Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Yang Han
Christian Wude
The following script introduces the partial fraction expression of the cotangent function
and provides an elegant proof, using the Herglotz trick.
This expression of the cotangent is used in the second part of this script to solve an
actual IMC problem. As the complex logarithm function which is needed in order to fully
understand the IMC problem may not be familiar to everyone, its most important features
will be summarized.
1 X
cot(x) = +
x
1
1
+
x+n xn
n=1
N
X
1
= lim
.
N
x+n
(x R\Z)
n=N
g(x) := lim
N
X
n=N
1
x+n
.
First, we derive four common properties of those two functions. In a second step, we reason
that f (x) and g(x) must be identical.
A) The functions f (x) and g(x) are defined for all non-integral values and are continuous
there.
It is obvious that f is defined for all non-integral values, as f (x) = cot(x) = cos(x)
sin(x) .
The function is continuous, as it is the quotient of two continuous functions, which denominator does not equal 0. The function g(x) can be rearranged as
1 X
g(x) = +
x
n=1
1
1
+
x+n xn
P
n=1
2x
n2 x2
1 X
= +
x
n=1
2x
2
n x2
.
x. The first term for n = 1 and the first 2n 1 x2 terms do not provide any problems
since they are finite, whereas for n 2 and 2n 1 > x2 , that is n2 x2 > (n 1)2 > 0,
the summands are bounded by
0<
1
1
<
.
n2 x2
(n 1)2
2
6
1
n=1 (n1)2
converges
gN (x) =
n=N
1
x+n
.
Then
gN (x + 1) =
N
X
n=N
1
x+1+n
=
N
+1
X
n=N +1
1
x+n
= gN 1 (x) +
1
1
+
.
x+N
x+N +1
cos(x)
cos((x))
=
= f (x).
sin(x)
sin((x))
D) The functions f (x) and g(x) satisfy the functional equation f ( x2 ) + f ( x+1
2 ) = 2f (x)
and g( x2 ) + g( x+1
)
=
2g(x).
2
The function f (x) satisfies the functional expression because of the addition theorems
for sine and cosine:
x
x
cos( x
cos( x
sin( x
x+1
2 )
2 )
2 + 2 )
f
=
+f
=
2
x = 2f (x).
2
2
sin( x
cos( x
sin( x
2 )
2 )
2 + 2 )
As a result of
x
2
1
+
+n
1
=2
x+1
2 +n
1
1
+
x + 2n x + 2n + 1
This function is continuous on R\Z and satisfies the properties B, C and D. As a result of
1
x cos x sin x
1
lim cot x
= lim
= 0 lim cot(x)
=0
x0
x0
x0
x
x sin x
x
and
lim
x0
X
n=1
2x
2
n x2
= 0,
z 2 + 4z + 1
.
6(z 1)4
N
X
k=N
i
iw
1
= cot
w + 2i k
2
2
and
lim
N
X
k=N
1
i
i log z
i exp(2i
= cot
= i
log z + 2i k
2
2
2 exp(2i
i log z
2 )
i log z
2 )
+1
1
1
1
+
.
2 z1
+
,
(log z)2
dx 2 z 1
(z 1)2
X
1
z
z(z + 1)
z d
=
=
3
2
(log z)
2 dx (z 1)
2(z 1)3
X
z(z + 1)
z(z 2 + 4z + 1)
1
z d
=
=
.
(log z)4
3 dx 2(z 1)3
6(z 1)4
X