-1-1 Higashi-mita,
Tama, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 214
Japan
Abstract
A new chilled-air cooling system has been developed by the researchers at Kogakuin
and Meiji universities for grinding of hardened steels with CBN grinding wheels.
Using a solid-lubricant impregnated CBN wheel, a series of grinding tests were
performed by supplying cooling air (temperature range ~-35C to -120C).
The rise in ground-surface temperature with the chilled-air method (5C) was found
to be somewhat higher than that obtained by the grinding fluid method (2C).
However, the researchers argue that over extended periods of continuous grinding
operations with coolant, the coolant temperature would rise, causing ground-surface
temperatures to increase.
The chilled-air system provides air at a constant
temperature and hence, would minimize ground-surface temperature variations.
The residual stress comparison shows that the compressive stress with grinding fluid
cooling is slightly larger near the ground surface. However, at larger depths, the
chilled air generates a significantly higher residual compressive stress.
The
magnitude of the residual stress did not change significantly with changes in air
temperature (from -33C to -100C).
Cold gas grinding
Reference
Yokogawa M., Yokogawa K. and Honma H., Study of environmentally conscious CBN
cooling-air grinding technology, Japan Society of Precision Engineering, vol. 31(3),
1997, pp. 187-192.
74
13.5.3
Cold air and oil mist lubrication in surface grinding

Contact Information
L. C. Zhang
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering
University of Sydney
Sydney, NSW 2006
Australia
zhang@aeromech.usyd.edu.au
Abstract
The researchers conducted a feasibility study on the use of compressed cold air and
vegetable oil in surface grinding of plain carbon steel with an alumina wheel.
Compressed air (600 kPa) was jetted through a vortex tube, with the exit
temperature at -20C. Another jet at lower pressure (300 kPa) containing a small
amount of vegetable oil (0.16 cc/min.) was directed at the grinding zone. The
specimens were annealed to relieve the initial stresses. The cold air/oil approach
was compared to conventional flood coolant, dry air (20C) and cold air (-20C).
Grinding forces, surface roughness and residual stresses were measured for each
sample.
The results show that under low material removal rates, cold air alone can be used to
suppress surface burning, with reduced grinding forces. Addition of a small amount
of vegetable oil allowed larger depths of cut without surface burning, although
surface finish was worse, compared to conventional coolant. The residual stress
profile with cold air/oil cooling was highly directional, being compressive in the
grinding direction and tensile in the transverse grinding direction. The researchers
attribute this to the non-uniformity of the heat flux, created by the cold air/oil
cooling.
Cold air grinding
Reference
Nguyen T. and Zhang L. C., An assessment of the applicability of cold air and oil
mist in surface grinding, Journal of Material Processing Technology, vol. 140, 2003,
pp. 224-230.
75
13.6.1
Cryogenic and abrasive cryogenic jets

Sub-category: Machining with supercritical CO2, N2 and NH3
Contact Information
M. Hashish
Flow International Corporation
23500 64th Avenue South,
Kent, Washington 98032
Abstract
The researchers evaluated the formation and application of supercritical CO2, N2 and
NH3 jets in various cutting, cleaning, stripping, paint removal and nuclear
demilitarization projects. The useful range of upstream pressures and temperatures,
as well as the use of abrasive particles (garnet, ice and dry ice) in fluid jets was also
studied.
The researchers show that abrasive nitrogen and ammonia jets could be used to cut
through glass, mild steel and military ammunition sections.
Compared to
conventional abrasive waterjet (AWJ), the abrasive ammonia jet was deemed slightly
more effective, primarily due to the increase in jet velocity caused by lower specific
gravity of ammonia.
CO2 abrasive was generated directly in the cryogenic jet nozzle through rapid JouleThomson cooling of the liquid. The technique has been used for in-situ creation of
CO2 dry ice in nozzles that accelerate the particles by means of low pressure gas jets.
The research group is currently developing similar configurations for surface
treatment (cleaning and stripping).
Formation and application of cryogenic jets
Reference
Hashish M. and Dunsky C. M., The formation of cryogenic and abrasive cryogenic
jets, Proc. 14th Intl. Conf. On Jetting Technology, BHR group, Brugge, Belgium,
1998, pp. 329-343.
76
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82

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Technology Assessment

Current Advanced Research

AMT The Association for Manufacturing Technology

A Report Compiled and Prepared

AMT The Association for Manufacturing Technology

Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures

Cryogenic turning of ferrous materials

Cryogenic machining of hardened materials

Cryogenic machining of heat resistant alloys

Cryogenic machining of non-ferrous materials

Cryogenic cooling and interrupted cuts

Cryogenic milling and drilling

Grinding of Ti-alloys with cryogenic cooling .. 58

Work material behavior under cryogenic cooling

Other cryogenic/cold applications

1.1 What is cryogenic machining?

Figure 1.1: Cryogenic cooling during machining

1.2 Early history of cryogenic machining (1950 1975)

Cryogenic Properties of Materials and Fluids

Cryogenic properties of work materials

Cryogenic material properties database

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Key research issues for this program

Cryogenic machining with brittle tools and effects on

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Feed Force (lbf)

Feed Force (lbf)

Cut Time (sec.)

Cryogenically treated carbide tool performance in

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Effects of cryogenic treatment on carbide tool life

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Machining of medium density

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Cryogenic properties of tool materials

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

The formation of cryogenic and abrasive cryogenic jets

Category: Cryogenic properties of materials and fluids

Figure 2.3.1: Schematic of UHP LIN jet experiment (Hashish et al.)

Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Modeling of cryo-cooled machining processes

Role of cryogenic cooling on cutting temperatures

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

The effects of temperature on the machining of metals

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Cooling approaches and cutting

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Heat transfer process during cryogenic machining

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Figure 3.2.1: Schematic of conductive

Insert stress analysis in hybrid machining of ceramics

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Grinding zone temperature under cryogenic cooling

Category: Thermal modeling and cutting temperatures

Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic

Friction behavior of coatings under cryo-cooling

Friction and wear behavior of hard and superhard

Category: Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures

Frictional behavior and wear resistance of

Category: Tribological behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures

Tribological behavior of polymers, composites and TiN