GETTING THE MOST

OUT OF LUBE OIL

ANALYSIS

Common Oil Analysis Tests & Their Significance

Overview

Thepracticeofoilanalysishaschangeddrasticallyfromitsoriginal
inceptionintherailroadindustry.Intodaysexplodingcomputerand
informationage,oilanalysishasevolvedintoamandatorytoolinones
predictivemaintenance(PdM)arsenal.

AsaPdMtool,oilanalysisisusedtouncover,isolateandoffersolutions
forabnormallubricantandmachineconditions.Theseabnormalitiescan
resultinexpensive,sometimescatastrophicdamagecausinglost
production,extensiverepaircosts,andevenoperatoraccidents.

Thegoalofaneffectiveoilanalysisprogramistoincreasethereliability
andavailabilityofmachinerywhileminimizingmaintenancecosts
associatedwithoilchangeouts,labor,repairsanddowntime.
Accomplishingthisgoaltakestime,trainingandpatience.However,the
resultsaredramaticandthedocumentedsavingsandcostavoidance
aresignificant.

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Contents

0BLubricationProperties .................................................................................................................... 4
1BTheRoleofOilAnalysis................................................................................................................... 6
2BElementalSpectroscopy.................................................................................................................. 7
3BViscosity .......................................................................................................................................... 9
4BAcidNumber ................................................................................................................................. 10
5BBaseNumber................................................................................................................................. 11
6BWaterContamination ................................................................................................................... 12
7BParticleCount................................................................................................................................ 13
8BFerrousWearConcentration ........................................................................................................ 14
9BAnalyticalFerrography.................................................................................................................. 15
10BConclusion..................................................................................................................................... 16

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Lubrication Properties
0B

Lubeoilanalysisisusedextensivelytohelpcompaniesmaintaintheir
equipment.Inordertotakefullbenefitfromthetestdatafromoil
samples,itisimportanttounderstandthebasicpropertiesofa
lubricant.Equallyimportantistheunderstandingofhowthese
propertiesaffecttheabilityofthelubricanttofunction.Lastly,
knowledgeofthecommontesttechniquesandinstrumentationusedto
analyzeoilcanaidindatainterpretationandleadtomoreproductive
correctiveaction.

Toeffectivelymonitorhowwellalubricantisworking,thefunctionsof
thelubricantmustbeunderstood.Theprimaryfunctionofalubricantis
quiteobviouslytolubricate(thatis,toreducefriction).Byreducing
friction,wearisreduced,asistheamountofenergyrequiredto
performthework.

In1699,aphysicistnamedGuillaumeAmontonsdeducedthatfrictionis
theresultofsurfaceroughness.Sincenosolidsurfaceisperfectly
smooth,opposingfrictionsurfaceshavepeakscalledasperitiesthat
comeincontactwithoneanother.Ideally,alubricantwillphysically
separatetheseasperitieswithanoilfilm.Thisiscalledfullfluidfilm
lubrication.

Whentheproperlubricantisused,andtheproperloadisapplied,the
asperitiesarenotincontactandintheorynowearwilloccur.When
inadequatelubricationispresent,ortheloadisincreased,theoilfilm
willnotbethickenoughtofullyseparatetheasperities.Mixed
lubrication,a cross between boundary and hydrodynamic
lubrication,occurswhentheoilfilmthicknessisequaltotheaverage
asperityheight.Thelargestasperitieswillcomeincontact,resultingin
increasedwear.

Manyoilsarefortifiedwithantiwearadditivestocombatwearunder
thesecircumstances.Asloadcontinuestoincrease,orlubrication
degrades,boundarylubricationoccursandtheoilfilmthicknesscannot

The primary functions of a lubricant are to

lubricate, cool, clean, protect, seal and
transmit power.

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separatethefrictionsurfaces.Thiscanresultinmetaltometalcontact.
Atthispoint,asperitiesareadheringtooneanother,causingsevere
machinewear.Thiscanalsomanifestitselfduringperiodsofshock
loading,startuporshutdown.Extremepressureadditivesareusedin
oilsthatfrequentlyencounterthesetypesofsituations.

Lubricantsalsocontrolthetemperatureoftheequipment.Oilabsorbs
heatgeneratedatthefrictionsurfaceandcarriesitawaytobe
dispersed.Manysystemsincorporateheatexchangersorradiatorsto
aidinremovingheatfromthesystem.Alongwithheat,lubricants
transportdirtandotherdebrisawayfromthefrictionsurface.

Particulatecontaminationleadstoincreasedwearthroughabrasionand
reducedoilflow.Someoiladditivepackagescontainagentsthatbreak
upcontaminantsandholdtheminsuspensiontobefilteredout.This
preventsharmfuldepositsandvarnishfromformingwithinthe
equipment.Alkalineadditivesalsoprotectthecomponentsby
neutralizingacidandpreventingcorrosion.

Hydraulicoilshavetheaddedfunctionoftransmittingpower.To
functionproperly,hydraulicoilmustbecleanandfreeofcontaminants.
Manycontaminantswillcauseoiltofoamandentrainairorwater.
Entrainedaircausestheoiltocompressunderpressure,resultingina
lossofpower.Particulatecontaminantscancausethecontrolvalvesto
malfunctionandrestricttheoilflow.

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The Role of Oil Analysis

1B

Selectingtheproperlubricant,alongwithcarefulmaintenanceofthat
lubricant,isessentialtoensureadequateprotectiontoanymachine.
Properlubricationisdefinedasacorrectamountofthecorrect
lubricantatthecorrecttime.

Maintainingalubricantmeansensuringthatithasthecorrectviscosity
andthenecessaryadditivesfortheapplication.Stepsmustbetakento
keepthelubricantcleanandserviceable.Oilanalysisisthemost
effectivewaytoprolongtheusefullifeoflubricants,whilemaintaining
maximumprotectionofequipment.

Oilanalysistestsrevealinformationthatcanbebrokendownintothree
categories:

Lubricantcondition:theassessmentofthelubricantcondition
revealswhetherthesystemfluidishealthyandfitforfurther
service,orisreadyforachange.

Contaminants:increasedcontaminantsfromthesurrounding
environmentintheformofdirt,waterandprocess
contaminationaretheleadingcauseofmachinedegradation
andfailure.Increasedcontaminationindicatesthatitistimeto
takeactioninordertosavetheoilandavoidunnecessary
machinewear.

Machinewear:anunhealthymachinegenerateswearparticles
atanexponentialrate.Thedetectionandanalysisofthese
particlesassistinmakingcriticalmaintenancedecisions.
Machinefailureduetowornoutcomponentscanbeavoided.It
isimportanttorememberthathealthyandcleanoilleadstothe
minimizationofmachinewear.

Lubricantconditionismonitoredwithteststhatquantifythephysical
propertiesoftheoiltoensurethatitisserviceable.Metalsanddebris
associatedwithmachineweararemeasuredtomonitorequipment
health.Someteststargetspecificcontaminantsthatarecommonly
foundinoils.Itisimperativetoselecttheproperblendofteststo
monitorthemachineslubricantcondition,weardebrisand
contaminantsinordertomeetthegoalsofsuccessfuloilanalysis.

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Elemental Spectroscopy
2B

Elementalspectroscopyisatestthatmonitorsallthreecategories
(lubricantcondition,weardebrisandcontaminants).Aspectrometeris
usedtomeasurethelevelsofspecificchemicalelementspresentinanoil.

Twotypesofspectrometersarecommonlyused.Arcemission
spectrometersapplyenergyintheformofanelectricarctothesample.
Thisexcitestheatomsintovaporform,creatingaspectrumwherelight
isgenerated.Individuallightfrequenciesinthespectrumaremeasured
andquantifiedtodeterminethepresenceandquantitiesofspecific
elementspresent.TheothercommontypeofspectrometeristheICP
(inductivelycoupledplasma)spectrometer.Thisoperatesonasimilar
principle,exceptthattheenergyisappliedtothesamplebyaplasma
flameratherthananelectricarc.

Therearetypically20elementsmeasuredbyspectroscopyandreported
inpartspermillion(ppm).Thesemeasurementsrepresentelementsin
solution.Spectroscopyisnotabletomeasuresolidparticleslargerthen
roughly7m,whichleavesthistestblindtolargersolidparticles.

Typicallevelsofwearcanvarygreatlydependingonthetypeof
equipmentbeingsampled.Forexample,agearboxwillnormallyhave
muchhigherlevelsofironthanahydraulicsystem.Levelsofwearcan
varyacrossdifferentunitsofthesametypedependingonoilhours,
operatingconditions,loadinglevelsorotherconditions.Forthisreason,
itisimpossibletoestablishfirmlimitsforanypieceofequipmentbased
solelyontheequipmenttype.Totakefulladvantageofmonitoring
wear;atrendshouldbeestablishedtoprovideanoperationalbaseline
ofdata.Thiswillensuredetectionofabnormalwearratesasthey
developandallowsforthefactthatsimilarequipmentmaynotwearat
thesamerate.

Monitoringtheadditivelevelsprovidesinformationtoensurethatthe
properlubricantisbeingusedfortheapplicationandfortoppingoff.
Fourtypesoflubricantsaregenerallyusedinmostindustrial
applications,andeachhasdifferentadditivelevels.Itisimportantto

Elemental Spectroscopy is generally used to

provide qualitative and quantitative
information about metals in oil samples.

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notethatanoilslevelofadditivesmeasuredbyspectroscopyisnot
necessarilyanindicationoftheoilsquality.

Engineoilswilltypicallycontainantiwearadditivescomposed
ofzincandphosphorus.Oneshouldexpecttoseethese
elementspresentinapproximately1000ppm(200ppm).A
detergentpackageshouldalsobepresent,composedofsome
configurationofbarium,magnesiumandcalcium.Theselevels
willvarydependingontheoil.

Extremepressureoilsaretypicallyforgearapplications.Itis
commontoseesignificantamountsofphosphorus.

Antiwearoilsincludemanybearingoils,somegearoilsand
hydraulicfluids.Theseoilscontainbothzincandphosphorus
from200to600ppm.Theremaybeverylowlevelsof
detergent(magnesiumorcalcium)presentalso.

Rustandoxidationinhibitingoilsaretheeasiesttoidentify.
Theyincludeturbineoils,compressoroil,andsomebearingand
hydraulicoils.Theseoilshavenometallicadditivesthatcanbe
measuredbyspectroscopy,sothereshouldbeextremelylow
numbersforalladditivemetals.

Itisnotuncommontoseelowlevels(20ppm)ofsomeadditivemetals
wheretheyarenotexpected.Thisisusuallytheresultofresidual
contaminationintheequipmentorstoragetanks.

Thereareoilsthatdonotfitintothesedescriptions.Manyoilsare
formulatedforspecificapplicationsandalternativeadditivesmustbe
used.Anexamplewouldbeoilsformulatedforsomestationaryand
electromotivedieselengines.Inmanycases,operatingconditionsor
emissionconcernscallforalesstraditionaladditivepackage.

Aswithanytypeoftesting,spectroscopyissubjecttoinherentvariance.
Highwaterlevelscancauseinterferenceinthespectrum,ascanthe
matrixofsomesyntheticbasestocks.Inshort,alwaysdoublecheckwith
anothersamplebeforetakinganyinvasivemaintenanceaction.Never
relyonjustonepieceofdatawhenmakingamaintenancedecision.

Many oils are formulated for specific

applications and alternative additives must
be used.

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Viscosity
3B

Anoilsviscosityisconsidereditsmostimportantproperty.Themost
commontechniqueformeasuringanoilsviscosityisfollowingASTM
D445 usingaviscometer(ASTM,2011).Asmallsampleoftheoilis
drawnintoacalibratedcapillarytubeinaconstanttemperaturebath.
Oncethesamplecomestotemperature,itisallowedtoflowdownthe
tubeapredetermineddistance.Theviscosityistheproductoftheflow
timeandtubecalibrationfactor.Theresultsarereportedastheoils
kinematicviscosityincentistokes(cSt).

IndustrialoilsareidentifiedbytheirInternationalStandardfor
Organizationviscositygrade(ISOVG).TheISOVGreferstotheoils
kinematicviscosityat40C(104F).Anoilsweightcommonlyrefersto
itskinematicviscosityat100C(212F).Theweightofmultigradeoils
isrepresentedbythesecondnumberintherating.A10W30wouldbe
30weightoil.The10aftertheW,whichstandsforwinter,refersto
howtheoilperformsincoldweatherconditions.

Whenanoilsviscosityincreases,itisusuallyduetooxidation,
degradationorcontamination.Thisistheresultofextendedoildrain
intervals,highoperatingtemperatures,orthepresenceofwateror
anotheroxidationcatalyst.Increasedviscositycanalsobetheresultof
excessivecontaminationwithsolidssuchassootordirt,aswellas
toppingoffwithahighergradelube.Watercontaminationcanalso
causehighviscosity.

Adecreaseintheoilsviscosityismostcommonlyduetocontamination
withfuelorasolvent.Anoilsviscosityalsocanbeaffectedifthewrong
oilisusedfortopofforreplenishment.

Ifalubricantdoesnothavetheproperviscosity,itcannotproperly
performitsfunctions.Iftheviscosityisnotcorrectfortheload,theoil
filmcannotbeestablishedatthefrictionpoint.Heatandcontamination
arenotcarriedawayattheproperrates,andtheoilcannotadequately
protectthemachine.

A lubricant with the improper viscosity will

lead to overheating, accelerated wear. This
will result in the failure of the machine.

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Acid Number
4B

Acidnumberisanindicatorofoilhealth.Itisusefulinmonitoringacid
buildupinoilsduetodepletionofantioxidants.Oiloxidationcauses
acidicbyproductstoform.Highacidlevelscanindicateexcessiveoil
oxidationordepletionoftheoiladditivesandcanleadtocorrosionof
theinternalcomponents.Bymonitoringtheacidlevel,theoilcanbe
changedbeforeanydamageoccurs.

Anoilanalystislookingforasuddenincrease.Whenyouroilisflagged
forhighacidlevels,itindicatesacceleratedoiloxidation,andyoushould
changetheoilassoonaspossible.Ifanyoftheremaininghighlyacidic
oilisleft,itwillquicklydepletetheantioxidantsinthenewoil.

AcidnumberismeasuredbytitrationusingASTMD664orD974.Both
methodsinvolvedilutingtheoilsampleandaddingincremental
amountsofanalkalinesolutionuntilaneutralendpointisachieved.

TheAcidnumberofanewoilwillvarydependentuponthebaseoil
additivepackage.AnR&OoilwillusuallyhaveaverylowAN,around
0.03.AnAWorEPoilwillhaveaslightlyhighervalue,typicallyaround
0.5.EngineoilscommonlyhaveahigherAN,intheneighborhoodof1.5.

Acidnumberismeasuredbytitration
usingASTMD664orASTMD974
(ASTM,2011;ASTM,2008).Bothtest
techniquesinvolvedilutingtheoil
sampleandaddingincremental
amountsofanalkalinesolutionuntila
neutralendpointisachieved.

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Base Number
5B

Basenumbertestingisverysimilartoacidnumbertestingexceptthat
thepropertiesarereversed.Thesampleistitratedwithanacidic
solutiontomeasuretheoilsalkalinereserve.ASTMD2896andASTM
D4739arethemostcommonlyusedmethodstomeasurethebase
number(ASTM,2007;ASTM,2008).

Manyoils(especiallymotoroils)arefortifiedwithalkalineadditivesto
neutralizeacidsthatareformedasaresultofcombustion.Indiesel
engineapplications,acidisformedinthecombustionchamberwhen
moisturecombineswithsulfurunderpressure.Measuringthebase
numberwillhelpensurethatasufficientamountofadditiveshave
beenaddedtotheoiltohelpresistoxidationduetoacid.

Thebasenumberofoilishighestwhentheoilisnewanddecreases
withuse.Onceagain,condemninglimitsarebasedontheapplication.
Asarule,thebasenumbershouldnotdropbelowhalfofitsoriginal
value.Basenumbervaluesfornewengineoilsverygreatlydepending
ontheapplication.

Basenumbertestingmeasuresthe
reservealkalinityinalubricant.The
amountofreservealkalinityina
lubricantiscriticalforcertainoils.
Oftenanoilisfortifiedwithalkaline
additivestocombatacidformation.
Thebasenumberisatitshighestasa
newoilanddecreaseswithservice.

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Water Contamination
6B

Watercontaminationisdetrimentaltoanylubricant.Asimplecrackle
testisusedtodetermineifwaterispresentinoil.Asmallvolumeofthe
lubricantisdroppedontoahotplateand,ifbubblesorcracklesoccur,
waterispresent.

Ifacrackletestispositive,furthertestingisneededtoquantifythe
amountofwaterbyusingKarlFischertitrationbyASTMD6304(ASTM,
2007).Ameasuredamountofoilisintroducedintoatitrationchamber.
ThissolutionistitratedwithKarlFischerreagenttoaspecificendpoint.
Theamountofreagentusedandthesamplevolumearecalculatedand
convertedtoppmorpercentbymass.

Lowlevelsofwater(0.5%)aretypicallytheresultofcondensation.
Higherlevelscanindicateasourceofwateringress.Watercanentera
systemthroughseals,breathers,hatchesandfillcaps.Internalleaks
fromheatexchangersandwaterjacketsareotherpotentialsources.

Whenfreewater(nonemulsified)ispresentinoil,itposesaserious
threattotheequipment.Waterisaverypoorlubricantandpromotes
rustandcorrosiontothecomponents.Dissolvedwaterinoil
(emulsified)willpromoteoil
oxidationandreducetheloadhandlingabilityoftheoil.Waterinany
formwillcauseacceleratedwear,increasedfriction,andhighoperating
temperatures.Ifleftunchecked,waterwillleadtoprematuremachine
failure.Inmostsystems,watershouldnotexceed500ppm.
UsingtheKarlFischertitration
method,areagentistitrated
intoameasuredamountof
sampleandreactswiththe
hydroxidemoleculespresent
inthemoisture.This
depolarizesanelectrodeand
determinesthetitration
endpoint.Resultsarereported
aseitherpercentwateror
ppm(1%=10,000ppm).

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Particle Count
7B

Particulatecontaminationhasnegativeeffectsonalltypesof
equipment.Particlecounttestingisawaytomonitorthelevelofsolid
contaminationintheoil.Twotypesofautomaticparticlecountersare
usedtotestoilcleanliness:lightblockageandporeblockage.

Lightblockage:Thelightblockagetechniqueinvolvespassinga
samplethroughasmallorificethathasalaserlightsourceonone
sideandanopticalsensorontheotherside.Particlesinterrupting
thelightbeamarecounted,andsizeisdeterminedbythedegreeof
lightblockage.Lightblockageparticlecountingisnoteffectivewhen
oiliscontaminatedwithwaterorwhenairisentrainedintheoil.In
thesecircumstances,waterorairbubbleswillbecountedas
particlescausingerroneousresults.

Poreblockage:Theporeblockageorflowdecaytechniquepasses
thesamplethroughameshfilter.Asafilterclogs,theflowofthe
sampleisslowed.Theamountofflowdecayiscalculated,andthe
particlecountcanthenbeextrapolated.Becausewaterdroplets
andentrainedairwillnotrestrictthefluidflow,thereisno
interferencefromthesecontaminants.

High particle counts

indicate dirty oil.

Resultsarereportedasparticlespermilliliterinsixsizeranges:4,6,
14,25,50and100.ISOCleanlinessCodesarethenassignedfor
particlesin4,6and14mranges(ISO4406:1999).Theresultis
reportedbythreenumberswithaslashbetweenthem;thefirstnumber
referstoparticlesinthe4mrange,thesecondtoparticlesinthe6
mrangeandthethirdinthe14mrange.Thelowerthenumbersin
theISOCleanlinessCode,ISO4406,thecleanerthefluid.

Particulatecontaminationisameasurementoftheeffectivenessof
filtrationandcanindicatewhenexcessiveexternalcontaminationis
occurring.Advancedmachinewearwillalsocauseincreasedparticle
counts.Generally,thelowersizerangesareconsideredindicativeof
contaminationandsilt,whilethelargersizerangespointtowear
problems.

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Ferrous Wear Concentration

8B

Insomecases,aparticlecountisnotaneffectivetestbecausethe
sampleisinherentlydirtyandfilteringtheoilmaynotbeplausible.A
particlecountindicatesthatthesampleisextremelydirty,butitdoes
notgiveanyindicationofferrouswear.Ingearboxes,ferrouswearmay
bemoreimportantthanoverallparticlecount.Insuchanapplication,
ferrouswearconcentrationisagoodsubstitutionforaparticlecount
test.

Awearparticleanalyzerquantifiestheamountofferrousmaterial
presentinasampleoffluid.Ameasuredamountofsampleisinserted
intotheanalyzerandamountofferrousmaterialisdeterminedbya
changeinmagneticflux.Thischangeisthenconvertedintoferrous
concentrationinpartspermillion.Usingthismethod,thereareno
interferenceswithnonferrousparticles.

Oneadvantageofaferrousdebrismonitoristhatitwillmeasureferrous
weardebrisinalltypesofoil,fromgearboxlubricantsthrough
hydraulics.Oneoftheotherkeybenefitsisthatitwillalsomeasure
ferrousweardebrisfoundingrease.

AsimilartesttotheferrousdebrismonitorisDR(directread)
ferrography.DRferrographycollectspositivelychargedparticlesontwo
lightsourcesandmeasurestheamountofblockedlighttodetermine
thelevelofferrouscontaminantspresentinanoil.Althoughthesetwo
testsprovidethesameinformation,theyarenotinterchangeable.

Theferrouswear
concentrationgivesa
directmeasureofthe
amountofferrouswear
metalspresentina
sample.

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Analytical Ferrography
9B

Analyticalferrographyisusedtoseparatesolidcontaminationandwear
debrisfromalubricantformicroscopicevaluation.Asstatedearlier,
spectroscopyisnotabletomeasurewearparticleslargerthan7min
size.Whileparticlecounting,ferrouswearconcentrationandDR
ferrographyareabletodetectthepresenceoflargerparticles,they
cannotqualifytheircompositionororigin.Analyticalferrographyisable
toidentifywearparticles,theircompositionandtheiroriginbyvisually
analyzingthemmicroscopically.

Adilutedoilsampleisallowedtoflowoveraspeciallytreatedslide
whichispositionedatanangleoverastrongmagnet.Theferrous(iron)
particlesareattractedtothemagnetanddepositedontotheslidein
decreasingsizeastheoilflowsdownthesubstrate.Nonferrousparticles
aredepositedrandomlywhileferrousparticleslineupinchainsasa
resultofthemagneticflux.Theresultisamicroscopicslidewiththe
particlesseparatedbysizeandcomposition.

Microscopicexaminationofthedebrisrevealsinformationaboutthe
conditionoftheequipment.Observingtheconcentration,size,shape,
compositionandconditionoftheparticlesindicateswhereand
howtheyweregenerated.Particlesarecategorizedbasedonthese
characteristics,andconclusionscanbedrawnregardingthewearrate
andhealthofthemachine.

Thecompositionoftheparticlescanbeidentifiedbycolor.Heat
treatingtheslidecausesspecificcolorchangestooccurinvarioustypes
ofmetalsandalloys.Theparticlescompositionindicatesitssource.
Theparticlesshaperevealshowitwasgenerated.Abrasion,adhesion,
fatigue,slidingandrollingcontactwearmodeseachgeneratea
characteristicparticletypeintermsofitsshapeandsurfacecondition.

Solidcontaminantscanalsobevisuallyidentifiedprovidedtheyareofa
commonlyfoundorigin.Sandanddirt,fibers,oxidationproducts,rust
andmetaloxidesareexamplesofcontaminationdebristhatcan
beidentified.

Analytical Ferrography is the best method for

determining severity and type of wear present
with no particle size or metallurgy
limitations.

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Conclusion
10B

While the results of these tests are a powerful maintenance tool, they are useless
if not monitored and acted upon. A successful oil analysis program will be one
where the test data and analysis are coupled with the maintenance departments
knowledge and expertise to provide the most effective maintenance practices.

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ContactUs

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1988 the laboratory has been providing fast and reliable oil analysis results
across all industries throughout the Americas.

Call:2162512510
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engineers with condition monitoring and identification of machine wear.

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assessments.

References

ASTMD445,StandardTestMethodforKinematicViscosityofTransparentandOpaque
Liquids(andCalculationofDynamicViscosity),ASTMInternational,WestConshohocken,
Pennsylvania,2011.
ASTMD664,StandardTestMethodforAcidNumberofPetroleumProductsby
PotentiometricTitration,ASTMInternational,WestConshohocken,Pennsylvania,2011.
ASTMD974,StandardTestMethodforAcidandBaseNumberbyColorIndicator
Titration,ASTMInternational,WestConshohocken,Pennsylvania,2008.
ASTMD2896,StandardTestMethodforBaseNumberofPetroleumProductsby
PotentiometricPerchloricAcidTitration,ASTMInternational,WestConshohocken,
Pennsylvania,2007.
ASTMD4739,StandardTestMethodforBaseNumberDeterminationbyPotentiometric
HydrochloricAcidTitration,ASTMInternational,WestConshohocken,Pennsylvania,
2008.
ASTMD6304,StandardTestMethodforDeterminationofWaterinLiquidPetroleum
Products,LubricatingOilsandAdditivesbyCoulometricKarlFischerTitration,ASTM
International,WestConshohocken,Pennsylvania,2007.
ISO4406:1999,HydraulicFluidPowerFluidsMethodforCodingtheLevelof
ContaminationbySolidParticles,InternationalOrganizationforStandardization,
Geneva,Switzerland,1999.

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