ENVT 0845 * INSTRUCTOR: ALYSON LESTER

Chapter 9 Air Pollution

Chapter 9: Air Pollution

The Killer Smog
1948 - Donora, PA - city in the Monogahela River Valley, near a US Steel Plant and the Donora Zinc
Works chilly fall morning
Yellowish morning fog rolled in. Held in place by warm layer of air above
Eye-burning morning for had been commonplace since US plant constructed in 1900.
But this was much worse - didnt go away and just got increasingly worse
Lasted almost a week.
Claimed the lives of 70 citizens.
Made national news, became known as the Donora Killer Smog.
The US Public Health Service commenced on the first US study of the comprehensive effects of air
pollution on public health.
They determined that the smelter was the source of the problem. Toxic chemicals mixing in droplets
of fog that became trapped by the air mass above and became concentrated.
This horrific event helped pave the way for the Air Pollution Control Act in 1955 and the Clean Air
Act of 1967.
Air Quality and Air Pollution
Air Quality
the amount of gases and small particles in the atmosphere that influence ecosystems and human well
being
Air Pollution
gases or particles present n high enough concentrations to harm humans, other organisms or structures
Gases and Particles
Three gases
Argon, nitrogen and oxygen make up the bulk of our atmosphere in relatively constant/consistent
amounts.
Variable gases - Water vapor, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides are examples
May vary over time, and from place to place, can be related to temperatures, time of day or other factors.
Carbon dioxide also varies due to photosynthesis activities.
Nitrogen Oxides - produce of natural processes and also of industry/burning of fossil fuels
Concentrations have increased significantly since the Industrial Revolution
Highest around urban and industrial centers
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
organic chemicals that can vaporize into air.
Methane is an example, also solvents, paints, gasoline, auto exhaust
Aerosols
Very small solid and liquid particles suspended in the air
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Water droplets in clouds, pollen, bacteria (see figure 9.5). Size effects hang-time.
EPA monitors and controls 190 air pollutants
Just a fraction of the chemicals added to the air each day. Over 400 hydrocarbons in gasoline alone.
Sources of Air Pollution
Primary air pollutants - emitted directly from identifiable sources
Mercury from volcanic eruption
Sulfur dioxide from burning fossil fuels
CFCs from industrial process
Secondary air pollutants - produced in atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions
Ozone accumulates in the air in a city is a secondary pollutant - nitrogen oxide (smog) and oxygen gas
react in sunlight.
Photochemicals - Secondary pollutants that react in sunlight
Dispersion of Air Pollution
How pollutant will travel affected by air flow, air movement and emission height
Air Flow
Convection (see chapt 3), diffusion (spreading out) and wind patterns.
All of these processes help disperse/dilute pollutants into the atmosphere
Temperature Inversion
Cold nights, ground cold, air closest to ground cools, and therefore wont mix with the warmer layer
above. This is what trapped the pollutants in Donora.
In general, the further you are from the pollution source, the more dispersed it is.
That is why the height of the emission is also a critical factor
Atmospheric Lifetime (aka hang-time). The longer something stays in the air, the more of a problem is
can be.
Dry deposition - non-liquid particles settle back down to the ground eventually
Wet deposition - trace gases or particles trapped in fog/rain/snow - the more soluble the pollutant, the
more likely this will happen.
Acid Deposition Wet or dry deposition of acid containing particles, rain, gases into soils, plants, buildings/bodies of water.
Acid rain is a type of Acid Deposition
Sulfur dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide - adhere to dust particles or dissolve in cloud droplets
Since this can be wet or dry, scientists prefer the term Acid Deposition to Acid Rain
attributed to killing trees, reducing biodiversity in lakes, weathering buildings.
leaches nutrients from soil, harms leaves, and alters the ph of water.
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Added threat - lowered ph frees up toxic metals bound in sediments of lakes and streams.
Also, shells of aquatic creatures vulnerable to acidic water
Primary source of sulfur dioxide - coal-fired power plants.
Primary source of nitrogen oxides - power plants and vehicle exhaust
Go over figure 9.11 on acidic deposition in US.
1980-1990 - US/CA enacted laws on limiting sulfur emissions
Scrubbers started being used on smokestacks to remove 90% of emissions.
Today, emissions here less than half of what they were in the 80s.
Nitrogen Oxide levels havent really decreased over all.
Less from power plants, but more from cars, since so many more vehicles.
Overall ph in streams and lakes are starting to return to normal here.
Acid Deposition still a big problem in developing countries.
Heavy Metals
Some naturally occur in atmosphere as result of volcanic activity
Believed to have increased dramatically in past 200 years, particularly in areas near source
Mercury most notorious, result of industrial activities/burning of fossil fuels.Gaseous mercury can end up
settling or picked up by rain. Finds its way to land and water. Absorbed into the tissue of organisms and
bioaccumulates.
Emissions have declined in recent years due to use of scrubbers, but what was emitted in the past
continues to circulate from the ecosystem.
Lead is another byproduct of the industrial process. Used to be used in gasoline too.
Regulated in 1976. Lead gasoline banned in most countries since 1980. However, a number of
developing countries continue to use it.
Here in the US, we reduced lead emissions by 99% in 15 years, thanks to the 1970 clean air act.
Smog
Common feature of cities
Industrial smog (like in Donora) mostly result of coal burning. Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Photochemical smog
Primary pollutants react with sunlight to form secondary pollutants. This can happen on a daily cycle.
In cities, car exhaust (nitrogen oxide and VOCs) reacts with oxygen and water vapor to form ozone and
nitrogen dioxide in the afternoon sun. Reactions cease when the sun goes down. However, if the air gets
trapped by temp inversion, the building blocks remain/build up, and the reactions start over the next day.
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Catalytic converters - in US help reduce auto emissions by 90%. However, still a challenge is developing
countries and due to increase in cars.
The Stratosphere - the layer of atmosphere above the troposphere that contains the ozone layer.
The ozone layer protects us from harmful UV light. (chapter 3)
Pollutants with a particularly long lifetime disperse through the stratosphere
Some scatter and reflect light, reducing what makes it down to the surface - these can occur naturally or
they can be manmade. (Sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide are examples). This has a cooling effect, but its
often temporary as the particles settle back down to Earth.
Others degrade the ozone layer.
Ozone here in the troposphere is considered a pollutant. Many adverse impacts to human health.
However, without the ozone layer in the stratosphere, ultraviolet light would destroy nearly all terrestrial
life.
Chemicals that contain chlorine and bromine are problematic.
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are an example. They break down in ultraviolet light. The released chlorine
catalyzes the destruction of ozone. Due to air circulation, this destruction has focused over the south pole.
Satellite measurements verified a 4% annual increase in this hole in the ozone.
Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air generally contains a greater concentration of pollutants than outdoor air.
On average, we spend 90% of our time indoors.
Combustion byproducts
Gas stoves, furnaces, space heaters, indoor fires for heat/cooking (mostly in developing countries) can
release byproducts such as carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides and VOCs.
Tobacco smoke - over 250 toxins, many of which are carcinogens.
Building Materials
Many construction materials emit VOCs; formaldehyde and asbestos are also issues.
Adhesives, synthetic fabrics, wood materials and insulation are all present potential hazards.
Formaldehyde - pressed wood, insulation significantly reduced since 1980s
VOCs - tons of items, adhesives, solvents, paints, carpets.
Threat of VOCs, formaldehyde may decrease as material ages (depends on situation)
Asbestos - fibrous material used in many building materials up until 1970s much of it still remains in
buildings.
Radon
Occurs naturally. Leads to a radioactive aerosol that is a carcinogen. Found in rock and soil.
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Proper ventilation is critical when concentrations are high.

Pesticides
Wide variety of toxins. Is misapplied may affect our health.
Example of problems, chlordane used to kill termites overused, with many adverse health impacts.
DDTs and PCP (pentrachlorophenol) used to protect timber has also lead to problems.
Biological Contaminants
Mold/microorganisms
1976 Legionnaires disease. Read this section of book.
Air Pollution and Law
Our policies have evolved significantly over the past 60 years.
After much dispute, air quality mainly in jurisdiction of federal government vs. states, which makes sense,
since pollution disperses.
1990 Clean Air Act Ammendment
Cap and Trade for Sulfur Dioxide
International Air Pollution Policy
CFC banning was one success story. (Montreal Protocol)
The 1999 Protocol
Set 2010 targets for cutting emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, VOCs and ammonia.

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