The Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer
gobir@nitt.edu
Agenda
UNIT-II: The Data Link Layer

Error Detection and Correction Parity LRCCRC Hamming Code Low Control and Error
Control Stop and wait ARQ Sliding window
HDLC LAN IEEE 802 Standards Wireless LAN
Bridges .
OSI LAYERS
Background
The design principles for the second

layer in our model, the data link layer.
It deals with algorithms for achieving

reliable, efficient communication of
whole units of information called frames
(rather than individual bits, as in the
physical layer) between two adjacent
machines.
Background
The two machines are connected by a

communication
channel
that
acts
conceptually like a wire (e.g., a coaxial
cable, telephone line, or wireless channel).
The essential property of a channel that
makes it wire-like is that the bits are
delivered in exactly the same order in which
they are sent.
Background
Machine A just puts the bits on the wire, and

machine B just takes them off. Unfortunately,
communication
channels
make
errors
occasionally.
They have only a finite data rate, and there
is a nonzero propagation delay between the
time a bit is sent and the time it is received.
The limitations have important implications for
the efficiency of the data transfer.
Introduction
The protocols used for communications must

take all these factors into consideration.
These protocols are the subject of this

chapter
Protocols by looking at the nature of errors

and how they can be detected and
corrected.
a series of increasingly complex protocols,

each one solving more and more of the
problems present in this layer.
The Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer Design Issues
Error Detection and Correction
Elementary Data Link Protocols
Sliding Window Protocols
The Data Link Layer

Design Issue - Intro
10
The data link layer uses the services of the physical

layer to send and receive bits over communication
channels.
It has a number of functions, including:

1. Providing a well-defined service interface to the network
layer.
2. Dealing with transmission errors.
3. Regulating the flow of data so that slow receivers are
not swamped by fast senders.
Design Issue - Intro
11
The data link layer takes the packets it gets from

the network layer and encapsulates them into
frames for transmission.
Each frame contains a frame header, a payload field

for holding the packet, and a frame trailer.
Key Portfolio
12
Frame management forms the heart of what the

data link layer does.
Explicitly about the protocols, many of the
principles here are error control and flow control.
Reliability is an overall goal, and it is achieved when
all the layers work together.
Many networks, these functions are found mostly in the
upper layers, with the data link layer doing the minimal
job that is good enough.
However, no matter where they are found, the principles
are pretty much the same.
The Data Link Layer

Services, Framing, Error Control & Flow Control
13
Services Provided to the

Network Layer
14
The function is to provide services to the

network layer.
The principal service is transferring data from the
network layer on the source machine to the
network layer on the destination machine.
On the source machine is an entity, call it a
process, in the network layer that hands some
bits to the data link layer for transmission to the
destination.

Network Layer
15
The job of the data link layer is to transmit the bits

to the destination machine so they can be handed
over to the network layer there.
Virtual Communication
The actual transmission follows the path of, but it is

easier to think in terms of two data link layer
processes communicating using a data link protocol.
Actual Communication

Network Layer
16
(a) Virtual communication (b) Actual communication
In terms of layers
Network
Link
Virtual data path

Physical
CSE 461 University of Washington
Actual data path
17
In terms of layers
Network
Link
Virtual data path

Physical
Actual data path
18
Typical Implementation of
Layers
19

Network Layer
20
The data link layer can be designed to

offer various services. The actual
services that are offered vary from
protocol to protocol.
Three reasonable possibilities
1. Unacknowledged connectionless service.
2. Acknowledged connectionless service.
3. Acknowledged connection-oriented service.
The Data Link Layer

21
Framing
22
To provide service to the network layer the data link

layer must use the service provided to it by physical
layer.
Stream of data bits provided to data link layer is not
guaranteed to be without errors.
Errors could be:
Number of received bits does not match number of transmitted
bits (deletion or insertion)
Bit Value
It is up to data link layer to correct the errors if

necessary.
Framing Key aspect
23
The approach is for the data link layer to break

up the bit stream into discrete frames,
compute a short token called a checksum for
each frame, and include the checksum in the
frame when it is transmitted.
When a frame arrives at the destination, the
checksum is recomputed.
If the newly computed checksum is different from

the one contained in the frame, the data link layer
knows that an error has occurred and takes steps to
deal with it.
e.g., discarding the bad frame and possibly also
sending back an error report.
Framing
24
Breaking up the bit stream into frames is more

difficult than it at first appears.
A good design must make it easy for a receiver to
find the start of new frames while using little of the
channel bandwidth.
Four methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In practice, the physical layer often helps

to identify frame boundaries
E.g., Ethernet, 802.11
Byte count.
Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
Flag bits with bit stuffing.
Physical layer coding violations.
Framing
25
1. Byte
count
2. Flag bytes
with byte
stuffing
3. Flag bits
with bit
stuffing
4. Physical
layer coding
violations
Byte Count: Framing

Method
26
The first framing method uses a field in the header to specify

the number of bytes in the frame.
When the at the destination sees the byte count, it knows
how many bytes follow and hence where the end of the
frame is.
This technique is shown in Figure for four small example frames of
sizes 5, 5, 8, and 8 bytes, respectively.
Byte Count:Framing Method
27
The trouble with this algorithm is that the count can be garbled by a transmission
error.
For example, if the byte count of 5 in the second frame of Figure becomes a 7 due to a
single bit flip, the destination will get out of synchronization.
It will then be unable to locate the correct start of the next frame. Even if the
checksum is incorrect so the destination knows that the frame is bad, it still has
no way of telling where the next frame starts.
Sending a frame back to the source asking for a retransmission does not help
either, since the destination does not know how many bytes to skip over to get to
the start of the retransmission.
For this reason, the byte count method is rarely used by itself
Byte Stream
28
(a) Without errors. (b) With one error.
Framing
29
1. Byte
count
2. Flag
bytes with
byte stuffing
3. Flag bits
with bit
stuffing
4. Physical
layer coding
violations
Flag Bytes with Byte

Stuffing Framing Method
30
The second framing method gets around the problem of

resynchronization after an error by having each frame start
and end with special bytes.
flag byte, is used as both the starting and ending
Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame

and the start of the next.
Thus, if the receiver ever loses synchronization it can just search for two flag
bytes to find the end of the current frame and the start of the next frame.
Flag Bytes with Byte

Staffing Framing Method
31
Better idea:
Have a special flag byte value that means
start/end of frame
Replace (stuff) the flag inside the frame
with an escape code
Complication: have to escape the escape
code too!
Framing (2)
Rules:
32
Replace each FLAG in data with ESC FLAG

Replace each ESC in data with ESC ESC
Framing (2)
33
a. A frame delimited
by flag bytes.
b. Four examples of
byte
sequences
before and after
byte stuffing.
The byte-stuffing scheme depicted in Figure is a slight

simplification of the one used in PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),
which is used to carry packets over communications links.
Framing
34
1. Byte
count
2. Flag bytes
with byte
stuffing
3. Flag bits
with bit
stuffing
4. Physical
layer coding
violations
Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing

Framing Method
35
The third method of delimiting the bit stream gets

around a disadvantage of byte stuffing, which is that it
is tied to the use of 8-bit bytes.
Framing can be also be done at the bit level, so frames
can contain an arbitrary number of bits made up of units
of any size.
It was developed for the once very popular HDLC (High
Level Data Link Control) protocol.
Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern,
01111110 or 0x7E in hexadecimal. This pattern is a flag
byte.

Framing Method
Can stuff at the bit level too
Rules
Assume a flag has six consecutive 1s
On transmit, after five 1s in the data,
insert a 0
On receive, a 0 after five 1s is deleted
36

Framing Method
37
(a) The original data.

(b) The data as they appear on
the line.
(c)The data as they are stored in
the receivers memory after destuffing.
When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0
bit, it automatically destuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit.
Just as byte stuffing is completely transparent to the network layer in both
computers, so is bit stuffing.
If the user data contain the flag pattern, 01111110, this flag is transmitted
as 011111010 but stored in the receivers memory as 01111110
Framing
38
1. Byte
count
2. Flag bytes
with byte
stuffing
3. Flag bits
with bit
stuffing
4. Physical
layer coding
violations
Physical Layer Coding

Violations
39
Many data link protocols use a combination of these

methods for safety.
A common pattern used for Ethernet and 802.11 is
to have a frame begin with a well-defined pattern
called a preamble.
This pattern might be quite long (72 bits is typical for
802.11) to allow the receiver to prepare for an incoming
packet.
The preamble is then followed by a length (i.e.,

count) field in the header that is used to locate the
end of the frame.
Framing
40
1. Byte
count
2. Flag bytes
with byte
stuffing
3. Flag bits
with bit
stuffing
4. Physical
layer coding
violations
The Data Link Layer

41
Error Control
42
After solving the marking of the frame with start and

end the data link layer has to handle eventual errors
in transmission or detection.
Ensuring that all frames are delivered to the network layer
at the destination and in proper order.
The usual way to ensure reliable delivery is to

provide the sender with some feedback about what is
happening at the other end of the line.
Error Control
43
The protocol calls for the receiver to send back

special control frames bearing positive or negative
acknowledgements about the incoming frames.
If the sender receives a positive acknowledgement about
a frame, it knows the frame has arrived safely.
On the other hand, a negative acknowledgement means
that something has gone wrong and the frame must be
transmitted again.
Error Control
44
An additional complication comes from the

possibility that hardware troubles may cause a frame
to vanish completely (e.g., in a noise burst).
In this case, the receiver will not react at all, since it
has no reason to react.
Similarly, if the acknowledgement frame is lost, the
sender will not know how to proceed.
It should be clear that a protocol in which the sender

transmits a frame and then waits for an
acknowledgement, positive or negative, will hang
forever if a frame is ever lost due to, for example,
malfunctioning hardware or a faulty communication
channel.
Error Control
45
This possibility is dealt with by introducing timers into

the data link layer.
When the sender transmits a frame, it generally also
starts a timer.
The timer is set to expire after an interval long
enough for the frame to reach the destination, be
processed there, and have the acknowledgement
propagate back to the sender.
Normally, the frame will be correctly received and the
acknowledgement will get back before the timer runs
out, in which case the timer will be canceled.
Error Control
46
However,
if
either
the
frame
or
the
acknowledgement is lost, the timer will go off,
alerting the sender to a potential problem.
The obvious solution is to just transmit the frame

again. However, when frames may be transmitted
multiple times there is a danger that the receiver
will accept the same frame two or more times and
pass it to the network layer more than once.
Error Control
47
To prevent this from happening, it is generally

necessary to assign sequence numbers to outgoing
frames, so that the receiver can distinguish
retransmissions from originals
The whole issue of managing the timers and
sequence numbers so as to ensure that each frame
is ultimately passed to the network layer at the
destination exactly once, no more and no less, is an
important part of the duties of the data link layer
(and higher layers).
Flow Control
48
Another important design issue that occurs in the

data link layer (and higher layers as well) is what to
do with a sender that systematically wants to
transmit frames faster than the receiver can accept
them.
This situation can occur when the sender is running

on a fast, powerful computer and the receiver is
running on a slow, low-end machine.
Flow Control
49
Important Design issue for the cases when the

sender is running on a fast powerful computer
and receiver is running on a slow low-end
machine.
Two approaches:
1. Feedback-based flow control
2. Rate-based flow control
Flow Control
Feedbackbased flow
control
Receiver sends back information to

the sender giving it permission to
send more data, or
Ratebased flow
control
Built in mechanism that

limits the rate at which
sender may transmit data,
without
the
need
for
feedback from the receiver.
Telling sender how receiver is doing.
50
Summary
51

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UNIT-II: The Data Link Layer

The design principles for the second

It deals with algorithms for achieving

The two machines are connected by a

Machine A just puts the bits on the wire, and

The protocols used for communications must

These protocols are the subject of this

Protocols by looking at the nature of errors

a series of increasingly complex protocols,