RETAINING WALLS

Type:
i)

Gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of the concrete in

the wall

ii)

Cantilever wall wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever, stability is

provided by the weight of the structure and earth on an inner base
or the weight of the structure only when the base is constructed
externally

iii)

Counterfort and buttress wall the slab is supported on three

sides by the base and counterfort or buttress. Stability is provided
by the weight of the structure in the case of buttress wall and by
the weight of the structure and earth on the base in the counterfort
wall

Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls

a) Active soil pressure

- Two cases; cohesionless soil such as sand and cohesive soil such as
clay
- The soil pressure given are those due to a level backfill
- If there is a surcharge of w kN/m2 on the soil behind the wall, this is
equivalent to an additional soil depth of
z = w/ where is the density in kN/m3
i) Cohesionless soil (c = 0) the pressure at any depth z is given by:
P = z

1 sin
=
1 sin

Where is the soil density and is the angle of internal friction.

- The force on the wall of height H1 is

-

1
2 1 sin
P1 H 1
2
1 sin

ii) Cohesive soil, = 0, the pressure at any depth z is given by:

( z) 2c

Where c is the cohesion at zero normal pressure. This expression

gives negative value near the top of the wall. In practice, a value for
the active earth pressure of not less than

1
z is used.
4

Fig: Cohesionless soil

b) Wall stability

- The vertical loads are made up of the weight of the wall and base
and the weight of the backfill on the base. Front fill on the outer base
has been neglected.
- Surcharge would need to be included if present.
- The critical condition for overturning is when a maximum horizontal
force acts with minimum vertical load.
-

To guard against failure by overturning, it is usual to apply

conservative factors of safety to the force and loads.

- If the centre of gravity of these loads is x from the toe of the wall, the
stabilizing moment is Wx with partial safety factor is f = 0.9.
- The overturning moment due to the active earth pressure is 1.1P1
with adverse partial safety factor f = 1.1.
- The unfavourable effects of the variable surcharge loading are
multiplied by the partial safety factor of f = 1.5.
- The stabilizing moment from passive earth pressure has been
neglected.

H1
3

- For the wall to satisfy the requirement of stability

Wx f P1

H1
3

c) Vertical pressure under the base

- The vertical pressure under the base is calculated for service load.
- For a cantilever wall a 1 m length of wall with base width b is
considered, Then area A = b x 1 m = b m2 and
modulus Z = b2/6 m3.
- If M is the sum of the moment of all vertical forces W about the
centre of the base and of the active pressure on the wall then:
- M = W(x - b/2) P1H1/3
- The passive earth pressure in front of the base has been neglected
again. The maximum pressure is:
o Pmax

W M

A
Z

o This should not exceed the safe bearing pressure on the soil.

d) Resistance to sliding

i)

Cohesionless soil the friction R between the base and the soil is
M where is the coefficient of friction between the base and the
soil ( = tan). The passive earth force against the front of the wall
from a depth H2 soil is:
P2 0.5H 2

ii)

1 sin
1 sin

Cohesive soils The adhesion R between the base and the soil is
b where is the adhesion in kN/m2. The passive earth pressure
is:
P2 0.5H 2 2cH 2
2

- A nib can be added to increase the resistance to sliding through

passive earth pressure.
- For the wall to be safe against sliding
o 1.0Gk f H k
o Where Hk is the horizontal active earth pressure on wall.
Design Procedure for Cantilever Retaining Walls

1. Assume a breath for the base (0.75 of the wall height). The
preliminary thickness for the wall and base sections are chosen from
experience. A nib is often required to increase resistance of sliding.
2. Calculate the horizontal pressure on the wall. Then, considering all
forces, check stability against overturning and the vertical pressure
under the base of the wall. Calculate the resistance to sliding and
check that this is satisfactory. A partial safety factor 1.4 is applied to
the horizontal loads for the overturning and sliding check. The
maximum vertical pressure is calculated using service load and
should not exceed safe bearing pressure.
3. Reinforced concrete design for the wall is made for the ultimate load.
The partial safety factors for the wall and earth pressure are each
1.35. Surcharge if present may be classed as either dead or imposed
load depending on its nature. Refer to Fig

Horizontal
pressure
Net pressure

outer footing

Inner footing

Pressure

- For the wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the
horizontal earth pressure. Design the vertical moment steel for the
inner face and check the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is
provided in the horizontal direction for the inner face and both
vertically and horizontally for the outer face.
- The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces
of the inner footing causes tension in the top and reinforcement is
designed for this position.
- The moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face
of the outer footing.

Partial safety factor at the ultimate limit state

Persistent or

Permanent action (Gk)

Leading variable action

Accompany variable

(Qk,1)

action (Qk,i)

transient
design
situation

Unfavorable

Favourable

Unfavorable

Favourable

Unfavorable

Favourable

1.35

1.00

1.50

1.50

1.00

1.00

1.30

1.30

1.1

0.9

1.50

1.50

For
consideration
of structural
geotechnical
failure 1
(STR) &
(GEO)
For
consideration
of structural
or
geotechnical
failure:
combination
2 (STR) &
(GEO)
For checking
static
equilibrium
(EQU)

Example 1:

4500
P1
400

H2

P2

800

99.6 kN/m2

134.2 kN
400
2200

85.6 kN/m2

600

60 kN/m2

90.3 kN/m2

3400

Figure 1

Cantilever retaining walls as in Figure 1 support a bank of earth 4.5m

height. The soil behind the wall is well-drained sand with the following
properties:
Density = 2000 kg/m3 = 20 kN/m3
Angle of internal friction = 30o
The material under the wall has a safe bearing pressure of 110 kN/m2. The
coefficient of friction between the base and the soil is 0.45. Design the wall
using grade 30 concrete and grade 500 reinforcement.

a) Check wall stability

Earth pressure, = z

1 sin 30
1 sin
= 20(4.9)
= 32.34 kN/m2.
1 sin 30
1 sin

For a 1 m length of wall

Horizontal load = 0.5(32.34)(4.9) = 79.23 kN

Load

Horizontal load

Distance from

Moment about

79.23

1/3(4.9) = -1.63

-129.41

Vertical load

Distance from

Moment about

kN

- 0.7

-27.6

0.6

118.8

Active
pressure

Wall

0.5 (0.3+0.4) 4.5 x

25 = 39.4

footing

0.4 x 3.4 x 25 = 34

Backfill

2.2 x 4.5 x 20 =
198

Total

i)

271.4

91.2

Maximum soil pressure.

The base properties Area = 1 x 3.4 = 3.4 m2
Modulus

= 1 x 3.42/6 = 1.93 m4

Maximum soil pressure at toe is

Pmax

ii)

271.4 129.41 91.22

W M
=
= 79.8 + 19.78 = 99.6 OK

A
Z
3.4
1.93

Stability and overturning

The stability moment about the toe A of the wall for a partial safety
factor f = 1.0 is
91.2 + (271.4 x 1.7) = 552.58 kNm
The overturning moment for a partial safety factor f = 1.4 is
1.4 x 129.41 = 181.2 kNm

Therefore the stability of the wall adequate

iii)

Resistance to sliding

The forced resisting sliding are the friction under the base and the
passive resistance for a depth of earth
Passive force = P2 0.5H 2 2

1 0.5
1 sin
= 0.5 (20) (0.6)2
= 10.8
1 0.5
1 sin

Friction force = 0.45 x 271.4 = 122.13 kN

Total friction force = 10.8 + 122.13 = 132.93 kN

Sliding force = 79.23 x 1.4 = 110.9 kN

The resistance to sliding is satisfactory.

Structural Design

i) Wall reinforcement
Pressure at the base of the wall = z

1 sin
1 sin

= 20(4.5) (0.33) = 29.7 kN/m2

Shear force = 1.35[0.5(29.7)(4.5)] = 90.2 kN

Moment = [90.2 x [1/3(4.5) + (0.4/2)] = 153.34 kNm

Cover = 40 mm, assume 20 mm bar dia.

d = 400 30 20/2 = 360 mm
M
153.34 10 6

= 1.18 < 1.27

bd 2 1000(360 2 )

Z = 0.95d

As =

M
153.34 10 6

= 1031 mm2/m
0.87 f y z 0.87(500)(0.95 x360)

Use H20 - 250 (As = 1260 mm2/m)

ii) Inner footing
Shear force = 1.35 [198 + 32.6(2.2/3.4) (60 x 2.2) (0.5 x 2.2 x 25.6)]
= 1.35 [198 + 21.1 131.4 31.1]
= 79.56 kN
Moment = 1.35[(198 + 21.1 132)(1.1+ 0.2) 28.16(0.73 + 0.2)]
= 117.5 kNm

M
117.5 10 6
= 0.9 < 1.27

bd 2 1000(360 2 )

As =

M
117.5 10 6
= 790 mm2/m

0.87 f y z 0.87(500)(0.95 360)

Use H20 - 300 (As = 1050 mm2/m)

iii)

Outer footing

Shear force

= 1.35 [(90.3 x 0.8 + (0.5 x 0.8 x 9.3) 32.6 (0.8/3.4)]

= 1.35 [72.2 + 3.72 7.7]
= 92.1 kN

Moment

= 1.35 [(72.2- 7.7)x (0.4+ 0.2) + 3.72[2/3 x 0.8)+ 0.2]]

= 68.4 kNm

M
68.4 10 6
= 0.52 < 1.27, z = 0.95d

bd 2 1000(362 2 )
M
68.4 10 6

As =
= 457 mm2/m
0.87 f y z 0.87(500)(0.95 362)

Use H16 - 300 (As = 670 mm2/m)

Example 2:

15 kN/m2
5 kN/m2

CL
3500

250

600
800

250

22 kN/m2

1800

43.55 kN/m2

83.67 kN/m2

Design a cantilever retaining wall to support a bank of earth 3.5m height.

The top surface is horizontal behind the wall but it is subjected to a dead
load surcharge in 15 kN/m2. The soil behind the wall is well-drained sand
with the following properties:
Density = 1800 kg/m3 = 17.6 kN/m3
Angle of internal friction = 30o

The material under the wall has a safe bearing pressure of 100 kN/m2. The
coefficient of friction between the base and the soil is 0.5. Design the wall
using grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

(a)

wall stability

Consider 1 meter length of the wall. The surcharge is equivalent to an

additional height of 15 kN/m2/17.6 kN/m3 = 0.85 m.
The total height of the soil

= 3.5 + 0.25 + 0.85 = 4.6m

The horizontal pressure, = z[(1- sin )/ (1+ sin )]

= 17.6 z [(1- sin 30)/ (1+ sin 30)]
= 17.6 z (0.333)
= 5.87 z kN/m2.
at base, z = 4.6m, = 27 kN/m2

Load

Active
pressure

Horizontal load

Distance from

Moment about

(kN)

5 x 3.75 = 18.75

1.875

-35.08

0.5 x 22 x 3.75 = 41.25

1.25

-51.56

Total

59.98

-86.64

Vertical load

Distance from

Moment about

(kN)

wall + nib

4.1 x 0.25 x 25 = 25.6

-0.5

-12.8

Base

2.85 x 0.25 x 25 = 17.81

0.0

0.00

Backfill

1.8 x 3.5 x 17.6 = 110.88

0.525

58.21

Surcharge

15 x 1.8 = 27

0.525

14.18

Total

i)

181.29

Maximum soil pressure

The base properties
Area A = 1 x 2.85 = 2.85 m2
Modulus Z = 1 x 2.852/6 = 1.35 m3

59.59

The maximum soil pressure at A calculated for service load is:

181.29 86.67 59.59
2

63.61 20.06 83.67 max@ 43.55 min (kN/m )

2.85
1.35

The maximum soil pressure is satisfactory

ii)

Stability against overturning

The stabilizing moment about the toe A of the wall for a partial safety
factor f 0.9 is

59.59 + [181.29 x (2.85/2)] = 317.9 x 0.9 = 286.11 kNm

The overturning moment for a partial safety factor f 1.1 is
1.1 x 86.64 = 95.3 kNm

The stability of the wall is adequate

iii)

Resistance to sliding

The forces resisting sliding are the friction under the base and the
passive resistance for a depth of earth of 850 mm to the top of the
base
17.6 0.85 2 1 0.5
90.64 + 19.01 = 109.6 kN
0.5 x 181.29 +
2(1 0.5)

For the wall to be safe against sliding

109.8 > 1.4 x 59.98 = 83.97 kN

The resistance to sliding is satisfactory