Regent Business School

Assessing Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the Development

of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs) in the North West
Province: A Case Study of Four Selected Community Nutrition and Development
Centres in Bojanala District Municipality

Mpho Putu

MBA

2016

Assessing Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the

Development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs) in the
North West Province: A Case Study of Four Selected Community Nutrition and
Development Centres in Bojanala District Municipality

By

Mpho Putu

Supervisor: Nishika Chetty

2016

ABSTRACT

In South Africa, more than 11 million people do not have access to nutritious, healthy and
adequate food, children being more affected. Food is fundamental human concern and
central to the health of our communities. The constitution of the Republic of South Africa
state that everyone has the right to food. As a result government has approved the
provision of food to communities through Community Nutrition and Development Centres
(CNDCS). These CNDCs are community initiated structures that exist to ensure that the
poor and vulnerable communities have access to healthy and nutritious food, working to
alleviate poverty, unemployment and vulnerability in the rural areas of South Africa. This
study is based on the Assessment of the Leadership and Management Role Played by
Women in the Development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs)
in the North West Province.
This study was conducted by using a non-probability, purposive sampling which
specifically looked at a Case Study of Four Selected Community Nutrition and
Development Centres in the Bojanala District Municipality. This study documented the role
played by 20 Women Leaders in the development of the CNDCs and their quest to lead
in the advancement of their communities. This qualitative research employed various
methodologies such as in-depth interviews, and document analysis. Specifically, the
research findings described and analysed the management and leadership role,
leadership understanding and styles, reasons for becoming leaders, barriers of women
leadership and strategies employed by these women leaders in developing the community.

The study found that the women exceeded the scope of their expected mandates by taking
leadership which led to them inadvertently addressing other challenges that arose in the
communities such as taking care of those who were affected by HIV and AIDS, orphans
poverty and vulnerability in communities. Through their engagement, the also initiated
skills development and psychosocial programmes, which included offering services like
counselling, mentoring, and job creation and empowerment programmes.
While their leadership roles have been successful and impactful, the research found that
women are also challenged by gender stereotypes and the patriarchal nature of society.
The study recommends that while women are seen to be empowering their communities,
efforts need to be put into ensuring that 1) they are further capacitated 2) that their work is
recognised and lastly, 3) that they are rewarded accordingly.
ii

DECLARATION

I, Mpho Putu do hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my investigation and
research and that this has not been submitted in part or full for any degree or for any
other degree to any other University.

___________________

_____19 August 2016________

Mpho Putu

Date

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation to GOD my Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ. His love endures forever. I continue to appreciate His work in me, especially for
allowing me to finish this thesis.

My unalloyed appreciation goes to my supervisor Nishika Chetty for her tireless efforts in
guiding and giving me direction regarding the content, and for her invaluable support and
dedication in critically evaluating my work including being so eager to help and give her
unwavering support and academic input in the writing of this thesis. May God continue to
bless you.

I would also like to extend my sincerest gratitude and appreciation to Regent Business
School for their unceasing support. I was enabled by their help and loving spirit to keep on
pushing until the finishing line of this work.

To the women leaders who so generously gave their time to participate in this study: this
thesis would not have eventuated if they had not been prepared to speak so candidly
about a very sensitive subject and also allowed me to interfere with their work schedules
to conduct the interviews.

To my family - Poki, Tshegofatso Rorisang, and the Putu clan, (including my late parents,
Lemogang and Ramokayane Putu, to whom this project is dedicated), for their prayers,
support, and sacrifice throughout the years to my studies.

Finally, my friends, colleagues for being the wind beneath my wings and encouraging me
to fly even in adversity.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content..Pages
TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES

................................................................................................. ix

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... x

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................. xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background to the Study ..................................................................................... 1
1.3 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 2
1.4 Aim of the Study.................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................ 3
1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................................. 3
1.7 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 4
1.8 Format of the Study .............................................................................................. 4
1.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................... 6

2.2 Concepts of Leadership and Management ......................................................... 6
2.2.1The Concept of Leadership ................................................................................ 7
2.2.2 Theories of Leadership ...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2.1 Trait Theory ..................................................................................................... 9
2.2.2.2 Behavioural Theories.................................................................................... 10
2.2.2.3 Contingency Theories .................................................................................. 10
2.2.2.5 Transactional leadership Theories .............................................................. 10
2.2.2.6 Transformational Leadership Theories ....................................................... 11
2.3 Concept of Management .................................................................................... 11
2.3.1 Levels of Management ..................................................................................... 12
2.4 Distinction between Leadership and Management .......................................... 13
2.5. Women and Leadership ..................................................................................... 14
2.6. Women leadership and leading styles ............................................................. 16
2.6.1 Transformational Leadership .......................................................................... 17
2.6.2 Characteristics of Transformational Leaders ................................................ 20
v

2.6.3. Collaborative, participative and instructional leadership ............................ 22

2.7 Women Leadership Behaviours....................................................................... 24
2.8 Concept of Community Development ............................................................... 25
2.8.1. Community Development and Leadership ................................................... 28
2.8.2 Women Leadership in Community Development .......................................... 29
2.8.3 Community Development and Nutrition Centres .......................................... 30
2.9 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................. 33

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 33
3.2 The Research Philosophy .................................................................................. 33
3.2.2 Phenomenological Research Strategies (Qualitative) .................................. 34
3.3 Research Design ................................................................................................. 35
3.3.1 Descriptive research ........................................................................................ 35
3.4 Research Strategies............................................................................................ 36
3.5 Target Population................................................................................................ 37
3.6 Sampling .............................................................................................................. 37
3.7 The Research Instrument ................................................................................... 38
3.8.1 Interviews ......................................................................................................... 38
3.8.2 Group interviews .............................................................................................. 38
3.9 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................... 39
3.10 Administration of Questionnaires ................................................................... 40
3.10.1 Process used to prepare for interviews ....................................................... 40
3.11 Collection of Questionnaires ........................................................................... 41
Validity and Reliability .............................................................................................. 41
3.12.1 Validity ............................................................................................................ 41
12.2 Reliability ........................................................................................................... 42
3.13 Data Analysis..................................................................................................... 42
3.13.1 Thematic analysis .......................................................................................... 43
3.13.2 Content analysis ............................................................................................ 43
3.14 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................... 43
3.15 Elimination of Bias ............................................................................................ 44
3.16 Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................... 45
3.17 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 45

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION

OF FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 47
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 47
vi

4.2 Response Rate .................................................................................................... 47

4.3 Thematic Analysis of Data ................................................................................. 48
4.3.1 Coding of Data.................................................................................................. 48
4.4 One on One Interviews results........................................................................... 49
OBJECTIVE 1: To explore the leadership and management roles played by
women in the development of CNDCs ................................................................... 49
THEME 1: Expected Mandate .................................................................................. 50
THEME 2: Inadvertent Roles .................................................................................... 51
Sub-theme 2.1 Mentoring ......................................................................................... 53
Sub-theme 2.2 Counsellor ...................................................................................... 54
Sub-theme 2.3 Information and Support services ............................................... 55
OBJECTIVE 2: To examine the leadership and management characteristics
women possess in the in the CNDCs ................................................................... 55
THEME 3: Power and Influence ............................................................................. 56
Sub-theme 3.1 Need for Female Presence ............................................................ 56
Sub- theme 3.2 Concern for community. .............................................................. 57
Sub-theme 3.3 Influencing and helping others .................................................... 58
Sub- theme 3.4 choosing to be a leader ............................................................... 60
THEME 4 Inciting Change ......................................................................................... 61
Sub theme 4.1 Contributing influences ................................................................ 61
Sub- theme 4.2 Change through Innovation ......................................................... 63
Sub-theme 4.3 Taking charge ................................................................................ 64
Sub theme 4.4 having a vision ............................................................................... 65
4.5 FOCUS GROUPS INTERVIEW ............................................................................ 67
THEME 1: Shared Leadership .................................................................................. 68
Theme 2: Challenges and Obstacles ....................................................................... 70
Sub theme 2.4 Gender Roles ................................................................................. 72
THEME 3: Self-Efficacy and Identity ....................................................................... 74
Sub theme 3.1 Influence of others....................................................................... 74
Sub- theme 3.2 The Confidence to Succeed ........................................................ 75
Sub theme 3.3 Impacting Society .......................................................................... 76
Sub- theme 3.4 Personal characteristics .............................................................. 77
THEME 4 Effectual Leadership Styles ..................................................................... 78
Sub-theme 4.2 Motivations and Empowering ......................................................... 79

4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 83

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 83
vii

5.2 Findings from the Study ..................................................................................... 84

5.2.1 Findings from the Literature Review .............................................................. 84
5.2.2 Findings from the Primary Research ............................................................. 85

5.3 Conclusions .................................................................................... 87

5.4 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 88
5.5 Area for Further Research .................................................................................. 89

5.6 Conclusion...................................................................................... 89
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................ 91
Appendix A: Letter of Granting Permission to Conduct the Study .................. 100
Appendix B: Letter to Respondents ...................................................................... 101
Appendix C: Letter to Respondents ...................................................................... 103
Appendix D: Research Instrument ........................................................................ 104
Appendix E: Interview Schedule ............................................................................ 105

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2.1

Distinction between manager and leaders

Table 2.2

Definitions of transformational, transactional and

Table 3

10

Laissez -Faire leadership styles

13

Male and Female Interaction Styles

20

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 1

Overview of the features of transformational

leadership.

16

Figure 2

Characteristics of a transformational leader Basss

Model

17

Figure 3

Community Development Model

24

LIST OF ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
BPDM- Bojanala Platinum District Municipality
BWA Business Women Association
CBO Community Based Organisation
CDP Community Development Practitioners
CEE Commission for Employment Equity
CNDC Community Nutrition Development Centre
CGE Commission of Gender Equality
DSD Department of Social Development
FG - Focus Group
HIV Human Immune Virus
IDP Integrated Development Plan
ILO International Labour Organisation
KRLM Kgetleng River Local Municipality
MLM Madibeng Local Municipality
MLM Moretele Local Municipality
MBA Master of Business Administration
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NW- North West
NWPG North West Provincial Government
RLM- Rustenburg Local Municipality
UN United Nations
UNDAW - UN Division for the Advancement of Women
SADC Southern African Development Community

xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The study is based on the leadership and management role women play in the Bojanala
Communities. In South Africa, for many years, women have been in the fore front in their
communities and have been involved in various ways in their communities. They have
established themselves as leaders in community development and acquired the skills that
have brought positive change to their communities. This first chapter provides a broad
overview of the study. This chapter gives the context and background within which the
phenomenon under study takes place. It outlines the reasons, research questions, a research
goal and the objectives that inspired the researcher to conduct the investigation

1.2 Background to the Study

Globally, women have long been the backbone of communities and are heavily involved in
community initiatives in various forms. The role of women in the community and their situation
in rural areas depends on their geographic region, social class, age and ethnicity. In most
cases in urban areas, Women are found to be taking active role in complex affairs such as
politics, education, socio, and economical life, whereas in rural areas women would play a
different but crucial role for the subsistence of their communities, though this role is not always
acknowledged. Though often the unsung heroes of community action, womens role in
community development has become increasingly important.
Today the womens role has changed significantly, from just a child carer to professional
business women, educators, doctors, scientists etc and competing with men across various
fields of work. The levels of sophistication in their role is dependent on geographic areas and
socia economic classes, they are at. However they have defined and developed mechanism
to survive in their own spaces, they have formed associations and clubs and in one way or
the other, they have found a way to organised themselves, defined their own spaces and
environment and are able to make things happen for themselves. They are solving complex
problems, influence each other, and providing guidance to each, their young ones and their
communities at large. According to Fine. (2009: 23), throughout the world leadership is
generally perceived as something society needs more.
1

Women leaders play key roles in establishing and maintaining important relationships and
networks in their communities. They face cultural, economic, and social barriers in leading
the community and in many cases overcoming those barriers become their motivation. While
their comprehensive approach has influenced the evolution and nature of community
development, womens contributions have been neither widely acknowledge nor explicitly
credited. In rural areas women are not gainfully employed and, even when they are, their
salaries are far lower than those of men.

Many organizations and government institutions (The hunger project, 2005:98) have long
recognized the importance of women in both developed and developing nations to the
process of increased development (Coleman, 2004:46). Women are credited with the role of
primary caregiver, and their efforts outside the home to generate income positively affect a
strong, burgeoning family (Coleman, 2004;45) The United Nations Millennium Development
Goals (UN, 2003:32) specifically address women-related issues, promoting gender equality
and the empowerment of women, and the UN Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW)
(UN, 2005:22) promotes equality with men across the world for sustainable development,
peace and security, governance, and human rights. In the past decade, the number of people
living in poverty has been reduced, the gender gap in education has narrowed, women have
become more involved in political arenas, and women are a growing force in the economic
labour market. They remain critical role players in South African development history.

This study intends to provide deeper insights into the leadership and management role of
women in Community Nutrition and Development Centres, the barriers to womens
leadership, their leadership styles and strategies that should be undertaken to facilitate and
promote their status and roles in community development.
1.3 Problem Statement

The socio-economic problems such as high levels poverty, unemployment, HIV and Aids
including inequalities in South Africa have stimulated communities to engage in strategies
which enable them to uplift their standards of living and promote their social functioning. In an
attempt to address their community problems, women, in particular, engage in activities that
lead to the process of community change and development. In rural areas particularly, women's
status is traditionally low. Most women were deprived of education by the system including
tradition, because they were females (Fick, Meintjes, & Simons, 2002:45).
2

The Population Development Programme Report (2011:14) estimates that sixty percent of the
South African population lives in rural areas, with more than half of this population being
women. As an attempt to survive in rural areas, women have engaged in many community
development projects. Development activities have always existed in most countries with
women leading the way. However, since women were never given any recognition for their
contribution, it thus appeared as if men were the only ones influential to the process of
development. How do women see and paly their leadership and management role in their
community? What are factors that has a bearing their community intervention?

1.4 Aim of the Study

The aim of this research is to investigate leadership and role played by women in the
development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs) in the four Local
Municipalities in Bojanala District Municipality, North West Province.
1.5 Objectives of the Study

To explore the leadership and management

roles played by women in the

development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs)

To examine the transformational leadership and management characteristics women

possess in the in the CNDCs;

To investigate challenges and constraints experienced by women in the Community

Nutrition and Development Centres;

To establish whether transformation leadership style influences women in the CNDCs;

and

To make recommendations to policy makers, using the research results, regarding the
leadership and management role played by women in the development of CNDCs.

1.6 Research Questions

What leadership and management role do women play in the development of the
CNDC?
3

Describe the leadership and management characteristics women possess?

Does leadership styles have an impact on women in the development of Community

Nutrition and Development Centres?

Do challenges, opportunities and constraints have an impact on women leadership?

What recommendations can be made to policy makers regarding the leadership and
management role of women in the development of CNDCs?

1.7 Significance of the Study

In order to ensure that this problem stated is researchable, its meaning should have clear
significance and utility for practice through building a convincing argument that demonstrates
the usefulness of research in contributing to knowledge, relevant practice and the intended
target population (Fouch & De Vos, 2005:98; Fouch & Delport, 2011:107). Similarly, with
this study, answering the research questions would contribute to increased knowledge base
in the field of women leadership and management and improve the practice for those
involved.

Knowledge generated through this study would contribute to the growth and development of
rural women leadership and management as a field of practice and could also be of practical
value. It is also intended to assist policy makers in determining the future direction in Women,
Women Leadership and Development, including the development of Community Nutrition and
Development Centres (National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security 2013:10) .

1.8 Format of the Study

Chapter one: Introduction, this chapter forms the basis of discussion for all other chapters
(Anfara & Mertz, 2006:232; Strydom & Delport, 2011:287). It analyses the situation; outlines
the background; describes the significance of the study; mentions statement of the problem,
specifies research goal and objectives, indicates underlying research questions that the study
seeks to answer.

Chapter Two: Literature Review, This chapter present is a review of a relevant literature
linked to the management/leadership role by play women. It discusses both theoretical and
empirical literature of the study.
4

Chapter Three: Research Methods, In line with what is proposed by Strydom and Delport
(2011:289), a detailed description of the methodology used in the study is given; the research
design is specified, methods of data collection are described and data analysis procedures
are outlined

Chapter 4: Results, Discussion and interpretation of Findings; presentation and

discussion of research findings; the data obtained by means of the questionnaire and the
interviews is presented and discussed according to certain key topics and themes ((Strydom
& Delport, 2011:289).
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations This chapter summarises the
conclusions reached based on a review of literature and empirical findings; suggestions for
future research, including recommendations (Strydom & Delport, 2011:289-290).
1.9 Conclusion

This chapter provided an introduction including an overview of the study on the leadership
and management role women play in the CNDCs. It also covered various aspects of the
thesis such as the background of the issue to be studies, the problem that study intended to
addressed, including motivation, goals and objectives. The information on these aspects
provided the basis for the researchers decision on the research topic and also specified its
relevance and importance (Mouton, 2003:122). The study focussed on women leaders in
Bojanala, their challenges, types of leaders they are and how they established themselves as
leaders in community development and acquired the skills that have brought positive change
to their communities despite the challenges they experience.
The next chapter discusses women in management and leadership in CNDCs with special
attention paid to how the transformational may impact on women leaders; an overview of
women in leadership and management; theoretical and practical aspects; leadership styles,
qualities of women leaders and community development including the leadership role of
women in development

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter a thorough review of the relevant literature concerned with women in
leadership management settings was undertaken as a preliminary step in the research.
Primary and secondary sources were consulted to identify critical issues in past research and
to establish current thinking on the subject of women in management in community
development, particularly in rural setting. Such a review will provide insight into different
perspectives on the subject and present a framework for further exploration as well as a basis
for the identification of variables to be included in the study.

2.2 Concepts of Leadership and Management

Women have made great progress in Organisations. They make up more than half the
workforce and are increasingly occupying management and senior leadership positions. The
playing field has become more level in many industries and countries and women are able
to compete directly as never before. Some companies are actively recruiting women for their
boards (Winston, 2001:5). They are building programmes to move more women into the
management ranks and leadership pipeline.
While the terms leadership and management are commonly used interchangeably, many
theorists distinguish between them Van Wart (2013:556). Leaders are expected to provide
strategic direction and inspiration, initiate change, encourage new learning, and develop a
distinct organisational culture, while managers are seen to plan, implement and monitor on
a more operational and administrative level. As a consequence there is a perception that
management is concerned with resolving specific issues and day-today challenges, while
leadership is about the big picture and promoting change Northouse (2013:5). The reality is
that those people with responsibility to ensure that plans are implemented, systems are
effective, and staff motivated are both leaders and managers. This overlap of roles is
particularly apparent in smaller organisations where one person often has to play both roles
simultaneously.

In practice leadership and management are integral parts of the same job. Both these
activities need to be balanced and matched to the demands of the situation. Leadership is
6

not just restricted to top management. Leadership skills are needed at a departmental and
team level. Middle managers are commonly team or project leaders, and as such are crucial
to the successful implementation of new strategies. Consequently any analysis that makes
a clear distinction between managers and leaders can be misleading. Effective leaders have
to demonstrate some managerial skills, and good managers display leadership qualities.
There is no rigid formula as to the degree that these skills or attributes are used or displayed.
In practice it depends on the judgement of the individual involved and the context in which
they find themselves.
Van Wart (2013:553) and Northouse (2013:4) believes Leadership and management is a fairly
new field of study and one with several possibilities especially in this age of modern
management. Before moving into a detailed discussion of this issue, an exposition of the
concepts leadership and management and how they differ from each other will be useful.
Although the literature indicates that a debate exists whether leadership is synonymous with
management or if a distinction exists between the two, the discussion that follows presents
the latter perspective that there is a distinction between leadership and management and
between a leader and a manager (Andersen, 2012:66).
Ledwith, (2011:168) writes: Leadership and management are two distinctive and
complementary systems of action. Each has its own function and characteristic activities, both
leadership and management are necessary for success in an increasingly volatile business
environment and the real challenge is to combine strong leadership and strong management
and use each to balance the other management is about coping with complexity, whereas
leadership is about coping with change and these different functions shape the characteristic
activities of management and leadership

2.2.1The Concept of Leadership

Leadership is defined in many ways. According to Eagly A, Johannesen-Schmidt M, van

Engen M: 2003:571) throughout the world leadership is generally perceived as something
society needs more, at the same time it is generally misunderstood. There are at least a
hundred definitions of leadership. These definitions include leadership styles, functional
leadership, situational leadership, bureaucratic leadership, charismatic leadership, servant
leadership, follower leadership and group-centred leadership (Winston, 2001:5). Badaracco
(2002:54) defines leadership as an is exercised when persons with certain motives and
7

purposes mobilize, in competition or conflict with others, institutional, political, psychological,

and other resources to arouse, engage, and satisfy the motives of followers.

Leadership is defined by Northouse (2013:5) as a process whereby an individual influences

a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. A leader therefore has influence over their
followers but there is no exact reason why. This certainly contrasts with what a manager is
defined as a person responsible for controlling or administering an organization or group of
staff (OED, 2014). This is a very different definition, showing that managers are appointed to
lead, but may not be considered to be, or consider themselves as a leader Northouse
(2013:5). This means that the key differences (as according to these definitions) is that a
leader is associated with influencing others as opposed to administering or controlling them,
however all these traits can be found dependently or independently in either a leader or a
manager.

Leadership can be defined in a variety of ways, when finding an appropriate theory the
definition can be the most important aspect. The definition shows what other authors believe
leadership to be and how that is integrated into the model or theory. Northouse (2013:5) has
a very good basic definition; Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group
of individuals to achieve a common goal. Northouse (2013:5) also highlights that leadership
can be separated into 3 parts depending on how the reader wants to view their leader or the
concept of leadership.

The first relating to the quote above, he highlights that it can be viewed as a process, which
means that it is not a trait or characteristic that resides in the leader themselves, but rather
the event that happens between the leader and followers. This event emphasizes that
leadership is not linear, one-way event, but rather an interactive occasion. That means that
when leadership is defined in this manner it is an option for everyone, it not restricted by
formally designated leaders (Northouse, 2013:5). The second that he suggests is that
leadership can also be seen to involve influence, which concerns how the leader affects the
followers. Meaning that without influence leadership does not exist. The third viewpoint that
can be taken is that leadership occurs in groups (Northouse, 2013:5; Van Wart (2013:558).
Groups are the context in which leadership takes place; therefore leadership involves
influencing a group of individuals who have a common purpose.

The concept of what leadership is, and how it is displayed and acted on by individuals, also
depends on the researcher and how they feel that leadership comes about. Goleman,
Boyatzis, and McKee (2002:270) believe that leadership can be part of a persons natural
behaviour and personality, they were effectively born to be a leader, and part can be learned
from how-to leadership books, in various contexts. The main perspective which is taught in
these books is the ability to influence others, to change organisations, provide vision, and the
ability to create a consensus (Enright, 2006:104)

These different viewpoints of how leadership can come into existence reflect how people
can also perceive what leadership is. For those who believe leaders are born (Andersen,
2012) they would lean more towards the influence viewpoint, focusing on that even if there
is no group now, the individual has influence and will display that influence at some point.
Opposing this idea is the concept of groups, considering that anyone can become a leader
depending on the group that they are placed in and the goals that the group have. As well
as taking into consideration the process view which highlights again that it is not an
individual's traits for leadership, but it is more related to the event and how leadership is
needed in that instance. All these theories of leadership can also be associated with major
research eras or heydays, but they have all evolved over time in research, education and
training, some more than others (Van Wart, 2013).

2.2.2 Theories of Leadership

For decades, leadership theories have been the source of numerous studies. In reality as well
as in practice, many have tried to define what allows authentic leaders to stand apart from
the mass! Hence, there as many theories on leadership as there are philosophers,
researchers and professors that have studied and ultimately published their leadership theory
(Eddy, 2009 423, Van Wart, 2013:222)
Theories are commonly categorized by which aspect is believed to define the leader the most.
The most widespread one's are: Trait Theory, Behavioural Theories, Contingency Theories,
Transactional Theories and Transformational Theories (Early, A., & Johannesen-Schmidt,
2003:145).
2.2.2.1 Trait Theory
The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain
qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as
9

intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a
good leader (Joiner, 2007:98).The trait theory of leadership focused on analyzing mental,
physical and social characteristic in order to gain more understanding of what is the
characteristic or the combination of characteristics that are common among leaders .
2.2.2.2 Behavioural Theories
Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen (2003:145) describe the behavioural theories
focuses on the behaviours of the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical or social
characteristics. Thus, with the evolutions in psychometrics, notably the factor analysis,
researchers were able to measure the cause an effects relationship of specific human
behaviours from leaders. From this point forward anyone with the right conditioning could
have access to the once before elite club of naturally gifted leaders. In other words, leaders
are made not born (Greenleaf, 2002:222).
2.2.2.3 Contingency Theories
The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that
every leadership style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that there are
certain people who perform at the maximum level in certain places; but at minimal
performance when taken out of their element (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen
2003:145). To a certain extent contingency leadership theories are an extension of the trait
theory, in the sense that human traits are related to the situation in which the leaders exercise
their leadership. It is generally accepted within the contingency theories that leader are more
likely to express their leadership when they feel that their followers will be responsive (Joiner,
2007:98).
2.2.2.5 Transactional leadership Theories
Transactional theories, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are characterized by
a transaction made between the leader and the followers. In fact, the theory values a positive
and mutually beneficial relationship (Enright, 2006:102). For the transactional theories to be
effective and as a result have motivational value, the leader must find a means to align to
adequately reward (or punish) his follower, for performing leader-assigned task. In other
words, transactional leaders are most efficient when they develop a mutual reinforcing
environment, for which the individual and the organizational goals are in sync (Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen 2003:143).
10

The transactional theorists state that humans in general are seeking to maximize pleasurable
experiences and to diminish un-pleasurable experiences. Thus, we are more likely to
associate ourselves with individuals that add to our strengths.

2.2.2.6 Transformational Leadership Theories

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a person
interacts with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results in a high percentage
of trust, that will later result in an increase of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, in both
leaders and followers (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003:144).
The essence of transformational theories is that leaders transform their followers through their
inspirational nature and charismatic personalities. Rules and regulations are flexible, guided
by group norms. These attributes provide a sense of belonging for the followers as they can
easily identify with the leader and its purpose (Enright, 2006:102).

2.3 Concept of Management

Management is the combined activities of planning, decision-making and directing others

(Larwood & Wood, 2007). According to Northouse (2013:20), management is more formal
and scientific than leadership is. It relies on foundation skills such as planning, budget
control, and making effective use of information technology. Management uses an explicit
set of tools and techniques, based on reasoning and testing that can be applied in a variety
of situations. Management has been given different definitions by different authors. Daft
(2005:210) defines management as the process of setting and achieving goals through the
execution of five basic management functions; planning, organizing, staffing, directing and
controlling that utilize human, financial, and material resources in an efficient and effective
manner.

There are a number of points to remember in this definition: first, management and managers
make conscious decisions to set and achieve goals. Decision- making is a critical part of all
management activities. Secondly, management is getting things done through people
(Ladegaard, 2010:24). Once management acquires the financial and material resources for
the organisation, it works through the organisations members to reach the stated objectives.

11

Thirdly, to achieve the goals they set, managers must execute five basic functions: planning,
organising, staffing, directing and controlling (Dubrin, 2001:98).
2.3.1 Levels of Management

In recent years, a significant number of women are entering in management/leadership

positions. One of the most pleasing realities of the present era is that the leading talents and
abilities of women are acknowledged slowly and surely. Northouse (2013:5) state that more
and more women in leading positions have proved not only that they can meet the
requirements of their job, completing the assumed tasks, but that they make a change at the
level of perceptions in what management practices are concerned.
According to Northouse (2013:23), most organization have many different managers, across
many different titles, authority levels, and levels of the management hierarchy. The role of a
management in organizations is complex. While management can come in different shapes
and sizes they all share the task of utilizing people and resources to achieve organizational
goals. The term Levels of Management refers to a line of demarcation between various
managerial positions in an organization (Crosby and Bryson, 2005:101). The number of levels
in management increases when the size of the organisation and work force increases and
vice versa. The level of management determines a chain of command, the amount of authority
and status enjoyed by any managerial position. The levels of management can be classified
in three broad categories, Top level / Administrative level, Middle level / Executory, Low level
/ Operative / First-line managers (Mitroussi, and Mitroussi, 2009:119).
Management in CNDCs like in any other organisations has various levels and performs
different functions. They consist of Top management, Middle Management and the lower
management. Top Level of Management, is made up of board of directors, chief executive or
managing director. The top management is the ultimate source of authority and manages the
goals, policies and plans of the CNDCs. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating
functions (Mitroussi and Mitroussi, 2009:119). The Middle Level of Management consist of
Section or departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top
management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational
and directional functions. In small organization, there is only one layer of middle level of
management, Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It
consists of supervisors and coordinators of the projects within the organisation. According to
Northouse (2013:7) Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to
12

be largely with personal oversight and direction of operative employees. In other words, they
are concerned with direction and controlling function of management

2.4 Distinction between Leadership and Management

According to Northouse (2013:23), misperception between management and leadership is

sometimes identified, it is necessary to distinguish the ways in which management and
leadership are different. Women managers tend to work within defined bounds of known
quantities, using well-established techniques to accomplish predetermined ends; the
manager tends to stress means and neglect ends. Bennis and Thomas (2002:201) are of the
opinion that the woman leaders task is to hold before all persons connected with the centre,
some vision of what the organisations mission is and how it can be reached effectively. Like
managers, there are leaders throughout the organisations (Ladegaard, 2010:25).

Mitroussi & Mittroussi, (2009:497) says that leaders master the context rather than surrender
to it and makes a distinction between managers and leaders. This distinction appears clearly
in the table that follows. The clear distinction between a leader and a manager is an
organisational consensus on overall goals in the context of a vision. According to Mitroussi &
Mittroussi, (2009:496) by focusing attention on a vision, the leader operates on the emotional
and spiritual resources of the organisation, on its values, commitment and aspirations.

The manager, as Middlehurst (2012:88) mention by contrast, operates on the physical

resources of the organisation, its capital, human skills, raw materials, and technology. As they
put it, any competent manager can make it possible for people to earn a living and see to it
that work is done productively and efficiently, on schedule, and with a high level of quality. It
remains for the effective leader, however, to help people in the organisation know pride and
satisfaction in their work.

13

Managers
The manager administers

Leaders
The leader motivates

The manager focuses on systems and The leader focuses on people

structure
The manager relies on control

The leader inspires trust

The manager has a short-range view

The leader has a long-range perspective

The manager asks how and when

The leader asks what and why

The manager imitates

The leader originates

Table2.1

Distinction between Manager and Leaders, Source: (Badaracco, 2002:54)

2.5. Women and Leadership

The study of women and leadership/management is a recent phenomenon, chiefly because

historically, leadership has been concerned with the study of political leadership, of great
men who defined power, authority, and knowledge (Mitroussi & Mittroussi, 2009:510).
Leadership as Van Wart (2013:556) is generally associated with men and with male styles of
behaviour, and because women have not been in leadership positions in great numbers, the
mental image of a leader held by most people is male. Mitroussi & Mittroussi, (2009:511)
notes that most leadership research prior to the 1980s was carried out by men and dealt
almost exclusively with male leaders, because women were largely absent in the study of
leadership, much of our knowledge of leadership has been derived from the description and
analysis of male leaders reported by male researchers. Leadership has been synonymous
with masculinity (Van Wart, 2013:552).

The concept of leadership is strongly embedded in gender stereotypes, and as Phendla

(2009:99) observes: the language of leadership has masculine connotations, images of
leaders are often male heroes and popular contexts for leadership encompass traditionally
masculine scenarios common perceptions of appropriate leadership behaviours also carry
stereotypically masculine overtones: of command and control, of autocracy and dominance,
or personal power or charisma, decisiveness, initiative and courage because management
and leadership have for long been predominantly male enclaves, the picture of the ideal
manager is grounded in masculine attributes (Phendla, 2009:99).

14

Leadership in this century demands different skills, the type most commonly associated with
women, which comprise abilities to:

empower others and fill them with enthusiasm;

build informal networks and coalitions;

be flexible and responsive to customer and client needs;

nurture and develop individuals;

be willing to share information and operate in an open and transparent manner; and

Articulate core values and so develop culture through the creation of shared meaning
(Phendla 2009:102, Ladegaard, 2010:19).

It is widely recognised that women have alternative ways of problem-solving and dealing with
conflict. Helgesen (2014:54) focussed on the extent to which orthodox leadership theory is
applicable to the needs of women managers and points out that in the past, leadership studies
have focused almost entirely on the behaviour of male managers.
Studies on the leadership styles of women suggest that women tend to adopt more
democratic and participative management styles than males. They share power and
information and support and encourage subordinates. Women managers are said to be
persuasive, influential and charismatic and make extensive use of interpersonal skills.
Helgesen (2014:57) also points out that Malaysian studies on the leadership attributes of men
and women in universities have found that women are more consultative and conciliatory,
avoid conflict, and are more likely to be task oriented than their male colleagues. She adds
that women in leadership in universities are often described as co-operative, team-oriented,
collaborative, fair and contextual, whereas men are described as competitive, hierarchical,
winning, rational, cold and principled Furthermore the guiding principles of women leaders of
further education colleges in the UK are listed as:

Valuing and motivating; women leaders value leaders and fellow workers and including
motiving young female students.

Team working and decision-making; Women leaders are eager to work together with
leaders and they to take decision that will benefit all

Listening; more students find women leaders ready to listen to their challenges.

Accountability; Honesty and integrity; It was found that many women leaders act with
integrity, and are honest in their work and also trusted much more than men
15

Equality of opportunity and empowerment;

Commitment to community; women leaders creates group commitment and

encourages the subordinates to reach their organisational goals

Staff development (Stott & Lawson 1997 cited in Hall 2002:24).

2.6. Women leadership and leading styles

There are a various different leadership theories which can be used to describe the style of
different leaders, Van Wart (2013:553) sums up an overview of most theories quite well into
these categories:

Classical management and role theory;

Transactional leadership theory;

Transformational leadership theory;

Horizontal or collaborative leadership theory; and

Laissez-faire leadership theory (source).

There are few types of leadership that this thesis will focus on, that is Transformational
leadership, Transactional leadership and the perspectives from which a manager is using
their style to influence the workforce and motivate them (Caughron & Mumford, 2011:349).

These managers in this instance are also leaders and can be treated as such. The reason
that the focus will be on these styles is due to the extensive existing literature which
associates these styles with feminine and masculine traits. The literature will be investigated
closer in following sections. Each of these classic theories is defined in various ways by many
different authors, but many of them share similar characteristics and motivations from the
leader. (Haines, 2009:67) asserts that focus is placed on transformational and transactional
leadership styles, the reasoning behind this is that styles such as horizontal and collaborative
can be seen as elements of transformational and transactional. Horizontal is more focused
on getting results from the subordinates while trying to please their managers, thinking little
of the organisation as a whole, these are similar characteristics to transactional leadership
style. Similarly with collaborative, this can be seen as a transformational approach as it
focuses on team work and encouraging growth in the employees (Ladegaard, 2010:19)
Leadership Styles
16

Scales and sub scales

Description of leadership

Transformational motivation
Inspirational Motivation

Exhibits optimism and excitement about goals and

Idealised influence (attribute)

future states

Idealised influence (behaviour)

Demonstrates attributes that motivate respect and

Intellectual stimulation

pride by association with him or her

Individualised consideration

Communicates values, purpose, and importance of

mission
Examines new perspectives on problem solving
and task completion
Focuses on development and coaching of
followers and attends to individual needs

Transactional
Contingent reward

Exchanges rewards for satisfactory performance

by followers

Active management-by-exception

Attends to followers mistakes and failures to meet

standards

Passive management-by-

Waits until problems become severe before

exception

attending and intervening

Laissez-faire

Exhibits widespread absence and lack of

involvement during critical junctures

Table 2.2 Definitions of transformational, transactional and Laisse Faire leadership styles
Source: (Eagly et al., 2003, p. 571).

2.6.1 Transformational Leadership

In recent years, Ladegaard (2010:43) transformational and transactional leadership construct

has become a popular theme in leadership literature in the general management domain. It
has been defined by some authors as visionary leadership. Leaders applying this form of
leadership style are stated to be involved with change within their communities. The leaders
17

also focus on issues involving matters of support, directing and coordinating goals or purpose
that has been set up by the organisations or communities in order to increase the work effort.

Linstead, Fulop and Lilley (2004:163) states that in transformational leadership that is mainly
led by women. Weyer, (2007:490) postulates that transformational leadership style
emphasises motivation among subordinates, which creates group commitment and
encourages the subordinates to reach their organisational goals. The way of pursuing
organisational goals can be explained in the management style that is based on the visioning
the future, communication, and the implementation (Eagly and Johannessen- Schmidt,
2003:595). The way transformational leaders differ from the other leadership style is based
on managing personal qualities rather than using ones positions. This creates pros for women
, since from the early age, are taught to be caring rather than command and take control
which is the trait more common in men. Transactional leadership is based on exchanges
between the leader and followers where followers are rewarded for meeting specific goals or
performance criteria (Linstead et al., 2004:168).

Transformational is seen by (Caughron and Mumford, 2011:350) to be charismatic and

visionary in nature, and leaders lead and motivate followers in ways beyond exchanges and
rewards. Transformational leadership is generally held to be a superior form of leadership,
built on transactional leadership, but not vice-versa.

There is a line of argument in leadership literature contending that female leaders tend to be
more transformational than male leaders (Debebe, 2011:221).This argument is based on the
idea that transformational leadership emphasizes the nurturing of subordinates and the
process of socialization. The nurturing qualities of women are particularly well developed in
comparison to men (Friedman 2009:206).

Transformational leadership requires a great deal of passion, commitment, energy and insight
(Van Wart, 2013: 558). Phendla, (2009:99) bring in the key needs for a transformational
leader: charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized
consideration. Van Wart, (2013: 558) concludes from these remarks that it would very hard
for an egotistical person to be a transformational leader. There have been similarities in skills
and methods used in both transformational leadership and supportive leadership, as the latter
is found to instil confidence in their team. As opposed to coercive leadership which instils
more confidence and responsibility in the leader (Caughron & Mumford, 2011: 350).
18

There are many different styles of leadership as was mentioned earlier. In the full range,
transformational leaders inspire employees to go beyond the call of duty, foster creative
solutions to problems, serve as mentors, create vision, and articulate plans for achieving their
visions (Van Wart, 2013:558). This is demonstrated in Table 2; the measurement of
transformational leadership encompasses several sub scales, typically inspirational
motivation, two aspects of idealized influence (attributes and behaviour), intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration. In contrast, (Caughron & Mumford, 2011: 350)
transactional leadership entails establishing exchange relationships by rewarding
subordinates for a job well done and punishing them for mistakes.
The final leadership style, laissez-faire is marked by a general failure to take responsibility.
Vinkenburg, Van Engen, Eagly, A.H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, (2011:10).

Despite the

controversy about gender and leadership, research on how women lead is growing. Haines,
(2009:99) view Leadership style as a composite of relatively stable patterns of behaviour that
are manifested by leaders. Work on female leadership style tends to conclude that women
are better community leaders than men (Phendla, 2009:99).This claim is justified in terms of
womens relationships, teaching, caring and community building. In a Greek study, on
leadership interpreted womens leadership more positively than mens leadership. They
argued that women lead more flexibly, intuitively and holistically (Enright, 2006:104). Some
argue that women embrace superior leadership styles (Friedman, 2009:206).The debate
about whether or not women have a unique leadership style is an interesting area in
leadership research

19

Figure 1. Provides An Overview Of The Main Features Of Transformational Leadership .

Source: (Clarke, 2009:213)

2.6.2 Inherent features of Transformational Leaders

A distinctive characteristic of transformational leadership, according to Magner, 2008:132 is
the communication of a vision as a vehicle for motivating others. Clarke (2009:213) contends
articulating the vision entails dialogue and conversation. Dialogue is described by McKeown
(2008:452) as an interchange of ideas on a specific topic. Opportunities must be created for
individuals to meet in order to discuss and share opinions, so that an environment of trust can
be created (Clarke, 2009:213). Friedman (2009:206) states that creative leaders motivate all
role-players to view difficulties in a fresh manner by requesting all individuals to be collectively
involved in the process of change. They begin to function as a unit, and their interactive
relationships secure trust, which is evident of a spirit of willingness to take risks.
20

Figure 2: Basss Model of Transformational Leader

Source: (Gill, 2006:212).

According to Magner (2008:131), Transformational leaders capture the trust of people

through coaching, inspiring and empowering others (Laurent & Bradney, 2007:123).
Empowerment is described as having reliability, fulfilment in achievements, and influence
over what and how to do things, acknowledgement for opinions and suggestions, and the
confidence that one is being valued and appreciated. Recently, empowerment has been
expanded to incorporate aspects such as sharing control, invigorating workers, self-efficacy
and strengthening possibilities for intrinsic motivation (Gill, 2006:211). Singh and Lokotsch
(2005:282) offer a similar explanation, stating that empowerment essentially means
distributing power.

Empowerment implies viewing every individual as a leader, enhancing collaboration and

making others stronger by encouraging participation. This entails capacities such as to hold
ones own or to subsist; the generation of modifications by leaders and followers; the use of
influence; and ensuring that others are developed (Singh & Lokotsch, 2005:282).
21

Empowerment also encapsulates the two tenets, of transformational leadership, namely

individualised consideration and intellectual stimulation, as described in the above Basss
model (Gill, 2006:212).

2.6.3. Collaborative, participative and instructional leadership

According to Lyman et al (2009:99), women prefer teamwork, and tend to be more accessible,
caring and supportive. They emphasize students learning achievement through instructional
leadership (Coleman, 2003: 42). Numerous studies have shown that women employ a
collaborative and participative leadership style. When adopting this style, women encourage
inclusiveness and use collaborative decision-making (Lyman et al., 2009). One way of
interpreting women leaders effectiveness is the higher standard they have to meet in attaining
their leadership positions and the perception that they have to maintain better performance
to retain these roles Friedman (2009:206). However, few researchers explain why these
styles are more likely to be embraced by women. It could be argued that the positive womens
stereotype as nurturing, caring and people orientated might account for it (Coleman,
2003:40). Coleman (2003:46) seems to believe that it is due to being in the field of education,
which is an environment that predisposes its leaders towards a more democratic and
participative style.

According to Weyer (2007:485), female gender roles are identified with communal behaviours
such as nurturing, supporting others and being helpful. In contrast, leadership roles have
been associated with particular agentic characteristics such as assertiveness, ambition,
competing for attention, and making problem-focused suggestions Incongruity appears when
women leaders act in contradiction to their gender role stereotypes or typical leader roles.
Consequently, their behaviours may be evaluated negatively due to their subordinates
prejudice. Friedman (2009:206) further explain that in order for a womans leadership to be
accepted by subordinates, she needs to placate them by involving them in decision making.
Interestingly, this is not found in leaders who behave more directively

Blackmore (2003:57) characterise style as more than just typical behaviour, but as being
affected by such situational constraints as role demands, which are related to the leaders
level in the organisation and the expectations of followers. Style also is a function of the
particular followers with whom the leader interacts. Although it is a general belief that women
have a different leadership style to men, some researchers (Rhode: 2003:18) think it may be
22

a problem to lump all women together and treat them as if they were a homogeneous group
without considering differences such as race, class, beliefs, ethnicity, age and sexual
orientation. In other words, all women are not the same and as Rhode puts it, sweeping
generalisations about womens experience risk over-claiming and over-simplifying (Rhode
2003:18). These wide generalisations have to do with what Blackmore refers to as the popular
discourse about womens leadership being flexible, democratic, valuing openness, trust and
compassion, humane and efficient (Blackmore 2003:57).

Friedman (2009:206) attests to the existence of differences in leadership priorities between

black and white women leaders. For black women, the overall aim of management is the
promotion of racial justice, whereas for white senior managers, the priority is to manage
effective. Whilst it cannot be denied that women have certain leadership qualities that are
different from mens, such as the prevalent one of caring and nurturing, studies conducted
so far have not yet provided conclusive evidence about the dichotomy between male and
female leadership styles.

Some of the most widely cited features of male and female

interaction styles are summarized by Holmes (2006:6).

What some studies (Caughron & Mumford, 2011: 352) been able to reveal is that women
seem to have styles of leadership better suited to certain contexts than others. For instance,
Blackmore (2003:57) thinks that the popular discourse about womens style of leadership is
seemingly convergent with new and softer management discourses that focus upon good
people management as the new source of productivity in post-modern organisations.

Feminine Interaction style

Masculine interaction style

Facilitative

Competitive

Supportive feedback

Aggressive interruptions

Conciliatory

Confrontational

Indirect

Direct

Collaborative Minor Contribution in

Autonomous

public

Dominates talking time

Person / Process oriented

Task/outcome oriented

Affectively oriented

Referentially oriented

Table 3 Male and Female Interaction Styles; Source: (Holmes, 2006:6)

23

Studies have found that women leaders tend to have transformational leadership styles which
make them more suitable leaders in the new environment which emphasises teamwork and
where fresh values and visions are promoted and pursued as Kotler (2009:27) argue,
positional power and the purse-strings are used to promote conformity to corporate
objectives.

Bass (2000:186) contends that the tendency of women in leadership positions is somewhat
more transformational than their male counterparts. Evidence from a New Zealand survey of
two samples of leaders using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) found that
women were rated higher for transformational leadership than their male counterparts. Other
evidence gathered using the MLQ from four investigations between 1986 and 1992 supports
the conclusion, according to Friedman (2009:218) that women display more transformational
and less transactional leadership than males. Women are also more likely to structure flat
organisations and to emphasise frequent contact and sharing of information (Bass, 2004:8).
Bass gives various explanations for the male-female differences in transformational
leadership (Bass, 2004:77-8):
Differences may be due to the tendency for women to be more nurturing;
Women tend to be more understanding of the needs of their followers and attempt to
develop them to higher levels;
Women tend to be more sensitive or feeling more interested in others than their
male counterparts and more socially sensitive;
Women highlight responsibility and care when reasoning morally, whereas men
highlight rights and justice; and
Women tend to be less self-serving and authoritarian than men (source).
2.7 Women Leadership Behaviours

In the climate of transformation in community development management, cultures, as well as

organisational structures feminine qualities are being increasingly appreciated. Although male
values of management and leadership still dominate in organisations (Phendla, 2009:233),
womanly merits are growing in importance as organisations now emphasise teamwork,
participation and empowerment of others. It seems therefore that contemporary management
and leadership roles are highly suited to women because they have family-style skills of
mutual trust and tolerance along with good communication skills. It looks as if a more feminine
approach to leadership is required by todays flatter organisational structures which
24

emphasise female qualities of caring and concern for others. Helgesen (2003:33) sees the
ideals of leadership as the traditional lone hero being increasingly replaced by a new kind of
managerialism which values a combination of efficiency and humaneness. Womens
leadership qualities and their propensity to be good communicators, to have good relationship
skills, to be active and analytic listeners and negotiators define the new order.

According to Caughron and Mumford (2011:350) male managers are more likely than female
managers to find it difficult to relinquish the control and command type of leadership in
favour of the softer skills and values which are believed to be in demand in contemporary
management. In academic organisations, the command and control models of leadership
have little or no importance as there are other more suitable models to substitute or neutralise
this model (Laconia, 2002:189). Robbins, Judge, Odendaal, & Roodt, (2009:254) gives a
summary of the differences between male and female leadership styles,

Women tend to use a more democratic leadership style. They encourage participation, share
power and information, and attempt to enhance followers self-worth. They prefer to lead
through inclusion and rely on their charisma, expertise, contacts, and interpersonal skills to
influence others. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use a directive command-andcontrol style (Helgesen, 2003:37). They rely on the formal authority of their managerial
position for their influence base. In todays organisations, flexibility, teamwork, trust and
information sharing are replacing rigid structures, competitive individualism, control, and
secrecy. The best leaders listen, motivate, and provide support to their people. Many women
seem to do these things better than men. Robbins et al. (2009:254) argues that the leadership
styles women typically use can make them better at negotiating. Qualities of women
leadership observed is characterised by participative leadership, empowerment, team
building, collective work, vision creation and hands on supervision.

2.8 Concept of Community Development

In most communities in rural South Africa, community development involves a holistic

approach to local resources and talent to develop sustainable solutions, with core
programming centred on community farming, child care, health related, job creation, and food
security etcetera. Through these programmes, the aim to break the cycle of generational
poverty that exists in rural areas by empowering people with the knowledge, skills, and
confidence to make positive contributions to their communities (Aref and Marof 2009:110) .
25

The concept of Community development is defined by McCright and Terry (2006:90) as a

process concerned with the improvement as well as the transformation of social, mental,
economic, and institutional and environment condition of the communities through the
mobilisation and rational utilisation of their material and institutional resources as to enhance
their capacity to cope with their daily task and demands of modern times (Aref and Marof
2009:110).
.
According to Gilchrist (2009:122) development implies total improvement of the individual,
his/ her milieu and environment. Aref and Marof (2009:110) asserts that development is
about people, its about quality of life of people and their capacity to improve the conditions
of their existence to reach control and utilise their resources for greater productivity and
enjoyment It is about the autonomy and self-respect of the individuals as a free member of
his community. It is brought about by people.
Community development involves a lot of multi-sectoral activities such as the improvement in
agriculture, the promotion of rural industrial activities as well as the establishment of
appropriate decentralized structures in order to allow for mass participation in the
development process McCright and Terry (2006:34). Aref and Marof (2009:110), provide the
objectives development to include:

To increase employment;

To maximize the personal incomes of the rural folk;

To uplift the general heath of the rural folk;

To provide technical works and knowledge to the rural dwellers;

To maximize the productivity of the average rural person on and his family; and

To inculcate civic awareness, commitment, involvement and loyalty in the citizen (Aref
and Marof (2009:110).

Community development cannot be achieved without the collective efforts of the people. It
produces an environment where people can exercise their full potentials to lead fruitful,
ingenious lives (Daft, 2005:98). It seeks the empowerment of local communities, taken to
mean both geographical communities, communities of interest or identity and communities
organising around specific themes or policy initiatives (Jiang and Carroll, 2009:210).

It

strengthens the capacity of people as active citizens through their community groups,
organisations and networks; and the capacity of institutions and agencies (public, private and
26

non-governmental) to work in dialogue with citizens to shape and determine change in their
communities (Jiang and Carroll 2009:212). Community development plays a crucial role in
supporting active democratic life by promoting the autonomous voice of disadvantaged and
vulnerable communities. It has a set of core values/social principles covering human rights,
social inclusion, equality and respect for diversity; and a specific skills and knowledge base
(Daft, 2005:98).

Figure 3. Community Development Model, Source: Meshack (2004:63)

Good community development as Gilchrist (2009:123) put it, is an action that helps people to
recognise and develop their ability and potential and organise themselves to respond to
problems and needs which they share. It supports the establishment of strong communities
that control and use assets to promote social justice and help improve the quality of
community life. It also enables community and public agencies to work together to improve
the quality of government. The figure 3 above demonstrates how a community works as
depicted by Meshack (2004:63). It present how individual identifies a need or concern, then
began to explore and share with others who with the similar interest, continue to express and
address the concern, which ultimately grows to be community issue.
27

Jiang and Carroll (2009:212) provided a more comprehensive definition of community

development. It is a process of community activities that are planned and organized in such
a way so as to raise the quality of life in the community in terms of economy, social, culture,
spiritual and the environment through initiatives and active participation of the community
members and with minimum outside help. This study also referred to a definition forwarded
Rosette & Tost, (2010:159). He defined community development as the active voluntary
involvement of community residents in a process to improve some identifiable aspects of
community life. Kirk and Shutte (2004:111) suggested a community development model that
is more collaborative and comprehensive in nature that comprises of three components:
Leading change through dialogue, collective empowerment and connective leadership.

2.8.1. Community Based and Driven Development

According to Gaventa (2009:10) Community development focuses on training and educating
communities to find lasting solutions to the challenges they face such as hunger, poverty and
disease. It empowers communities for long term instead of creating dependency. Molm,
Collett, & Schaefer, (2007:145) believes that the spirit of community development is selfefficiency of individuals in the community. In Bojanala, community development has been on
discourse for many years, but due to the challenges faced, its maximum goals are yet to be
actualized. Central to the challenges of community development is the issue of leadership
which believed to pose a threat to successful community development, citizens participation,
mobilization and involvement in decision making in community development projects Gaventa
(2009:2).

Community development occurs when people strengthen the bounds within their
neighbourhoods, build social networks, and form their own organizations to provide a longterm capacity for problem solving (Rubin and Rubin, 200l: 70). Community members who
have the capacity to do something to enhance their quality of life are portrayed as having the
ability to think, to decide, to plan and to take action in determining their lives. It is often argued
that, in any community development programme both economic and individual growth must
be given equal attention so as to ensure that the process of community development achieves
its due balance, continuity and sustainability through its leadership structure.

Various community development literature have been dedicated to community leaders and
their role in local communities. Fariborz, Aref; and Zahid, (2009:79) states that a community
28

without leadership may not be equipped to mobilize resources or influence tourism planning
which obviously is also an aspect of community development. They further argued that, local
communities, like other organizations cannot progress successfully without active and
dynamic leaders who are willing and able to take initiative.

Community leadership theory provides for a human element of community interaction that is
often lost within other definitions (Fariborz, Aref; and Zahid, 2009:79). According to
Greenleaf's (2004:77) definition, a community leader operating under transformational
leadership begins with the feeling or desire to serve first, followed by the conscious choice to
lead. This is illustrated by those leaders dedicated to the community and improving it for future
community members, not for leadership notoriety. Within this theoretical framework, Laub
(2004:102) identifies Community leader as one who values people, develops people, builds
community, displays authenticity, provides leadership, and shares leadership. Thus, the more
community leaders share power with community members, leading them to feel empowered,
the more likely these same leaders have a strong vision and are open to community change
in the future.

2.8.2 Women Leadership in Community Development

Moolenaar and Sleegers (2010:121) states that community developments cannot succeed if
it does not involve women and take advantage of their potentials more especially in rural
South Africa. Bass (2004:102) believes that the best and perhaps the only way to achieve
sustainable rural development in South Africa is to orientate it towards the people living in the
rural areas, working with their full participation and focusing on the process the unique
attributes of women (Ledwith 2011:168).
Womens fundamental contributions on their households food production and national
economics are increasingly acknowledged within Africa and by the maturational community
(Ledwith, 2011:168). This is due in no small part of African womens own energetic efforts to
organize, and articulate their concerns and make their voices heard. At both the grassroots
and national levels, more womens associations have been formed since the 1990s, taking
advantage of the new political opening to assert their leadership roles (Moody & Paxton, 2009:
221). By improving their own positions, they are simultaneously strengthening African society
as a whole as well as enhancing the continents broader development prospects (Fick,
Meintjes, & Simons, 2002:45).
29

Many rural women belong to all-women mutual-aid societies, benevolent groups in churches,
cooperatives and market women group (Fick, et al 2002:47) some of these groups allow
women to pool resources to reduce their workload and to invest in saving societies or
cooperation ventures. These cooperative societies have provided women access to
resources. From the pre-colonial period till date women have contributed their own quota to
give room for development. Their activities were in agriculture, poultry making, health care
and spiritual service (Marthur-Helm, 2007:105).
The role of women in community development is crucial to the health of a society. According
to Greenleaf (2002:67), women make many of the decisions that determine a household's
participation in the community, including healthcare, educational, and cultural decisions. In
parts of the world where women's rights are still developing, the role of women in the
development of a community can be the key to reducing gender inequality, providing for the
needs of women and families, and ending centuries of discrimination against women.
When women are involved in the issues of womens education, rights, food security, and
economic opportunities for women, they stand a greater chance of reducing inequality and
promoting a fair society (Marthur-Helm, 2007:57). In communities where the role of women
has been traditionally marginalized, it may take strong, vocal, and persistent female
participation to insist that these issues be addressed for the betterment of society.
2.8.3 Community Development and Nutrition Centres

In 2013, the South African adopted the Household Food and Nutrition Plan and Strategy to
mitigate the food insecurity challenges the country is faced (National Policy on Food and
Nutrition Security, 2013:10). Through partnering with Non-Government Organisations (NGO)
and Community Based Organisation, funding was made available to set up such centres
throughout the country National DSD with Community Based Organisations in Bojanala
Platinum District Municipalities to set up such feeding centres. Currently there are about 212
of the CNDCs in the country and 16 in the Northwest Province and 4 in Bojanala District
Municipality.
Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs) are social protection food access
centres developed by Department of Social Development in South Africa to provide the poor
and vulnerable access to food. These Centre owned and operated by local community-based
organisations (CBOs), aimed at providing cooked nutritious meals to vulnerable and food
30

insecure members of the community in a shared space. The centre has a kitchen and enough
space equipped with cooking and catering equipment. The meals are served during
lunchtime, five days a week. Beneficiaries participating in are seated at tables and enjoy a
nutritious meal served with appropriate cutlery and crockery. A weekly menu is provided,
posted in the facility and reflects the meals cooked for that week (The household food and
Nutrition Security Strategy 2013:10)

2.9 Conclusion

The literature review attempted to define what leadership is and presented the theoretical
implications thereof, including the transformational leadership role women play in community
development. It also present the role manager and leaders do, their challenges and
contributions. This chapter has considered various aspects of leadership in relation to the role
of women leadership and management in general. Having looked at the impact of the
transformational leadership in women leaders, the discussion continued to include women in
leadership by examining aspects of leadership study such as the distinction between
leadership and management, and female leadership style. Moody & Paxton, (2009: 221) take
the view that there is a distinction between leadership and management and leaders and
managers respectively. The female leadership style was discussed within the context of a
changing management culture and shown to be more suitable than male leadership style as
it seems to be convergent with new and softer management discourses.
The literature reviewed in this chapter has highlighted the debate concerning

leadership

especially female leadership style. It may be concluded that women in management face the
same dilemmas as their male counterparts. Nevertheless women encounter additional
dilemmas because of their gender. Their leadership style may be viewed with suspicion if it
does not conform to the accepted leadership schema, yet in this new age of management
there are calls for the very female leadership qualities and behaviour which is perceived as
weak. Women managers and leaders can only help themselves and those under them by
exercising the kind of leadership and management style that comes most naturally to them.

In chapter three the author details the research design and methodology used to study the
experiences of women in leadership and management in Bojanala CNDCs selected for this
study. The topic under discussion begins with the theoretical foundation of quantitative
31

methodology followed by the choice of data collection method and the design of the study
including the sample population. This includes the selection of the informants and how they
were located, the instrument development, data collection and lastly, the analysis plan.

32

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
Most research is based on some underlying philosophical assumptions about what constitutes
'valid' research and which research method(s) is/are appropriate for the development of
knowledge in a given study Babbie and Mouton (2010:74). In order to conduct and evaluate
any research, it is therefore important to know what these assumptions are. This chapter
discusses the philosophical assumptions and also the design strategies underpinning this
research study. Common philosophical assumptions were reviewed and presented; the
interpretive paradigm was identified for the framework of the study. In addition, the chapter
discusses the research methodologies, and design used in the study including strategies,
instruments, and data collection and analysis methods, while explaining the stages and
processes involved in the study.

3.2 The Research Philosophy

A research philosophy is a belief about the way in which data about a phenomenon should
be gathered, analysed and used (Bell 2005:154). Two major research philosophies have
been identified in the Western tradition of science, namely positivist and interpretivist (De
Vos, 2005:113).

3.2.1 Positivism (Quantitative)

Positivists believe that reality is stable and can be observed and described from an objective
viewpoint (Delport and Roestenburg, 2011:189) i.e. without interfering with the phenomena
being studied. Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques (Dale
and Newman, 2010:105). They contend that phenomena should be isolated and that
observations should be repeatable. This often involves manipulation of reality with variations
in only a single independent variable so as to identify regularities in, and to form relationships
between, some of the constituent elements of the social world.

33

3.2.2 Phenomenological Research Strategies (Qualitative)

Qualitative research originated in phenomenology, which views social reality as distinctive
and exclusive (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and Sorensen, 2006:25). This method views human
beings and their world as so interrelated that the one is dependent on the other to exist (Ary
et al., 2006:25). Groenewald (2004:5) holds that describe is the key word in phenomenology.
The objective of the research is to give an exact or precise explanation of the event, as well
as stating the facts as truthfully as possible. Making sense of social and psychological
events from the frame of reference of the respondents is significant to the researcher. What
is also of interest to the researcher are what Groenewald (2004:5) refers to as the lived
experiences.

The purpose of the phenomenological approach is to illuminate the specific, to identify

phenomena through how they are perceived by the actors in a situation. In the human sphere
this normally translates into gathering deep information and perceptions through inductive,
qualitative methods such as interviews, discussions and participant observation, and
representing it from the perspective of the research participant(s) (Burns and Grove
(2003:201).Thus, phenomenology is an attempt to describe lived experiences without making
previous assumptions about the objective reality of those experiences (Holloway, 2005:47).
Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the
individual, bracketing taken-for-granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving.

A variety of methods can be used in phenomenologically-based research, including

interviews, conversations, participant observation, action research, focus meetings and
analysis of personal texts. If there is a general principle involved it is that of minimum structure
and maximum depth, in practice constrained by time and opportunities to strike a balance
between keeping a focus on the research issues and avoiding undue influence by the
researcher (Dale and Newman, 2010)

Qualitative methods is chosen and used in this research to understand the experiences and
attitudes of Respondents. These methods aim to answer questions about the what, how or
why of a phenomenon rather than how many or how much, which are answered by
quantitative methods aim is to understand how a community or individuals within it perceive
a particular issue, then qualitative methods are often appropriate.

34

3.3 Research Design

Maree (2007:70) defines a research design as a formula or procedure based on the
researchers notional beliefs, which describes the choice of participants, the approaches to
be employed to gather information, as well as how the data will be anatomised. De Vos,
Strydom, Fouch and Delport (2005:268) view the word design as associated with strategies,
methods, approaches and traditions of inquiry. De Vos et al. (2005:268) use the word
paradigms instead of design when alluding to the researchers choice of techniques to be
employed to investigate a specific situation. De Vos et al. (2005:268) interpret design as the
complete investigation approach.

Babbie and Mouton (2010:74) states is a plan or a blue

print of how the research is to be conducted, research methodology refers to systematic

methodological and accurate execution of that design. Welman, Kruger and Mitchell
(2005:52), specified that the research design guides the researcher on how to obtain data
about the research phenomenon from the focus group participants or respondents.

According to Mouton (2008:107), the main function of a research design is to enable the
researcher to anticipate what the appropriate research decisions are likely to be, and to
maximise the validity of the eventual results. The relevant data are collected, which in the
context of the current study focus on the role of women played in Bojanala and the
implications thereof for in their leadership and management in the development of the
CNDCs.
The various designs are highlighted below:

Causal-comparative research: attempts to determine the cause or consequences of

differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals.

Correlational research: a specific type of non-experimental design used to describe the

relationship between or among variables

Explanatory research: research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.
It often occurs before we know enough to make conceptual distinctions or posit an explanatory
relationship

Descriptive research: used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being

studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.

Exploratory research: it is research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined

3.3.1 Descriptive research

For the purse of this research, Descriptive research was utilised. Marlow (2005:333) defines
descriptive research as a process of recording and reporting phenomena; not primarily
35

concerned with causes. Pierson and Thomas (2010:440) and Royse (2011:27) see
descriptive studies as larger-scale numerical efforts that attempt to characterise, for
instance, age, income and family size, to understand, to illuminate and to gain a detailed
picture of patterns of a particular group, such as the leadership, to differentiate them from
other phenomena, or to accurately describe programme activities.

Descriptive research in this study intended to provide a picture of a situation as it naturally

happens. It may be used to justify current practice and make judgment and also to develop
theories. A descriptive approach in data collection in qualitative research gives the ability to
collect accurate data on and provide a clear picture of the phenomenon under study (Mouton
& Marais 2010:43-44). In the present study, the descriptive approach was particularly
appropriate because an accurate and authentic description was required of the experiences
of women involved in the CNDCs, their characteristics, style of leadership including qualities
they shown.
3.4 Research Strategies
3.4.1 Interviews
Basit (2010:99-100) states that interviews are regarded as the most widespread method of
collecting data, using an interpretive paradigm in a qualitative inquiry. An interview is
described as an exchange of opinions between two or more individuals on a subject of
common interest conducted by one person who wishes to obtain information from the other
person (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003:94).The purpose of using interviews as a data gathering
method is not to make generalisations, but to allow the researcher to explore the perceptions
and experiences of the interviewee (Basit, 2010:100). Some qualitative researchers use
interviews as the main data collection technique; others may use interviews while
simultaneously using other techniques, such as observation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003:95). The
objective here is to collect detailed data in the exact words of the participant, to allow the
researcher to generate an appreciation of the respondents interpretation of some piece of
the world (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003:95).

Bell (2005:157) expresses a similar view to Basit (2010:212), stating that one of the prime
benefits of using interviews is their versatility and flexibility. The advantages or benefits of
interviews have been contrasted with questionnaires by Bell (2005:157).
36

In this study interview strategy was utilises to exploit information and thoughts of interviewees,
scrutinise answers and examine opinions and emotions, which is impossible when using
questionnaires.The matters raised are recorded and subsequently analysed Interviews are
very flexible.

3.5 Target Population

A population is described as a group of individuals who possess specific characteristics and
from which a sample is drawn to determine the parameters or characteristics (Creswell &
Plano Clark, 2007:112; Maree & Pietersen, 2007:172. Schurink (2004:45) considers the term
target population to refer to the intended population covered by a study in a specific
geographical area such as country, region and town in terms of the age group and gender.

In this research, the study population consists of 4 Community Nutrition and Development
Centre projects in which women of Bojanala are involved. Each project consists of about
fifteen (15) members. Approximately sixty (60) women are involved in community
development activities which comprise projects that provide food to more than 600
beneficiaries, including other projects such as sewing, gardening, education, assisting with
enabling documents such as IDs birth Certificate etcetera.
This study is conducted in the Bojanala Platinum District Municipality (BPDM), situated in the
north-eastern part of North West Province.

3.6 Sampling
A sample size is defined by Coleman (2003:34) to refer to the number of representatives
respondents selected for interview from a research population. The number depends on the
accuracy needed, population size, population heterogeneity and resources available.
Schurink, (2004:45), defines a sampling frame as the actual list of sampling units from which
the sample is selected. (Pope, Lovell & Brandl, 2001:369) defines a sampling frame as the
actual list of sampling units from which the sample is selected. Each project consists of about
fifteen (15) members. Approximately sixty (60) women are involved in community
development activities. The sample size for this study was 20 respondents. The participants
are drawn as follows: Out of each of the four (4) centres, approximately (5) members per
37

centre were interviewed which means that the total number of those women who were
involved in projects was twenty (20).
Therefore participants were chosen by means of purposeful sampling, which is a strategy to
choose small groups or individuals likely to be knowledgeable and informative about the
phenomena of interest (McMillan & Schumacher 1993:413).
The participants were selected because of their position and their years of service in that
capacity. They were all women leaders in the CNDCs who had been such for at least two
years
3.7 The Research Instrument
The most common instruments for data collection in qualitative research are interviews,
observations, and review of documents (Creswell, 2009b; Locke, Silverman, & Spirduso,
2010:183).
3.8.1 Interviews
Seale, Giampietro, Gubrium and Silverman (2004:210) define an interview as a social
encounter where speakers collaborate in producing retrospective and prospective accounts
or versions of their past or future actions, experiences, feelings and thoughts. Two types of
interviews were used in this study, namely focus group interviews and unstructured
interviews.

3.8.2 Group interviews

In this study five (5) Focus groups were organised and conducted in the five (5) CNDCs with
women leadership. Each focus group consisted of three women leaders all from one area.
These participants were selected because they are part of the leadership at various
management levels and have certain characteristics in common that relate to the role women
leaders play in the community. According to Rabiee (2004:655), a focus group interview is a
technique involving the use of in-depth group interviews in which participants are selected
because they are a purposive, although not necessarily representative sampling of a specific
population, this group being focused on a given topic. Lewis (2005:188) defines a focus group
interview as a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area
of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment. According to Rubin & Rubin,
38

2005:212), this type of interview will yield both a more diversified array of responses, and
afford a more extended basis for designing systematic research into the situation at hand.

According to Valenzuela and Shrivastava (2009:5), the following are the different types of
interviews:

Unstructured interviews: There are no pre-determined questions and is open and

adaptable;

Structured interview: There are a set of pre-determined questions. This provides more
focus and still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information;

Standardised open-ended interviews: The same open-ended questions are asked to

all interviewees; and

Closed fixed-response interviews: All interviewees are asked the same questions and
asked to choose questions from the same set of alternatives, Valenzuela and
Shrivastava (2009:5).

The open unstructured interview in phenomenological studies is intended to be in-depth

(Burns & Grove 2003:284). De Vos (2002:302) states, the aim of the unstructured interview
is to actively enter the world of people and to render those worlds understandable from the
standpoint of a theory that is grounded in behaviours, languages, definitions, attitudes and
feelings of those studied.
3.9 Pilot Study
A pilot study is a preliminary small-scale study that conducted in order to help decide how
best to conduct a large-scale research project (Babbie & Mouton, 2010:234). The main aim
was to determine the feasibility of conducting the study; suitability of the sampling frame;
suitability of the measuring instrument to the actual field conditions; identification of any
difficulty or unforeseen problems with the method or instrument; investigation of the accuracy
and appropriateness of the instrument; and establishment of the adequacy and
appropriateness of the methodology. This was done with a view to effect modifications at little
cost before the main investigation (Babbie & Mouton, 2010:244; Strydom, 2011:237-243)
A pilot study was conducted in Tlapa Village CNDC in Bojanala in with on 3 individuals
participations using one to one interview, and 1 focus group with three participants. All were

39

women working in the CNDC. Only one CNDC was selected out of the four for this pilot. This
was a face to face interviews unstructured questionnaires was used to collect data.

This is one of the areas where the larger research was conducted. A Pilot test of the measures
was conducted against prospective sample population in order to measure validity and
reliability. There were ethical issues related to the study and they were addressed by
maintaining high level confidentiality of the information volunteered by the respondents.
3.10 Administration of Questionnaires
De Vos (2002:302) defines the qualitative research interview as an interview, whose purpose
is to gather descriptions of the life-world of the interviewee with respect to interpretation of
the meaning of the described phenomena. Collecting these descriptions can be done in
several ways, of which face-to-face interviews are the most common (Burns & Grove,
2003:285). Besides Face-to-Face interviews, telephonic interviews is popular too. But also
interviewing using the Internet is rising. For this study a face to face interview method was
utilized collect information from twenty individuals selected in the Bojanala Community.

Due to this synchronous communication, (Welman, Kruger & Mitchell, 2005:149) as no other
interview method face to face interviews can take its advantage of social cues. Social cues,
such as voice, intonation, body language of the interviewee can give the interviewer a lot of
extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a question
(Mitchell & Jolley, 2007:230).

3.10.1 Process used to prepare for interviews

The researcher followed the following steps with each interview:

(1) Made an appointment with each participant at a time which suited them
(2) Created a quiet room conducive to conversation
(3) Arranged chairs to enhance face-to-face interviewing
(4) Prepared a tape recorder
(5) Had a jar of water available
Before the researcher conducted each interview:
(1) Thanked the participant for the time and willingness to be part of the study
(2) Reminded the participant about the agreement
40

(3) Explained that the interview was to be unstructured and that probing questions
would be determined by the information given by the participant
(4) Asked permission to record the interview

3.11 Collection of Questionnaires

The choice of method is influenced by the data collection strategy, the type of variable, the
accuracy required, the collection point and the skill of the enumerator. Links between a
variable, its source and practical methods for its collection can help in choosing appropriate
methods. The main data collection methods are:

Questionnaires: forms which are completed and returned by respondents. An

inexpensive method that is useful where literacy rates are high and respondents are
co-operative.

Interviews: forms which are completed through an interview with the respondent. More
expensive than questionnaires, but they are better for more complex questions, low
literacy or less co-operation.

Direct observations: making direct measurements is the most accurate method for
many variables.

3.12 Validity and Reliability

3.12.1 Validity

According Holden (2010:107) Validity determines if the research measures what it planned to
measure. As it were, does the research and the instruments used to carry it through permit
you to hit "the pinpoint center" of the examination object?

Furthermore, as indicated by Delport, (2005:162) validity poses the question: "Do the study's
measuring instruments in certainty measure what it cases to gauge? Is it an exact or genuine
measure of the phenomenon under study? Validity was guaranteed in this study by gathering
information from the same sample and by asking the same questions from all individuals of
the sample.

41

12.2 Reliability

A common definition of reliability is the extent to which a test would give consistent results if
applied by different researchers more than once to the same people under standard
conditions ((Bergman, 2008:208). De Vos, Schulze, & Patel. (2005:41) defines reliability as
the extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the
total population under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study can be
reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is considered to be
reliable.

The results of the research study can be said to be reliable as the responses of the
respondents were gathered through more than one method to ensure trustworthiness
these were: one on one interviews and focus groups. Furthermore the results that
were received from the research mostly correlated. The respondents were also all
asked the same questions to answer during the interviews which ensured consistency
in the study

3.13 Data Analysis

Data analysis is a mechanism for reducing and organising data to produce findings that
require interpretation by the researcher (Burns & Grove, 2003:479). Data analysis is a
challenging and a creative process characterised by an intimate relationship of the researcher
with the participants and the data generated (De Vos 2002:339)

In phenomenological research, the analysis begins as soon as the first data are collected.
They may consist of no more than a single interview. When the researchers prepare to attend
to the data, their first task is a conceptual one: the clarification of their own preconceptions of
the phenomena under study. (Tesch 2001:92). The researchers immerse themselves in the
data, read and reread, and dwell with the data, in order to achieve closeness to the data and
a sense of the whole. When they are satisfied that the text has become accessible to them,
they can delineate all meaning units throughout the entire interview transcription, decide
which ones are relevant to the research questions asked, then bind the meaning units that
contain them (Tesch 2001:91).

42

Data analysis requires that researchers dwell with or become immersed in the data. Data
analysis is done to preserve the uniqueness of each participants lived experience while
permitting an understanding of the phenomenon under study. This begins with listening to the
participants descriptions and is followed by reading and rereading the verbatim transcriptions
(Henning 2004:127-128).

3.13.1 Thematic analysis

The researcher translated and transcribed the tape-recorded interviews, then read and reread
the interviews in their entirety, reflecting on the interviews as a whole. Then, summarised the
interviews; keeping in mind that more than one theme might exist in a set of interviews. Once
identified, the themes that appeared to be significant and concepts linking substantial portions
of the interviews were written down and entered on computer (Henning 2004:127-128).

3.13.2 Content analysis

In this analysis, the entire interview is read, identifying several topics. These topics then
become primary categories or category labels. With too many categories, saturation is
achieved slowly. Once the categories have ample data, the selected to it is categorised into
sub-categories of two or more (Morse & Field 1996:117). Data is transcribed verbatim
Transcripts were printed with space allowed for notes, including coding and identification of
themes. With this information, the researcher assigned codes to particular sections of text,
while also identifying surprising or unusual themes to accompany the codes expected to find.
(Burns & Grove 2003:290).
The researcher used the method of inter-coder agreement to ensure my coding was
consistent. After finding codes that repeated themselves in several transcripts, the researcher
developed these codes into several themes, which were then expanded upon in findings
section. Once these themes were determined, a discussion of the findings was presented.
3.14 Limitations of the Study

There will be several key limitations to this research and this will evidently affect the outcome
of the results. By clarifying and addressing these limitations hopefully their effect can be
minimized and taken into consideration throughout the course of this study. First of all the
position of myself as a researcher and researching alone will impact the outcome of this
43

research and the view in which this paper is written. As a male researcher working and
researching on women leadership, may impact the respondents feelings and attitudes
therefore the outcome of the research. This study was a qualitative study, and therefore the
size of the sample was small. Only four CNDCs out of 16 CNDCs in the rural communities
of North West were selected. All 20 participants in the selected four CNDCs participated in
the face to face one on one interviews. The information gathered in this research study was
therefore limited to certain individuals in participating CNDCs and should not be generalised
to all South Africans.

The study sample was confined to Bojanala. This also limits research further as it is purely
focusing on only four CNDCs. The reason for focusing on these four CNDCs is due to their
feminine characters. Even though this will limit the results of the study, it will still show relevant
results. In a sense a narrative approach will be a limitation to this study due to the very nature
of this approach; the participants could change their past and stories as well as their ideas
and thoughts. This is something that is taken into consideration and the researcher will
attempt to keep the respondents as truthful as possible with anonymous documentation and
confidentiality. The focus on role of women at Community Nutrition and Develoment Centres
as a less researched area of leadership and management which allows this study to get a
feel for all aspects of community leadership culture on the ground level. This is important for
this study since there has already been a lot of research based on female leaders at corporate
level and their impact on the organisation, but not so much on rural community leadership
(O' Conor, 2014)..

3.15 Elimination of Bias

Bias as defined by Holden (2010:121), means allowing a particular influence to have more
importance than it really warrants. In a qualitative research, the main aim is to provide answers
without any bias. Occurrence of bias is natural but you can surely take steps to minimize them
by recognizing them before only.
Bias can occur at any phase of research, including study design or data collection, as well as
in the process of data analysis and publication (Rubin & Rubin, 2005:98). As some degree of
bias is nearly always present in a published study, readers must also consider how bias might
influence a study's conclusions. Denzin and Lincoln (2005:312) provide example of biasness
in data collection or research that might affect the validity and reliability relate to working in a
44

gender sensitive areas, different race groups, religious and cultural beliefs. All these have a
potential of distorting the results of the research.
3.16 Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations in research help to protect the interests of research subjects and serve
as a basis for evaluating the researchers conduct by dealing with what is good and bad or
right and wrong through adhering to certain rules and conventions (Brynard & Hanekom,
2006:85, Strydom, 2011:126-127). The key ethics complied with include the following:

Permission: The researcher obtained permission from authorities in various research sites
to collect data from the participants and respondents (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007:113;
Those authorities included the four Communities based organisations operating CNCDC
asking for permission to conduct the study, are attached to this research report as Annexure
B. These letters serve as examples of permission letters sent to authorities in various
organisations.

Consequences for human beings: This refers to the protection of research subjects (i.e.,
focus group participants and respondents) against physical or emotional harm through
provision of information on the potential impact of the investigation (Strydom, 2011c:113).
The anticipated consequences of the study were explained to the focus group participants
prior to commencement of each session.

Voluntary and informed consent: The researcher requested voluntary participation of focus
group participants and respondents (De Vos, 2005:25; Strydom, 2011:116) and to offer them
the choice of participating voluntarily, withdrawing or refusing to participate in the study, by
explaining the possible risks involved in the study.

Confidentiality: The researcher guaranteed and assured the participants protection of their
privacy, which includes keeping their responses confidentially as a basic right (Mitchell &
Jolley, 2007:36; Strydom, 2011c:119).
3.17 Conclusion
This chapter has outlined the research paradigm, research methodologies, strategies and
design used in the study, including procedures, participants, data collection tools, data
45

collection and analysis methods, and data credibility issues. The research design for this
study was a descriptive and interpretive interviews, one on one and group interview that was
analysed largely through qualitative methods mainly using descriptive analysis. Further it also
briefly described the several stages involved in the design and development processes of the
research in this study. The next chapter will focus on the findings, analysis of results and
discussions of findings.

46

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the analysis of data followed by a discussion of the research findings.
The findings relate to the research questions that guided the study. Data were analysed to
identify, describe and assess the Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the
Development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs). Data was
collected through the use of interviews, i.e. twenty (20) Participants, eight (8) in one on one
interviews and twelve (12) in four focus group interviews.

The 20 women who participated in this study, represented diverse situations and background.
They reacted differently to their surroundings and shared openly with the researcher in
varying degrees. Great care was taken to utilize research understandings as they surfaced to
improve the data gathering and interpretation process in an on-going fashion. Literature on
women leadership and management was used as a framework for this study.

The objectives of the study were:

To explore the leadership and management

roles played by women in the

development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs)

To examine the leadership and management characteristics women possess in the in

the CNDCs;

To investigate challenges and constraints experienced by women in the Community

Nutrition and Development Centres; and

To establish whether leadership style influences women in the CNDCs;

4.2 Response Rate

The response rate is about the number of people responded on participated in the research
either through surveys or interview (Eagly and Karau 2002:213). In this research all
47

participants responded and were willing to participate in the interviews, i.e. for the One to one
interview and also the focus groups. So the rate was 100 %`

4.3 Thematic Analysis of Data

4.3.1 Coding of Data

The data collected from both the interviews were analysed. The collected data, as prescribed
by the research question and emergent themes, served to articulate how the participants
described their leadership experiences. All qualitative data which also incorporated data from
the field notes were transcribed and code, wherein several iterations and views of the data
was considered at each coding stage. The research analysis coding comprised of three main
stages. Stage 1 was open coding where line by line coding was undertaken for each interview
question (a copy of the interview guide is contained in Appendix A).

This section reflects the results of the interviews and focus groups discussions conducted
with twenty (20) interviewees, eight (8) in one on one interviews and twelve (12) in four focus
group interviews.

These themes reflect the experiences and narratives of the Participants in their roles as
Community Leadership. This chapter presents the key findings emerging from the study. The
discussions are divided into two sections, firstly- six theme and sub themes are captured from
the Respondents who participated in the One to One Interviews; the second section deals
with the findings of Focus Groups.

An analysis of the data gathered from the semi-structured interviews revealed 8 themes:
Individual Interviews: Expected and Inadvertent roles, Power and Influence, Inciting
Change, Significant Role Models, and Focus Groups: Shared Leadership, Challenges and
Obstacles, Self-Efficacy and Identity, and Effectual Styles. These themes and sub themes
reflect the experiences and narratives of the participants in their roles as community
leaders.

48

4.4 One on One Interviews results

Interviews are a widely used tool to access peoples experiences and their inner perceptions,
attitudes, and feelings of reality (Strydom, 2011:237). De Vos (2002:302) states, the aim of
the unstructured interview is to actively enter the world of people and to render those worlds
understandable from the standpoint of a theory that is grounded in behaviours, languages,
definitions, attitudes and feelings of those studied. The unstructured interview technique was
developed as a method to elicit peoples social realities. In the literature, the term is used
interchangeably with the terms, informal conversational interview, in-depth interview and nonstandardized interview (Babbie & Mouton, 2010:244).

In the One to One Interviews the following themes were recorded:

(1)

Expected mandate : reflects what the leaders roles and responsibilities in

meeting their organisational objectives;

(2)

Inadvertent roles

provides an opportunity on unintended roles and other

supporting functions leaders play in the development of their communities;

(3)

Power and influence- the theme revealed a concern for the community and the
need for female presence in leadership positions within that community;

(4)

Within the theme of inciting change, the importance of innovation and vision
emerged as key factors in effective leadership; and

OBJECTIVE 1: To explore the leadership and management roles played by women in

the development of CNDCs

Objective number one explored the various roles played by women leaders in the
development of the CNDCs. The themes that emerged included, Expected Mandate,
Inadvertent Roles.
Laurent & Bradney (2007:123) observed that leadership has a direct cause and effect
relationship upon organizations and their success. Leaders determine values, culture, change
tolerance and employee motivation. They shape institutional strategies including their
execution and effectiveness (Haines, 2009:99). Leaders can appear at any level of an
institution and are not exclusive to management. Successful leaders do, however, have one
thing in common, according Laurent & Bradney (2007:123), they influence those around them
49

in order to reap maximum benefit from the organizations resources, including its most vital
and expensive: its people, they drive strategy, vision and objectives of the organisation.

THEME 1: Expected Mandate

One of the strongest emerging theme during the interview related to the objectives and
expectations meant to be achieved in the development of the CNDCs. According to Daft
(2005:109), management firstly has the task to accomplish the function of coping with
complexity by planning and budgeting whilst leadership accomplishes change by first setting
a direction. Secondly, management develops the capacity to achieve its plan by organising
and staffing, whereas leadership does so by aligning people. Thirdly, management ensures
accomplishment by controlling and problem-solving. Leadership does the same by motivating
and inspiring (Eagly, 2007:89)
It was clear that Managers and Leaders at various levels, top, middle and lower recognised
and comprehended their expected mandates, including the achievement of key deliverables
and objectives of the CNDCs, the role and responsibilities they were expected to perform as
part of their organisational mandate to achieve the set goals and objectives.

All most all women leaders interviewed were great at their work, they are smart, passionate,
driven, focused, and easy to work with, good at explaining things, and have a get-it-done
mentality. They understand the value of investing time and effort in certain areas because it
make the difference in producing something great which will sets them apart from the
competition, and make their beneficiary happy. Every leader understood that their people,
i.e., their beneficiaries are their greatest assets. They also understood that they are creating
or building something for other people. The service needs to make a difference in the lives of
their clients.

In this theme, respondents provided their own individual understand on key objectives and
elements of what they are expected to do in the development the CNDCs. Participant A, a
Director at one CNDC, offer an explanation on the mandate and objectives of the CNDCs, its
functions, key responsible performance areas:
The main purpose for establishing Community Nutrition and Development
Centres (CNDCs) is to feed the hungry with nutritiously cooked meals and
50

promote the development of beneficiaries towards creating sustainable

livelihoods. Our work centres on the feeding nothing else

Participant D also stated:

Our objectives is to ensure that vulnerable people, hungry, the sick, children, including
anyone without food in our community are fed every day. We ensure that cooked
nutritious meals is prepared and served daily, this done through a carefully planned
and managed system.

The manager, as Middlehurst (2012:88) mentioned by contrast, operates on the physical

resources of the organisation, its capital, human skills, raw materials, and technology. As he
puts it, any competent manager can make it possible for people to earn a living and see to it
that work is done productively and efficiently, on schedule, and with a high level of quality. It
remains for the effective leader, however, to help people in the organisation know and take
pride including finding satisfaction in their work.

Another aspect of work according Participant F

We also try to expose our beneficiaries to various skills development project such as
brickmaking, food garden, beadwork, job creation projects and many other courses to
empower people to become self-sustainable, while the nutritional support is an interim
safety net measure. This is our everyday job

The objectives of an organisation are met through the coordinated actions of many people
working with individual targets, but to a common purpose. Many organisations set their
goals for the year ahead, and arrive at the objectives for individual employees by cascade
through divisional and departmental managers (Ledwith, 2011:168). These women have
clear mandate and they just had to do that amongst other things they did.

THEME 2: Inadvertent Roles

Women leaders played a pivotal role in maintaining rural communities, as well as in their
economic activities, they continue to make major contributions to the maintenance of family
and community life. They work actively with their clients to encourage and support them to
51

become more civically engaged. Through volunteering and participating in community

development activities, assist new comers in the community to improve language skills,
develop leadership capacity, breakdown social isolation and volunteer in their communities.
They do this by developing and coordinating volunteer opportunities, developing peer led
programming, catalysing new initiatives, providing and coordinating leadership. It also
provides backed up supports to other programs through volunteer coordination,
leveraging resources,

and

integrated

community

development

principles

in

to

programs. Some of the key activities are: Food gardening, Computer clubs, Burial Society,
Public education, Child support, community kitchen training, assisting with acquiring enabling
documents, such as Identity books, Birth certificates, and Child support grant.
What was interesting in this case was how these women leaders continued to put extra efforts
in their work, working beyond their own mandates and key performance areas.

According to (Van Wart, 2013:558) transformational leaders inspire employees to go beyond

the call of duty, foster creative solutions to problems, serve as mentors, create vision, and
articulate plans for achieving their visions. Some of the sub- themes emerged from this theme
included mentoring, counselling, information service and support roles

According to Participant F
The work of the CNDC is not limited to food access only, but also a number of other
activities not prescribed in our contracts.

Participant B revealed that in the development of the CNDCs,

We play various significant and strategic roles, while providing nutritious meals.
Women in these CNDC have acted and continued to serve their communities as
advisors, mentors, counsellors, coordinators, educators, social workers, including
conflict managers, they provide support and also act as a link between individuals and
various government departments.
The following are roles cited as other roles women leaders play which are somehow not part
of their key roles and responsibilities but are performed by women on daily basis.

52

Sub-theme 2.1 Mentoring

According to Magner (2008:131), transformational leadership capture the trust of people

through coaching, inspiring and empowering others (Laurent & Bradney, 2007:123). Nearly
all of the women indicated that mentoring was critical to their success and their growth as a
leader. Although this topic was specifically addressed in the interview guide, it often arose
spontaneously very early in the interviews. Several major themes emerged in terms of the
role that mentors played. One of the major roles was to inspire the women by what they were
doing or had done themselves; these mentors included family members, leaders of other
organizations, and historical figures.
"Quite truthfully, my mother, but not from the sense of her being my mother but the
challenges that she has dealt withJust because her hearing is really limited, yet she
taught English for, I dont even know, 20years. And then continued to move up to
administration, and when she retired she was the principal of a school. And so from
witnessing that you just keep on going and you dont take no for an answer and you
dont let something that could easily hinder you or give you a reason to change course
you just focus on your course and make it happen.

Mentors also demonstrated a strong belief in the women leaders, and helped push them to
realize their fullest potential, as well as offering specific advice. These mentors often included
older women and/or business entrepreneurs, with whom the women had a relatively close
relationship. Participant B alluded:
"She has seen consistently in me attributes that I havent even seen in myself
sometimes. I can count on her to push me to do things that I [thought I] couldnt do.
That I couldnt see. And discover, I can do this.

Empowerment is described as having reliability, fulfilment in achievements, and influence

over what and how to do things, acknowledgement for opinions and suggestions, and the
confidence that one is being valued and appreciated. Participant E related her experiences
in mentoring youth when she volunteered to be a coach for a girl who later received the job.
As a leader, I was so happy to have helped the young woman find this success, my
friend called to find out if there is none I know they can offer a job. I forwarded her CV
53

and began to coach her on what to say as she goes for an interview. That was one of
the many moments I pride myself with

Motivations and definitions of success

The women defined success primarily as the ability to change the lives of others. This is also
what kept them motivated to do their work, especially as they faced numerous challenges.
The women were not particularly motivated by money or the size of their organizations.
Although they appreciated being recognized for their work, prestige did not drive them.
Participant A commented:
"So for me, impact is changed lives. Healed bodies, minds, and spirits. Especially
women who begin to glimpse who they are and go forth. That really matters to me.

Participant F also alluded:

"But I would say that more concretely is when I actually see a change in the individuals
that we work with. So to our youth training program, to actually see the penny drop, to
see people shift in terms of how they view food as a social justice issue, in terms of how
they suddenly see their own role in the world, in terms of not just having to be receivers
of whatever is handed out to them, but being an agent of change. I think thats what
keeps me motivated.

Sub-theme 2.2 Counsellor

Women leaders at the CNDCs mentioned that they remain open to provide counselling and
support services to beneficiaries who want to talk about anything, families, children thoughts,
problems, whatever they want to be assisted with. These in most case lead to empowerment
and self-acceptance in all decisions that others make. Participant B, as a former Teacher,
alluded to the fact that:
Almost every day I deal with family disputes, fights between a man and his wife,
women and their children and many of this sort. I also provide advices on careers, offer
counselling and support, including referring those who are sick to the nearby clinic.
Participant D further explained that:
54

Many young women come to me with their marital problems, and over the years I
learnt how to listen and give advice appropriately. As a result many people looked at
me as a community leaders and respect me for what I am.
Young women come from rural communities with children without birth certificates. As
a community I link them with Home Affairs, which has really supported our work so
much. And in most cases the young women will get birth certificate and also register
for the child support grant. This makes me so happy

Sub-theme 2.3 Information and Support services

Some of the CNDCs work closely with the department of Health, Social Development and
other government department, as result they provide information regarding welfare and health
services. Some leaders do provide information on matters such as HIV and AIDS, eating
habits, cleanliness etcetera. Participant F gives her an account of her experience:

As a trained caregiver, my team and I do home based care visits, and door to door TB
campaign, assisting patients who need care and also linking the sick with local clinic,
sometime assisting with grants registration. The job is hard, and painful but fulfilling. I
have been doing this for more than ten years

Participant G also a member of a ward committee, talks about how in her daily work at the
CNDCs has to provide assistance on local government related issues:
When people come to have their meals, they suddenly remember their household
issues, such as a need for a stand, some basic services etc I just help and if possible
take their issues to the ward committee for more attention.

OBJECTIVE 2: To examine the leadership and management characteristics women

possess in the in the CNDCs

Objective number two assess the leadership and management characteristic women leaders
possess and how they contribute in the development of the CNDCs. The model of leadership
55

that the women articulated is characterized by a strong vision along with a total commitment
to that vision and an ability to inspire others to share it (Vinkenburg et al. 2011:12). It is widely
recognised that women have alternative ways of problem-solving and dealing with conflict.
Eagly (2005:212) studies on the leadership styles of women suggest that women tend to
adopt more democratic and participative management styles than males. They share power
and information and support and encourage subordinates. Women managers are said to be
persuasive, influential and charismatic and make extensive use of interpersonal skills.
Moreover, as Vinkenburg et al. (2011:12) has observed: women managers adopting feminine
management styles are better suited to contemporary business conditions than males since
modern management techniques are invariably based on teamwork, flexibility, trust and the
free exchange of information.

THEME 3: Power and Influence

Power and influence revealed a concern for the community and the need for female
presence in leadership positions within that community. Stories centered on reasons for
becoming a leader and how women in leadership can influence others. Within the theme of
inciting change, the importance of innovation and vision emerged as key factors in effective
leadership. The theme revealed a concern for the community and the need for female
presence in leadership positions within that community.

Sub-theme 3.1 Need for Female Presence

Larwood and Wood (2007: 232) attest to the existence of differences in leadership priorities
between black and white women Participants. For black women, the overall aim of
management is the promotion of racial justice, whereas for white senior managers, the priority
is to manage effective. In order for women to make a difference in leadership positions,
women first need to be present in influential positions. The number of women leaders is
increasing and this trend needs to continue. Many of the Participants in this study identified
the need for women to be visible in their roles and take ownership of them.

Participant C claims that:

56

Women are appreciate women leaders, as their roles as leaders. I encourage them to
let people know that they have power and can be in any positions of authority without
any hesitation, and should be proud to lead.

Participant D also commented on the need for a female presence in the community and
political arena.
Although I tried to get some of the women in the board to be involved, the interest was
just not there. This lack of presence has an effect on the potential influence of women
in this area. Dont be afraid to jump in and do something that might lead you into yet
another place where a door opens. This is the advice

Participant F gives women starting out in leadership positions.

As a trained builder, I found myself in a professional area dominated by men. The
presence of women in the field was important to her, but when I went to gather women
together, I could find only two or three women with experience. For these reasons, I
started training sessions that ran for six months, three times a week. I held seminars
until women became familiar with the tools and competent as builders. Encouraging a
female presence in underrepresented areas is paramount to developing future
leaders.

Sub- theme 3.2 Concern for community.

Many women assume leadership positions in order to have an influence within their
communities. Moolenaar and Sleegers (2010:121) states that community developments
cannot succeed if it does not involve women and take advantage of their potentials more
especially in rural South Africa. In other words rural women have an important role to play in
the sustenance and sustainability of family and the rural economy (Ledwith 2011:168).

As a member of the Tlapa CNDC and also a ward committee member, Participant G
expressed her concern for the conditions in the community in which she has lived nearly her
entire life. As she contemplated her work with her community, she stated,

57

I look at the issues and arrive at a decision that is based upon what is in the best
interest of the people to be served or benefit by a particular measure.
Considering the needs of ones constituents elicited a similar response from Participant D.
My motivation was look out for the little person and influence the community
accordingly. In my opinion, everyone needs to be represented, and certain entities
make many decisions that affect our lives every day. Working with rural development
gave me a chance to work with the community as a specialist and affect change. My
involvement in community projects made me more convinced about what I was doing.
Its not just my personal opinion,

Participant E stated
It was never about what I personally thought. It was what was best for the community
and you learn to take out your personal bias. it should not be about me, it should be
about making decisions based on the needs of the community. You are deciding things
that you wont see the results of until down the road.

This is also true within the field of community services. Participant B works as a Director feels
that:
Community development is critically important to the fabric of a community. When you
have the involvement of the community, you can create a system and then it is a matter
of getting the players to play.

Participant C echoes this sentiment. As a director of CNDC:

I wished to serve the community as well as help it to help itself. In the early stages of
my involvement, I lacked community connections. As a result, I went to those who had
the knowledge about community affairs and asked for their assistance. As I am able
to influence others and affect the necessary change. I have seen kids coming to my
centre, and growing to become Participants in their own way, at school, family and in
community politics. This makes me so happy

Sub-theme 3.3 Influencing and helping others

58

Clarke (2009:212) and Johns (2009:224) provide a definition of a transformation leader as an

individual who seeks to function as a servant leader. His/her purpose is therefore to serve
others. A transformational leader must be a good listener and possess the ability to identify
with others. In addition to this, resilience and the ability to give direction are important.
Transformational leaders are leaders who are characterised by quiet thought or
contemplation, so that they become professionals of reflection (Johns, 2009:224).
Along with a need for a female leadership presence and a concern for ones community, the
idea of being an influence and a help to others was of great importance in these womens
desire to take on their positions as leaders. According to Participant B:
"Most people don't realize that leadership is fundamentally about service, about a dying
to self and loving others into their true potential. It isn't about us personally. It isn't
about what we can get, or consume. It isn't about elevating ourselves above others. It
isn't about ego. Leadership is about lowering ourselves such that the people who work
with us, and our organizations can thrive in ways that create value
Participant G alluded to the fact that:
"When I am serving I can't help but to be compassionate. And when I am not, the
tendency to become worn-out, more callous, and less forgiving can take over. This has
been one of my greatest observations. How ineffective leader are, once they lose the
capacity to put themselves to the side in favor of the common good."
Participant C also expressed her interest in helping people succeed and helping them be
happy in their positions. She emphasized the need that people have to feel like they are
contributing to something, as opposed to just coming to work every day and going through
the motions. She shared an example involving one of their CNDC members who was
struggling in his studies.
We sat down and had a conversation and I told him if you really want to go far in
journalism or other fields, you really need to get yourself to college and get that degree.
To this day, he credits me with having put him on the right path.

59

Participant G state that she learned this lesson when changing roles at her CNDC and
realized that power is all about the ability to truly influence people and make an impact in their
lives.
"It doesnt come from any title or position a true Participant is someone who is
wholeheartedly willing to be their authentic self."

Participant E alluded on mentoring that:

As a mentor for others you need to persuade people to take positions that will take
them somewhere, influence young women, to reaching out with her thoughts and
encouragement to other women in her position.

Participant B commented that:

A successful leader is someone whom people want to follow. I know many people in
positions of authority, or positions of leadership who people dont want to follow. Maybe
theyre coerced to follow; maybe theyre required to follow. But I think that the best
types of leaders are ones that people rally around and say, Oh, I really want to follow
them, I really want to be with them, I agree with them, this is something Id like to do.

Participant F said.
You get to make a difference for other people, who, without your help might have a
worse day, worse week, and worse year. You get to help people be the best they can
be and theres nothing more rewarding.

Sub- theme 3.4 choosing to be a leader

Research studies on leadership such as Kezar (2003) indicate that the leadership of women
tends to emphasize reciprocity. This was exemplified in the stories of the leaders in this study.
Participant B and Participant G identified their decision to become leader rested heavily on
having something to contribute to their communities.
At the same time, several women said being in a position of leadership was something that
they never really considered.

Participant B, who has served in many roles within her community, said
60

I feel I am called to serve, it was hard at first but the more I see women who are
powerless and hungry I felt I cannot stop to help I need to do something, I just wanted
to assist and empower not only women but also men. I love giving time and I feel so
honoured to see so many people happy and smiling.

Participant G
For me seeing those kids coming back from school hungry I thought what can we do
as the women of this community? I got few ladies and we started a feeding centre

Participant D
I tended to shy away from the spotlight until I took on a role that emphasised my
Leadership skills.
Participant E commented

I really did not see herself as a leader until it was pointed out to her that this was indeed
her role

When Participant A talked about her leadership path leading to her role as a director, she
explicitly stated,
I never wanted to be a leadernever thought about it. At the same time, I
acknowledged that I took on their role because nobody else was bothering to do the
job in question.

In a study conducted by Fine (2009), the author refers to highly motivated women having the
desire to make a difference in the world. This would seem consistent with the stories provided
by the women in this study as they described their various reasons for becoming community
leader. The predominant factors seem to be the concern for community and a desire to help
others.

THEME 4 Inciting Change

Sub theme 4.1 Contributing influences

61

The basis for many womens interest in being in positions of influence is dissatisfaction with
the status quo. The historical contributions of women in the past were cited by several
Participants in this study as influential on their own careers. Women leaders do have an
immense capacity to positively influence the livelihoods of people.

Participant D grew up in the late 70s, a time when you could not talked about your opinions
publicly. Participant A compared the transformative qualities in todays women to those in the
70s, eras of Winnie Mandela, Albertina Sisulu etcetera.
Women often talk the same way as their predecessors would, about being able to be
a part of all the incredible things that happened leading up to the womens right to
vote. History represents the importance of the contributions of women as leader and
this significance continues to date.
Participant Gs experiences support this assertion.
I believe we need more women candidates for community development and political
office. Women are just as likely to get elected as their male counterparts, if theyre
running for an open seat, but we dont have enough women running. Thats the
problem. And so I think its important that we find women to run. Women need to
continue to assert themselves as Participants in these forums As a result my heart is
empowering young women and young to understand issues of concern in our
community and voice them out

Lack of diversity i.e. women and youth is one of the influences Participant E noted in her
choice to be a community Participant. The decision-makers in her community were a
homogeneous group that lacked diversity in terms of age and gender. She thought there
needed to be equal representation for all groups of people and was concerned about peoples
rights being defended.
We have to give people a voice, people who dont generally have a voice. As I got
into a Leadership position and got used to what we had to deal with, I found that there
are a lot of people who felt excluded and left behind.
62

According to Weyer (2007:485), female gender roles are identified with communal behaviours
such as nurturing, supporting others and being helpful. In contrast, Leadership roles have
been associated with particular agentic characteristics such as assertiveness, ambition,
competing for attention, and making problem-focused suggestions

Sub- theme 4.2 Change through Innovation

Many studies on transformational Leadership indicate that this type of Leadership positively
influences innovation. In recent years, Ladegaard, (2010:43) state that Participants applying
this form of Leadership style are stated to be involved with innovative change within their
communities. The Participants also focus on issues involving matters of support, directing
and coordinating goals or purpose that has been set up by the organisations or communities
in order to increase the work effort.
Participant D talked about her role within community services, she articulated not only the
need for a vision, but the need for thinking of new, innovative ways to make it work.

Having new ideas is what Participant B,

I saw how our children in our mining community loses parents, they stayed with
grandparents who also struggled with life, and God laid a desire for me to look after
these vulnerable children. It started with few families, today we cook and provide
meals to more than 300 community members We did not only served the sick and
vulnerable but we also have employed more than 40 people in our programme. This
make me really excited.
I brought together a number of volunteers to assist with providing care for the orphans
and vulnerable children, including providing home based care for the terminally sick
people. To date more than 55 people are on a programme paid by government.

Proposing new ideas is one reason that Participant G wanted to be a proponent for change.
I always wanted to take action that would improve the quality of life of the residents in
the community. Being in a position to make policy in my organisation could accomplish
that.
63

Innovation that affects the lives of people is consistent with many womens style of
Leadership. Seeing a need for change and then acting upon this need is a characteristic found
throughout the interviews conducted.

Participant F cited the need for new ideas to make herself visible in the area. She looked for
women who had experience in the construction field, but could not find many. Her idea was
to hold training seminars and by the time the training was done, she had 43 women signed
up who wanted participate when there is an opportunity created by government or mines to
put up building projects in Bojanala. Participant F was also aware of the unpopularity
associated with building in certain parts of town considered undesirable. With her influence,
she worked to change this perception. She says
Many young women, women and also men got employed in the Expanded Public
Works Programme, through the efforts of the organisation and people are forever
thankful as they have and jobs and salaries.

Sub-theme 4.3 Taking charge

In her research, Eagly (2007) describes the leadership styles of women in relation with
particular situations. Many of the women interviewed found themselves at some point in their
work faced with situations in which no one else was choosing to act. It was in these cases
that the women felt what they described as a desire, an obligation, or even a challenge to
take charge of the situation and make a required change.
Participant B reflected on this occurrence in her own experiences.
If a need for change is observed, and the change does not happen because no one
steps up to do anything, then I step up.

Her definition of effective leadership referenced this concept of taking charge to incite change.
Leadership happens when you want to change the status quo and then you have two
choices: you can sit around and complain about it or you get into the process of
changing it.

64

This sort of take-action approach was echoed by Participant G as she discussed the
development of her career over the years. As a leader, she cares about the issues and wants
things to get done. She recalled several experiences that were her eye-openers in life.
People saw a problem, but they would not question it. As Participant G recalls,

Sometimes you just have to make a leap of faith. As I was moving up the ranks,
sometimes I'd be in a meeting and think, we really need a decision here, and realize
a beat later it was me who had to make that decision. Leadership is about presenting
confidence and decisiveness. Of course it's best if this is how you're really feeling at
the moment but it's possiblein fact necessaryto make decisions you're not 100
percent sure of. The longer you do it the more natural going with your gut becomes.
And then soon you start giving advice like just go with your gut.

Participant A echoed such sentiment too:

I was taking the initiative because someone needed to do something. This does not
always result in popularity, but all of the women agreed that was a sacrifice they were
willing to make. Being well-liked did not outweigh the need to take action when it was
warranted.

She told stories of her own challenges with insecurity and described how she moved past
these issues in order to take her own advice, to take advantage of situations that arose for
her.

Sub theme 4.4 having a vision

In their research on transformational Leadership, Kouzes and Posner (2001) emphasize the
importance of a leader s vision in influencing followers and influencing the Participant-follower
relationship. The model of leadership that the women articulated was characterized by a
strong vision along with a total commitment to that vision and an ability to inspire others to
share it. Many of the women interviewed expressed similar ideas about their own leadership
as well as that of Participants they would want to follow.

Participants B described an effective leader as

65

Someone who is capable of making change and allowing, or perhaps encouraging,

the organization to follow through on that change. The vision needs to be carried out
or it becomes worthless.

Participant A also emphasized the importance of having a vision and added that this vision
may need to be changed or adapted. Participant G shared the sentiments:
It is vital, she said, to be able to defend ones vision, and if you cannot, then you
need to admit it, adapt it, and move on. Discovering this vision and then carrying it out
may best be accomplished through a cooperative effort. My role as a Participant's role
is to raise people's aspirations for what they can become and to release their energies
so they will try to get there.

Participant A mentioned her experiences

I have felt in the past that opportunities passed me by because they were looking for
menAnd in some ways maybe that freed me up, so that Ihave this unconventional
approachI really did things my own wayWhen people first think about Leadership,
they turn to men, and being a female Participant has been a little different course.

Collaboration is something Participant G advocated in her position. The concept of

collaboration was present in the interview with Participant A. Collaborating and working with
others is Participant Es favourite part of her job. She works closely with the people who will
most directly feel the results of the programs she helps to develop.
I want to go look at a project that I was involved in and helped bring to fruition. I get to
visit with the people and find out how its going to affect their lives.

This connection as a Participant is what worked for many of the Participants according to their
shared experiences.

66

4.5 FOCUS GROUPS INTERVIEW

The Second part of the research interviews was conducted through the Focus Groups. Five
Focus Groups were organised in five CNDC sites, with a new sets of questions. A set of
questionnaires were applied.

In these Focus groups respectively women shared their rich

experiences, journeys and their own challenges regarding their leadership and management
role in the development of the CDNCs. The Focus Group provided useful understanding on
how or why leaders hold certain beliefs about their leadership role and including their work in
the communities.

According to De Vos, Strydom, Fouch and Delport (2005:268) a focus group interview is a
technique involving the use of in-depth group interviews in which participants are selected
because they are a purposive, although not necessarily representative sampling of a specific
population, this group being focused on a given topic. Lewis (2005:188) defines a focus group
interview as a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area
of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment. According to Rubin & Rubin,
2005:212), this type of interview will yield both a more diversified array of responses, and
afford a more extended basis for designing systematic research into the situation at hand.
The Second part of the research was conducted through the Focus Groups. Five Focus
Groups were conducted in five CNDC sites, with a new sets of questions. In these Focus
groups women shared their rich experiences, journeys and their own challenges regarding
their leadership and management role in the development of the CDNCs.

Major themes and sub themes emerged from the in-depth interviews with participants. Below
are the summaries of the themes

(1) Shared Leadership: the interactive influence process among individuals in groups for
which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group personal
reflection of how Participants sees themselves and define their roles and
responsibilities;
(2) Challenges and obstacles: Many experienced challenges based on gender roles and
stereotypes although not all found these issues to be significant in their career
journeys;
(3) Self-efficacy played a role in the success of the participants as leaders. Many women
described their capability for Leadership as well as experiences that built confidence.
67

One of the main goals of the study was to elicit definitions of successful Leadership
from the Participants;
(4) The theme of effectual Leadership styles developed as participants reflected on their
own styles of Leadership as well as the styles of those they respect as leader within
the community.

THEME 1: Shared Leadership

OBJECTIVE 1: To explore the leadership and management roles played by women in the
development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs)
Objective number one of this study intended to examine womens management and
leadership function, the type of leadership used in the development of CNDCs

The first theme of the Focus Group (FG) respondents was based on shared Leadership.
Pearce and Conger (2003:47) present the most widely cited definition of shared Leadership
as a dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the
objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals or both..
As Pearce, Manz and Sims (2009) summarize, all definitions of shared leadership consistently
include a process of influence that is built upon more than just downward influence on
subordinates or followers by an appointed or elected leader. Nearly all concepts of shared
leadership entail the practice of broadly sharing power and influence among a set of
individuals rather than centralizing it in the hands of a single individual who acts in the clear
role of a dominant superior
Participants provided their own leadership understanding of collective and shared
Leadership. Participant M, FG4 was responding to what is meant by shared Leadership.

"A true leader not only mentors for the people who are following, but also shares the
leadership and develops the leadership within the group or the membership. It also
means providing opportunities for all people to be in leadership roles relating to family,
extended family, clans and community

Another leader, Participant F, FG2 in echoed the sentiments above:

68

"If you want to be a Participant, you have to also be the lady who is cleaning up the
place. A true Participant is a great follower. If you can't follow, how do you think can
you lead?"

The response indicates that a leader, who was also a follower, was someone who would
listen to others, ask them for their opinion and suggestions, and allow them to be involved in
making decisions. Shared Leadership involves all the informal leaders of the community.
Informal leaders can be volunteers at community events and tribal ceremonies. The focused
is on the relationship between the leader and follower.
The central principle is that leader develop different exchange relationships with their
followers, whereby the quality of the relationship alters the impact on important leader
participant and member outcomes (Gerstner & Day, 2004:245). Thus, Leadership occurs
when Participants and followers are able to develop effective relationships that result in
mutual and incremental influence (Uhl-Bien, 2006:87).

. Participant G, FG3
This is my community, I lived here all my life and I know every child and parent,
Working in my community has given me a great pleasure, I have become part of the
Leadership that brings change.

Participant J, FG3 stated:

Living and working in this area, has given me a great pleasure, my community knows
me and I know them. Those who come to the centre for food they appreciate our help
and we hope they also benefit from our work. That is what keeps me coming and
wanting to help.

Participants interviewed felt so confident that they have built a good relationship with their
communities, The leader know each other in their first name, some they know their families
and as such both the leader and members feel at ease with each other

69

Objective 3: To investigate challenges and constraints experienced by women in the

Community Nutrition and Development Centres;
Objective number three of this study intended to identify the challenges faced by women
leaders/managers in CNDCs and Community Development. Understanding these challenges
is a prerequisite to improving the quality of women leadership and for empowering women
leaders in the organizational position.

Theme 2: Challenges and Obstacles

When research participants were asked to explain the challenges faced by women
leaders/managers in the CNDCs, the following main themes were identified, namely, social
and cultural stereotypes, psychological factor, gender role, negative perceptions on
competencies of women leaders among women themselves and lack of confidence.

Sub- theme 2.1 : Social and Cultural Stereotypes

The research respondents agreed that socio-cultural stereotypes are part of the society
culture which constraint women leadership in the CNDC and Communities at large. One
among the CNDC Participant A in an interview session said:
Despite the Government of south Africa initiatives towards promoting equal
opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the elimination of unfair
discrimination; and implementing affirmative action measures, yet, there is a need to
change a mind-set among men to appreciate the potential of women in leadership..

Another Participant F commented that:

I think people expect and prefer women potentials in leadership. The only set back is
that women lack agentic traits such as confidence, aggressiveness and self-direction
unlike men, because they are communal. Stereotypes about leaders generally
reseamble stereotypes of men rather than those of women. As a result, women are
placed at a disadvantage in most leadership role.

Participants reported that removing socio-cultural stereotypes involves a transformation in the

community mind-sets, males, processes and organizational culture. The challenge women
70

face with gender stereotyping, is that the deep conditioning about gender has affected their
self-esteem and the perception of their own leadership capabilities (Ledwith 2011:168).

Cultural beliefs also manifest themselves in the working environment. Male employees and
beneficiaries are part of society and they carry with them their cultural beliefs at their places
of employment, for example belief that women are inferior to men and thus cannot be
leaders/managers over them. Lessing (2004) points out that men have greater credibility as
authority figures, whereas women tend to be recognised for stereotypical qualities such as
sympathy, creativity, openness and patience, and thus are viewed as less suited for
leadership.

Sub theme 2.2 Psychological Factor

Participants reported psychological factor as one among the challenges faced by women
interviewed. Participant mentioned during the interview session had this to say;

Ah! I think women suffer from psychological factors as they cannot control their
emotions due to short tempered. You know most of these educated young girls are
arrogant; and because of this they are not taken seriously by subordinates;
sometimes they can be absent without authorization; come late to work and leave
early before knock off time!

Another respondent Participants E argued against that statement when she said that;
It is not fair to generalize the mistake of one person to all, women can control their
emotions, it is a function of agelook at our matured state, you will realize how
confidence we are in every task that we do.

Sub theme 2.3 Balancing Reproductive and Workplace Functions

Balancing reproductive and workplace functions was also mentioned by respondents as one
among challenges facing women in leadership. Helgesen (2005) supports the findings above
saying that social issues are challenges that originate from home. Apart from being
employees, women as part of the family play a central role of caring for the home. Ledwith
(2011:168) indicates that the attitude of populace in our society revealed that women are
essentially nurturers, and homemakers.
71

It was however mentioned that despite that challenge of balancing reproductive and
workplace functions, a significant number of women that entered the workforce has increased
in numbers over the last two decades (Marthur-Helm, 2002). He however concurs with the
view that more women than men are faced with the challenge of choosing between family
and their career. The Employment Equity Act No. 55 of the Republic of South Africa (1998)
states that even where women are well qualified and experienced, the predominance of men
in leadership has resulted in a culture in which men behaviour patterns are perceived to be
norms and women often find it difficult to be accepted as equals by their men colleagues.

Other emphasis seen in the result shows that women are respected as men as the mother of
nation. Despite this fact, and the fact that employees are professionally trained, yet there is a
continued perception among them which views women managers/leaders as unconfident as
such need to prove themselves more as leaders/managers to men.

Sub theme 2.4 Gender Roles

Studies involving women in Leadership roles indicate the majority of women believe their
biggest obstacle to advancement is a mind-set favouring candidates that fit in a maledominated environment (Eddy, 2009:12). Stereotypical male images still persist about gender
roles and effective Leadership (Coleman, 2005:12). This creates a belief that male is superior
and female is inferior, meaning that female qualities are undervalued.

Participant I FG4
It seems to me that to stand out in a mans world, women have to compensate for
their gender with outstanding performance every single time. It is good in the sense
that women get better and better [in] what they do, but, on the other hand, it is
extremely tiring...

In addition, the perception of male privilege resulting from a patriarchal culture and the
socialisation process creates internal barriers for women such as lack of confidence and lack
of motivation or aspiration (Mitroussi & Mitroussi, 2009:504).

72

Many women in this study referred to expected roles that existed as they began their career
journeys. Participant F, FG2 says as a woman working in the construction field,
Working in a heavily male-dominated industry, I struggle to strike a balanceto be
one of them and to be myself. Sometimes I feel it affects my spontaneity. I
constantly feel the need to be on guard.

Male and female roles in leadership are identified and described in many research studies
and often the males appear more dominant. Interestingly, Participant F, FG2 provided an
explanation of an experiment that indicates women may give away the leadership role rather
than have it taken from them.
In many situations, it is the men who will take the risks and the women will not.
An experiment was done in a group and they would ask men and women to have
somebody become a leader of the group. More often than not, a man became the
leader. But in many instances, women would say, Why dont you be the leader?
So they would give the title away. And some people might say they took the title
by giving it away. But its very interesting that women often times do not take
those roles, because they may perceive them as being either inappropriate, or
its more appropriate that the man do it.

Within this scenario, women may have similar gender role expectations as men, resulting in
behaviours that may become obstacles to effective female leadership.

Sub-theme 2.5 Networking

The women respondents pointed out lack of networking in a boardroom to be one among the
setback facing women. Although this study does not compare women leadership from men
leadership, yet, it is important to understand that women leaders lack access to social network
where informal decisions are taken. As such, it impacts on their formal organizational
leadership

73

THEME 3: Self-Efficacy and Identity

Objective 2: To examine the leadership and management characteristics women possess

in the in the CNDCs
Caughron and Mumford (2011:350) characterises women leaders as those who create a
shared vision, energise others by communicating that vision at many levels, stimulate others
to think in different ways and to excel, give individual consideration to others, and provide an
organisational climate that helps others to accomplish activities of value and feel appreciated.
Helgesen (2003:33) says the have followers who perform at a higher level and who are more
satisfied with their work than other employees

Holmes (2006:6) describe women leader as those who engage in an ongoing quest for quality,
looking for opportunities to make things betterknow [their] organisations norms and culture
very well but [are] also willing to risk challenging those norms when they are negative or
dysfunctionalLearn from others and their mistakeshave the ability to create a shared
vision enabling others to actbelieve in people

Participants described their capabilities for leadership as well as experiences that built
confidence in their leadership. Participant E, FG2 exuded this air of confidence as she
described her current role as executive director:
I dont have to wait for everybody else to figure out what needs to get done. I can do
what I want to do, so thats nice. I believe in changes and I make sure they happen. I
am a dreamer with a big vision

Sub theme 3.1 Influence of others

Previous studies examining the backgrounds of women involved in community leadership,

have found that influential people in the lives of these women help shape their identities as
future leaders. (Vinkenburg et al. 2011:12).The individual experiences described by the
women in this study may explain their desires and abilities to influence others
Participant F, FG2 recalled how her childhood experiences contributed to her personality as
a future leaders.
74

Growing up, I was often responsible for what was happening at the house. My parents
said, Youre in charge. And so Ive always been the type of person who took charge.
And I remember just at a young age being in a meeting and just taking over. I learned
how to do that without offending people.
As a result, she became much more receptive to lifes lessons as complex and ambiguous.
After my divorce in 1994, powerful mass protest, womens rights, disabilities rights, I
began to claim the Leadership role which others recognized in me, Participant A FG1,
intimated.

Whereas parents were an influence for FG2 Participant F and D, becoming a parent was an
experience that Participant K, FG 4 described as instrumental in her development as a leader.
Parenting taught me effectively that I was a leader and transformed me in many
significant ways. It changed my outlook on life as well as my approach to leadership in
general.

Sub- theme 3.2 The Confidence to Succeed

A leader is a person who has ability to influence others behaviour because of recognized
knowledge, skills, or abilities (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2010:180). Leaders are perceived to have
expertise in well-defined functional areas but not outside them. To have power, followers must
perceive the power holder to be credible, trustworthy, and relevant. Efficacy is the ability to
produce a desired result; a leader needs to believe in her own competence in order to be
effective. (Robbins, & Judge, (2011:202).
As she continued describing her goals, however, it was obvious that this statement was not
meant to imply a need for power. As she described how she started the centre and became
the director, she referred to having great boards that always did what she wanted them to do.
Confidence in ones abilities is often strengthened through experiences that test the resolve
of the individual.

Participant B FG1, identified such experiences of her own that gave her confidence as a
member of the ward committee member and a Participant in the CNDC.

75

I think I realized that I did have the ability to do of things. I just didnt give up. Not that
youre always going to be successful on everything, but maybe on the things that really
mattered. Taking risks is a way that one of the Participants illustrated confidence in
her Leadership abilities.

Participant F FG recalled how she has had to convince many people of her vision along the
way, starting with her husband.
When I began earning extra money and putting it into home improvements, he
became convinced that I did indeed know what I was doing. When I first started in the
construction business, I was taking phone calls, handling the business, and setting up
deals. I was just a receptionist

She was told by a colleague that she did not need any help, she just needed the confidence,
and that was a turning point for her. Her role as a leader developed from this experience.
As she described her business philosophy, Participant F, FG2 stated,
I did my homework and knew what I was going to do and how much it was going to cost and
what the profit would be. I had the money, I had the plan, and I had the facts. It was this
confidence that encouraged others to seek out her expertise and guidance.

When she was approached by her current company, she told them she would run it for two
months, just to get things going. After twelve years, she is still there as the director.

Sub theme 3.3 Impacting Society

Bond et al. (2008:123) indicated that women who remain engaged in leadership positions
reap various rewards. Often the reward is intrinsic in nature, such as having a positive impact
on society, rather than extrinsic. Participant H FG3 discussed how much she enjoyed seeing
how the programs she helped to establish have made a difference.
I just thoroughly enjoy seeing people succeed. I like helping people learn how to
communicate effectively. I remember helping an employee, telling him I would like to
edit his reports, so he could see how he might improve. He told me later that was the
best training he ever had. Thats the kind of reward that Ive gotten.
76

Both of these women made a tangible impact on the lives of people within the community.
Identifying with those whom one leads as well as serves was an important factor in
Participant J FG3s leadership identity.
We have a lot of diversity among our community, young, old, poor, and I just felt like
I was one of them. I feel that I am making an impact on the community, both as a
woman and a leader.

Ultimately, she said, she was here to do a job. The tough decisions associated with her
position, those that really affected the community, were what transformed her as a leader and
as a person.

Sub- theme 3.4 Personal characteristics

Leatherwood and Williams (2008:198) found characteristics such as flexibility, work ethic,
integrity, and good communication skills are factors in effective leadership. The Participants
in this study identified similar characteristics in their own experiences as leaders within the
community.
A similar ability to adapt to challenging situations was also essential to Participant G, FG4s
success in the leadership arena. Some had expressed doubt that she would be accepted;
they were surprised to find that she could not only do the work, but that she had developed
relationships with people whom they thought would be unaccepting. Participant B, FG1
stated.
I attribute a great deal of my achievement to studying the issues and being prepared,

Patience is traditionally a characteristic that women identify as helpful within their leadership
roles. Participant C, FG2 however, identified her lack of patience as her motivation for
becoming a leader. If no one steps up, she always steps in and gets something done. This is
not always accomplished without fear or trepidation. She recalled experiences that made her
consider her fears.

77

I knew I had to do it, so I overcame the fear. And now when I meet something that
just scares the heck out of me, I say to myself, Look, you have no choice. You have
to do it, so find a way.
Objective 3: To establish whether leadership style influences women in the CNDCs;

Objective number four of this study intended to examine women in the leadership style in
the development of the CNDCs. Understanding the leadership preference or style of
women leaders in a particular the community is a prerequisite towards understanding
influences in these leadership styles, and necessitates women leaders empowerment.
When research participants were asked to explain whether women what leadership style
they display, the following themes were identified, namely, leadership style, Motivations and
empowering and preferred women leadership styles

THEME 4 Effectual Leadership Styles

Sub-theme 4.1 Leadership Style

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans,
and motivating people. What is the best style of leadership? There is no definitive answer to
this question, but a number of approaches have been suggested.
Leaders vary their styles depending on the theory that informs their practices, their
experience in the field, the issue that needs to be addressed and so forth. When research
participants were asked on what type of leadership style do women use? Majority of the
interviewed Participants, argued that women as leaders are inclined to the transformational
approach. This is because transformative leadership favours their feminine values of
nurturing and caring. This however was neglected by one Participants staffs during an
interview session who said;
Ah! I think women prefer situational leadership. In situational leadership there is
no "best" style of leadership. Women leadership varies depending on the task, job or
function that needs to be accomplished !

78

Since this study revealed that majority of respondents, most women leadership to incline to
the transformational approach because it favours their feminine values of nurturing and
caring.
According to Burns, transforming leadership is a process in which "leaders and followers
help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation". It is not based on a
"give and take" relationship, but on the leader's personality and ability to make a change
through example, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals.

The inclusive style that Participant G, FG3 used took into account the opinions of her
followers. The ability to be a good listener played a key role in her success as a Participant.

My style of leadership is participatory leadership. That is, I try to involve all

stakeholders in the decision-making process. And then I exercise my faith, my best
judgment, after reviewing and synthesizing input from others. I listen. It is more than
hearing people; it is listening to what they are saying. One thing that makes me
effective is that I do my homework. I never accept statements as facts unless I have
done the research to confirm those reasons. Listening to the advice and counsel of
Participants who had similar experiences in their community has helped me learn from
their successes and failures.

Transforming leaders are idealized in the sense that they are a moral exemplar of working
towards the benefit of the team, or community. Bond et al. (2008:123) extended the work of
Leatherwood and Williams (2008:198) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that
underlie transforming and transactional leadership. According to him, the extent to which a
leader is transformational is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers. Thus,
Bond et al. (2008:123) focuses upon the connections formed between leaders and
followers.

Sub-theme 4.2 Motivations and Empowering

According to Magner (2008:131), Transformational leader capture the trust of people through
coaching, inspiring and empowering others. Empowerment is described as having reliability,
fulfilment in achievements, and influence over what and how to do things, acknowledgement
for opinions and suggestions, and the confidence that one is being valued and appreciated
(Laurent & Bradney, 2007:123). Leaders change individuals and communities they serve.
79

They do not live for themselves but their communities. Although they appreciated being
recognized for their work, prestige did not drive them. Participant K, FG4) says about her
work:
So for me, impact is changed lives, healed bodies, minds, and spirits. Especially
women who begin to glimpse who they are and go forth. That really matters to me.
Participant A FG1
Its shocking to have to try and raise a million rands every year, two million rand to
build a building you need and if thats not where your gifts are, it is the tough part. But
the balancing pleasure of seeing people enjoy themselves and benefit from what they
are doingPeople who were inactive and now they can get up and take a walk and
they make new friends, and now have a plate of food every day. Its a thrilling business
and I just love that. To see people blossom in all kinds of ways.
Participant K, FG4s commenting on change:
But I would say that more concretely is when I actually see a change in the individuals
that we work with. So to our youth training program, to actually see the penny drop, to
see people shift in terms of how they view food as a social justice issue, in terms of
how they suddenly see their own role in the world, in terms of not just having to be
receivers of whatever is handed out to them, but being an agent of change. I think
thats what keeps me motivated.
The womens other measures of success included having changed policy and supporting a
healthy, thriving, sustainable organization. Participant I FG3 explained:
The big, hairy idea of success is that, you know, well build a movement, and well do
a national direct service programme, and then on the shoulders of that, a training
program that serves even more kids, and then on the shoulders of that, an advocacy
and policy sort of approach that creates a system where the expectation is that kids
have access to healthy, safe play.
Another Participant C FG1 responded
I would say there would be some measure of success when I am able to leave and other
young people from the neighborhood are running the work, which is what were planning,
80

that process and that transition now. When that happens, then Ill feel like yes, I did
something right.

Sub-theme 4.3 Preferred Leadership Styles

In her study on Leadership, Coleman (2003:55) determined that gender has an influence on
the self-perceptions of leaders. There are as many leadership styles as there are people who
see themselves as leader (Addy, 2001). The motivations of women often determine their
methods of leading. As many studies have shown, some leaders have a relatively taskoriented style emphasizing behaviour that accomplishes assigned tasksand others have
a more interpersonally oriented styleemphasizing behaviour that maintains positive
interpersonal relationships (Eagly, 2007:7).

Participant B FG1, states that her leadership style is based on communication and
participation. She also views herself as directive and tuned in her subordinates.
My leadership is based on communication. I concert people, I am directive in so far
as I give guidance leaving people independent. Every single employee is a vital link in
the chain. I have a wide open communication with them but tasks are very well-defined.
I have weekly meetings with my teams during which I control the progress of what was
done, and then I take action depending on the result. To take decisions, I stand back,
I ask for individual perception, and then I try to get a global feeling. I never imposed
decisions, I never needed to do it. In case of bad decisions, I never hesitate to put
myself into perspective. I always take into account both spheres which are the
individual and the group

Participant G, FG4 focused on facilitation and working toward a common goal as key
attributes of a successful Participant.
Successful leadership is the ability to get the job done. You can have lots of
personality and lots of money, but if you dont get the job done, then you are not a very
good leader. You have to have the ability to convene people and facilitate people with
different ideas toward a common goal. You have to have the vision and an
understanding of the steps to get there. You have to have the ability to let others lead.
In a group, you have to be willing to be open-minded.
81

Participant L, FG4, says

I am an idea person; I will listen to anybodys idea if they take the time to formulate it.
I believe in nurturing people. Empathy is importantI have a tremendous amount of
empathy for social service organizations and thats why I like to partner with them.

A calm outward and consideration for others were Participant FFG3s primary keys to effective
leadership. It is as important to nurture leadership in others as it is in oneself. Successful
Leadership has so much to do with getting good people around you and letting them do what
they do best.
One of my biggest strengths would be connecting people. I got a call from a man who
was just furious with how my CNDC was doing things. Before the call was over, he had
agreed to come in that afternoon. He sat down and visited with me and we figured out
how he could volunteer and help solve the issue. Turn the situation aroundthats
what works for me. A leader has to be aware of the things that are around you and the
opportunities and try to take advantage of them.

According to Participant L FG4

A good leader is somebody who engenders confidence, who is strategic and looks at
the big picture, and has a vision for the organization, company, or entity. It is one who
is able to see out to the future and have a strategic plan for the future. I am very
intuitive with people and I can tell when people are feeling or not feeling good or how
theyre reacting to a situation. So Im very cognizant of my co-workers attitudes and
feelings. I am a hard worker, and I put in many more hours than most people. Im a
perfectionist, so I like things to be done well and done right. That takes extra time. I
didnt realize that I can come across very intense.

Women leaders have a different attitude towards power than men do. Whereas men are seen
to concern themselves with the power vested in them in leadership positions, women do not
concern themselves with it to the same extent. They know they have the power they do not
flaunt it. If they exercise it, then they do it subtly (Goleman et al, 2002:270). Women in
positions of leadership are able to optimise different skills and assets developed while
82

carrying out their academic duties. In the main they are able to understand and handle conflict
better (Van Wart, 2013).

The style of leadership they exercise is mostly consultative and participatory. They are more
likely to extend their natural tending and caring attitude to staff and beneficiaries; they
therefore encourage staff members to go higher whilst frequently senior women mentor
younger ones, give advice and listen to problems. Women also tend to be more
transformational in their leadership style than men and their feminine qualities of caring and
nurturing are what may be required by organisational cultures of the future.
4.6 Conclusion
This chapter presented the findings and discussion from the study on the role played by
women in Leadership and management in the development of the CNDCs in Bojanala
Municipality as case of studies. All four objectives were covered, using open ended
unstructured question to interview participants through two type interviews, i.e. One to One
and the Focus Group, resulting in 8 themes that emerged, reflecting on what the leaders
roles and responsibilities, including the unintended roles and other supporting functions
leaders play in the development of their communities. The study revealed that majority of
women leading utilizes the transformational approach to leadership. The use of this approach
was grounded by the fact that it favours women feminine values of nurturing and caring. Apart
from utilizing the transformational approach to leadership, compliments of efficiency and
effectiveness in their leadership style were more awarded to women in their community
engagement. Their role has effectively improved and impacted the lives of many people in
the communities. In the next chapter a summary of the conclusions and recommendation of
the study is provided. The Research Objectives and Research Questions were used and
answered.
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The aim of study was to assess the Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in
the Development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres (CNDCs) in the North
West Province. This chapter focuses on the findings from Primary Research in relation with
the Literature Review, present a summary of the study, draw conclusions and make
83

recommendations for present and future research based upon the findings. The conclusions
are based on the purpose, research questions and results of the study. The implications of
these findings and the resultant recommendations will also be explained.

5.2 Findings from the Study

5.2.1 Findings from the Literature Review

According to what the literature exposes, there are several major documents, deal with
women leadership and their role in community development. According to Gilchrist
(2009:122) development implies total improvement of the individual, his/ her milieu and
environment. Aref and Marof (2009:110) mentions that development is about people, its
about quality of life of people and their capacity to improve the conditions of their existence
to reach control and utilise their resources for greater productivity and enjoyment It is about
the autonomy and self-respect of the individuals as a free member of his community. It is
brought about by people.
The leadership that emerges from this work is consistent with previous work (Goodman,
2009:345) and with the transformational leadership model. According to Bass and Riggio
(2006:157) transformational leadership model consists of four components:
Consistent with the transformational leadership model, these qualities include creating and
communicating a shared vision (Crosby & Bryson, 2005:223). Williams (2002:121) states that
being innovative, taking risks, and expressing dissatisfaction with the status quo Effective
leaders also appear to have highly developed relational skills, with an ability to establish
shared meanings, listen actively, build trust, and manage conflict William (2002:123). Some
evidence suggests that leaders may exhibit more relational skills when leading within
collaborations and networks than when leading solely within their own organizations (Lyman
et al., 2009). According to Magner (2008:131), Transformational leaders capture the trust of
people through coaching, inspiring and empowering others (Laurent & Bradney, 2007:123).
These women, who were largely able to define their own organizational role, gravitated toward
a leadership style (transformational) that does not conflict with gender roles. However, it is
also possible that these leaders were reflecting general trends toward a more transformational
style, considered to be more effective in the current culture Bass and Riggio (2006:157).

84

Further research in this area will help elucidate the relative importance of organizational
versus gender roles in leadership style in community development
5.2.2 Findings from the Primary Research

Findings below will be discussed are based on the four research questions.

Research Question 1. What leadership and management role do women play in the
development of the CNDC?

The finding from the research reveals two important themes addressing a research question.
These are Expected Mandates which focussed on the achievement of key objectives of the
CNDCs and the role women leaders are expected to perform. The process include of setting
and achieving goals through the execution of five basic management functions; planning,
organizing, staffing, directing and controlling that utilizes human, financial, and material
resources in an efficient manner. The second theme, the inadvertent roles, which records
other supporting functions played by women leader in the development of their communities.
These are important transformational roles meant to bring about concrete changes in the lives
of the communities in Bojanala,

Women play a pivotal role in leadership and management, they are responsible to manage
and leader their own CNDCs and other programme in the organisations, working and leading
their own communities and beneficiaries. Their work encompasses providing and serving
nutritious meals and assisting with food security programmes. The women mentioned that
they also provide life skills programmes and other empowerment programmes to their
beneficiaries. Life skills programmes include beadwork, baking, food gardening.

Research

Question

2.

Do

women

possess

leadership

and

management

characteristics?

The finding in the study shows few themes related to the research question, Power versus
influence revealed a concern for the community and the need for female presence in
leadership positions within that community. Stories centred on reasons for becoming a leader
and how women in leadership can influence others. Within the theme of inciting change, the
importance of innovation and vision emerged as key factors in effective leadership, including
85

shared leadership as a dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups

for which the objective is to lead communities to the achievement of group or organizational
goals or both. This influence process involves peer, or lateral, influence and at other times
involves upward or downward hierarchical influences.

The second most mentioned characteristic was to have the ability to inspire people not only
in their team but all around them.

The findings also revealed that the women in this study reported they used a transformational
leadership style as they encouraged innovation, considered individual needs and emphasised
mentoring and coaching their staff members.
Womens common values of inclusion and connections are important to leadership, and
community concern and care are essential to childrens education regardless of leaders
gender. It is interesting to find that though the women in this study regarded masculine
attributes as more appropriate for leadership they did not integrate them in their leadership
style.

Research Question 3. Does leadership styles have an impact on women in the

development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres?

Since these women have experiences in leading other people, naturally they are quite
comfortable and confidence in the present position. They are also well-qualified and thus
possess the necessary knowledge to be a leader. They know the decision making process
and able to make a sound decision. Still they encourage others to be involved in the decision
making process and avoid making all decision themselves. They view and believe that
consensus is a very important element in reaching to a decision. They will give much
opportunity for people to speak or give their opinion before decisions were made. Most of the
time, they presented themselves as resource person to the community and not as decisionmaker for others. Rather than emphasizing on duties they have to perform as leaders of the
CNDCs they emphasized more on their service to the community.

In leadership practices, these women are more egalitarian. They enhance the ability of the
group without drawing too much of attention to themselves, thereby making people believe
that their main role is to help the community members come together. These women also
believe that they operate differently than most men. The difference is a natural one arising
86

from womens nurturing nature and from their motherhood experiences. This can be seen
from their statements about women such as they are more caring and more sensitive than
men.

Research Question 4. Do challenges and constraints have an impact on women

leadership?

The study findings showed that women leaders in the respective organisation, are faced by a
number of challenges such as social and cultural stereotypes, psychological factor, the
problem of balancing reproductive and workplace functions and lack of networking.

Other mentioned challenges included negative perceptions on competencies of women

leaders among women themselves and lack of confidence. In an attempt to discuss the
identified main themes, it was reported that stereotypes about leaders generally resemble
stereotypes of men rather than those of women. As a result, women are placed at a
disadvantage in most leadership role.

Apart from understanding challenges facing women in leadership or management position in

the Organisation, this part went on to explore the similarities and differences in the challenges
facing women in leadership or management position., women leaders lack confidence in their
own abilities, and poor gender relations at work, and low self-esteem.

The study showed that the women leaders believe that by becoming a leader they are helping
to empower other women to do something that is important to them by providing a platform
and opportunity to develop themselves and to discuss and share their feelings and needs.
5.3 Conclusions
The socio-economic problems in Bojanala Municipality have stimulated Women Leader in
different communities to engage in strategies which enable them to uplift their standards of
living and promote their social functioning. In an attempt to address their community
problems, women, in particular, engage in activities that lead to the process of community
development. This study confirms the important role Women Leaders play in the development
of the CNDC. The twenty women interviewed have made important contributions, from the
development of food access programs for vulnerable and poor people to the formulation of

87

food secured communities. Collectively, they have helped to improve the health and nutrition
status of thousands of people.

5.4 Recommendations

The research has found that t Women Leaders already involved in community development
and are at advance stage. They have contributed enormously to the upliftment of the
community. What they need is to strengthen their capacity to be more confident about their
abilities and talents. This can be done by exposing them to more leadership capacity building
process so that they can be empowered to contributed meaningfully to their own communities
and also improve chances to get tin to the formal markets.
There is also a need to encourage women leaders to work through the moments of selfdoubts, by commending them to ignore that inner voice that may discourage taking tough
decision, speaking up and getting outside their comfort zone.

To sustain the development of women leaders in community development, the researcher

suggest the following actions:

A key role in building womens capacity is good quality education that encourages
independent, critical thought, fosters self-confidence and provides woman leaders with
a vision of their future.

More rigorous public campaigns to challenge gender stereotypes and the

establishment of programmes to increase women leaders role.

In view of the difficulty women have in entering leadership positions, alliance building
and womens organisations can assist them to enter such positions, particularly in
government and parastatal organisations. Organisations whose members often
comprise women activists have been successful in campaigning for the appointment
of women to key positions.

Create opportunities for these leaders to document their experience and development
as community leaders;

Strengthen and create environment women leaders would be free to lead without
having to be compared to male leaders;

Through documentation and dissemination of information, women leader can share

the best practices and learn from each other;

88

Cultivate new leaders through exposure and capacity building and training including
mentoring and exchange programmes.
making opportunities available for women to improve their credentials, to attend
conferences, present papers, publish, organise and participate in symposia

5.5 Area for Further Research

Area for further research could be the inclusion of women with more diverse cultural or ethnic
backgrounds. The question of how gender affects leadership would be worth investigating.
This study could remain qualitative in nature as it explored the journeys of a more diverse
population. Themes could be derived and explained in a similar fashion.

Additional research in this area could expand the worldview of advocacy and explore more
fully the barriers and stereotypes present in todays society. The intent of this study would
narrow the themes identified in the present study and focus on one aspect in particular.
Further studies in this area would also expand upon the influences women leaders have on
teens and young girls as potential future leaders. Educational opportunities and policies could
be topics of research within this scope of study.

5.6 Conclusion

This study confirms the important leadership and management role by women leaders in the
development of Community Nutrition and Development Centres in Bojanala District
Municipality. The twenty women interviewed have made important contributions to the quality
of the people and community development at large. Collectively, they have helped to improve
the health of thousands of people. The qualitative methodology utilised was effective in
addressing the aims and the goals of this research. The nature of face to face and group
interviews allowed better great interaction between the Researcher and the Respondent. The
themes and sub themes that arose were offered as results and were linked to the overall aim
of the study. A thorough literature control was used to ensure the validity of the result
The conclusion and recommendations made in this chapter are reflections of the overall
research study. The recommendation are useful for the intervention in community
Development, and further study will be beneficial to Women Leaders and young women who
are inspiring to be leaders. It is only be hoped that the study will at least stimulate further
89

research and subsequent change in this field. Only by added research in this field will a
greater knowledge based be which will ultimately, in its guiding of practice, enhances the
services rendered to the development of the CNDCs and Community Development.

90

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andersen, E. (2012) Are Leaders Born or Made? Forbes, [Online] November 21st. Available
via:http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikaandersen/2016/4/21/are-leaders-born-or-made/,
[Retrieved 2016-5 06].
Anfara, V.A. & Mertz, N.T. (2006) Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research.
United States of America: Sage Publications, Ltd.
Aref, M. and Marof, R., (2009) Community Leaders Characteristics and their Effort in Building
Community Capacity for Tourism Development in Local Communities, International Journal
of Business and Management, Vol. 4 No. 10, pp.
Aster, A. (2004) A critical evaluation of women's participation in leadership. Addis Ababa:
P.C. University Press
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.E., Razavieh, A. & Sorensen, C. (2006) Introduction to Research in
Education. 7th ed. Canada: Thomson Wadsworth.
Babbie, E. (2010) The practice of social research. 12th ed. California, USA: Wardsworth,
Cengage Learning
Babbie, E. & Mouton, J. (2010) The practice of social research. 10th ed. Republic of
South Africa [RSA], Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

Badaracco, Joseph Jr (2002) Leading Quietly: An Unorthodox Guide to Doing the Right Thing.
Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press
Bass, B (2004) Transformational Leadership Critical for South Africa Cape Town: Human
Resource Management Press
Bell, J (2005) Doing your Research Project. A guide for first-time researchers in education,
health and social science. 4th ed. Berkshire, England: Open University Press.
Bennis, Warren and Robert J. Thomas. (2002) Crucibles of Leadership. Harvard Business
Review:
.
Bergman, M.M. (2008) Advances in mixed methods. Britain: Sage Publications, Ltd. Practice,
31
Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V. (2003) Research in Education. 9th ed. United States of America:
Pearson Education Company.

91

Boyatzis, Richard and Annie McKee. (2005) Resonant Leadership: Renewing Yourself and
Others with Mindfulness, Hope and Compassion
Blackmore, J. (2002) Troubling women: the upsides and downsides of leadership and the
new managerialism, in Reynolds, C. (ed.) Women and school leadership international
perspectives. Albany: State university of New York,
Caughron, J.J., & Mumford, M.D. (2012) Embedded leadership: How do a leader's superiors
impact middle-management performance? The Leadership Quarterly,
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. Brynard, P.A. & Hanekom, S.X. (2006) Introduction to
research in management related fields. 2nded. RSA, Pretoria: Van Schaik Hatfield.
Creswell, J.W. (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design. 2nd ed. Britain: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods
Research. 2nd ed. USA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L. (2007) Mixed methods research. USA: Sage Publications,
Inc.
Coleman, M. (2003) Gender and the orthodoxies of leadership. School Leadership &
Management, 23(3),
Commission of Gender Equality. (2009) Redefining Politics: South African women
Democracy. Johannesburg: Commission of Gender Equality
Conradie, J., & Taylor, V. (2007) We Have Been Taught by Life Itself, Empowering
Women as Leaders: The Role of Development Education. Pretoria: HSRC.
Crosby B, Bryson J. (2005) Leadership for the Common Good. 2. Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco;
Daft, R.L. 2005. The leadership experience: third edition. Ohio: Mason
Dale, A. & Newman, L. (2010) Social Capital: A Necessary and Sufficient Condition for
Sustainable Community Development? Community Development Journal. 45. p. 5-21.
Debebe, G. (2011) Creating a safe environment for womens leadership transformation.
Journal of Management Education, 35(5): 679-712.
De La Rey, C. (2005) Gender, Women and Leadership. Agenda 65 Gender and Society
Delport, C.S.L. (2005) Quantitative data collection methods. In De Vos, A.S.,
92

Strydom, H. Fouch C.B. & Delport C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social sciences
and human (2007). Research methods in education.
(6th ed.). London: Routledge.
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005) Handbook of qualitative research 1-17, London:
Dubrin, A.J. (2001) Leadership. London: Mifflin
Delport, C.S.L. & Fouch, C.B. (2011) Mixed methods research. In De Vos A.S.,
Strydom, H., Fouch C.B. & Delport C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social sciences
and human service professions. 4thed. Pretoria: JL Van Schaik Publishers.

Delport, C.S.L. & Roestenburg, W.J.H. (2011) Quantitative data collection methods.
In De Vos A.S., Strydom, H., Fouch C.B. & Delport C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for
the social sciences and human service professions. 4thed. Pretoria: JL Van
Schaik Publishers.
De Vos, A.S. (2005) Scientific theory and professional research. In De Vos A.S., Strydom, H.,
Fouch C.B. & Delport C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social sciences and human
service professions. 3rd ed. Pretoria: JL Van Schaik Publishers.
De Vos, A.S. & Schulze, S. (2002) The sciences and the professions. In De Vos, A.S.,
Strydom, H. Fouch, C.B., & Delport, C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social
sciences and human service professions. 2nd ed. Pretoria: JL Van Schaik Publishers
Early, A., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2001) The leadership styles of women and men.
Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 781-797
Early, A., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2003) Transformational, Transactional, and LaissezFaire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men, psychological
bulletin, volume 129,
Eagly A, Karau S (2012) Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.
Psychological Rev. 109: 573-598
Eagly A, Johannesen-Schmidt M, van Engen M (2003) Transformational, transactional, and
laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychology
Bulletin. 129: 569-591.
Eddy, P (2009) Gendered leadership at community colleges. In D.R. Dean, S. J. Bracken &
J. K. Allen (Eds.), Women in academic leadership (pp. 8-30). Sterling, VG: Stylus Publishing

93

Enright, K. P. (2006) Investing in Leadership Volume 2: Inspiration and Ideas from

Philanthropy's Latest Frontier. Washington, D.C.: Grant makers for Effective Organizations
Ezzy, D. (2002) Qualitative analysis: Practice and innovation. Crows Nest, SW, Australia:
Allen & Unwin
Fariborz, Aref; Marof, R. and Zahid, Emby. (2009) Assessing Community Leadership Factor
in Community Capacity Building in Tourism Development: A Case Study of Sairaz, Iran,
Journal of Human Ecology, Vol. 28 No. 3,
Fick, G., Meintjes, S. & Simons, M. (2002) One Woman One Vote. Johannesburg: Electoral
Institute of Southern Africa.
Fine, M. G. (2009) Women leaders discursive constructions of leadership. Womens Studies
in Communication, 32(2),
Fouch C.B. & Bratley, A. (2011) Quantitative data analysis and interpretation. In De Vos,
A.S. Strydom, H. Fouch, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social
sciences and human service professions. 4nd ed. Pretoria: JL Van Schaik Publishers.
Fouch C.B. & De Vos, A.S (2011) Selection of a researchable topic. In De Vos, A.S. Strydom,
H. Fouch, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L. Research at the grass roots for the social sciences and
human service professions. 4nd ed. Pretoria: JL Van Schaik Publishers
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R.E., & McKee, A., 2002, Primal Leadership: Realizing the power of
emotional intelligence, Harvard: Harvard Business Press
Gilchrist, A (2009) The Well-Connected Community: A Networking Approach to
Community Development. 2nd Edition. Bristol: The Policy Press.
Greenleaf, Robert K. (2002) Servant Leadership: a Journey into the Nature of Legitimate
Power and Greatness. New York: Paulist Press,
Haines, A (2009) Asset-Based Community Development. In: Phillips, R. & Pittman, R. H.
(eds.). An Introduction to Community Development. London: Routledge. p. 38-48.
Helgesen, S (2005) The Female Advantage: Women's Ways of Leadership. New York:
Doubleday Currency.
Hubbard, B (2009) Investing in Leadership Volume 1: A Grant makers Framework for
Understanding Non-profit Leadership Development. Washington, D.C
Holmes, J (2006) Gendered Talk at Work. Constructing Gender Identity through Workplace
Discourse, Oxford: Blackwell.
Ivankova, N.V., Creswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L (2007) Foundations and approaches to
mixed methods research. In Creswell, J.W., Ebersohn, L., Eloff, I., Ferreira, R., Ivankova,
94

N.V., Jansen, J.D., Nieuwenhuis, J., Pietersen, V.L., Plano Clark, V.L. & van der Westhuizen,
C. First Steps in Research. RSA, Pretoria: VanSchaik Publishers
Jiang, H. & Carroll, J. M (2009) Social Capital, Social Network and Identity Bonds: A
Reconceptualization. In: Community and Technology (ed.). Pennsylvania. June 25-27th 2009
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008) Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches (3th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Joiner S. (2007) Leadership Agility: Five Levels of Mastery for Anticipating and Initiating
Change, Princeton USA
Kadushin, C. (2012) Understanding Social Networks: Theories, Concepts, and
Findings. New York: Oxford University Press.
Klenke, K. (2004) Women and leadership- a contextual perspective. New York: Springer
Publishing Company Inc.
Kotter, J. (2013) Management Is (Still) Not Leadership, Harvard Business Review, USA
Kouzes, J and Posner B Z. (2003) The Leadership Challenge, Credibility, encouraging the
Heart 3rd ed., Jossey-Bass
Kumar, R. (2005) Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners. London:
Sage.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009) Interviews: Learning the craft of a qualitative research
interviewing Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Ladegaard, H.J. (2011) 'Doing Power' at Work: Responding to Male and Female Management
Styles in1a Global Business Corporation, Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 419.
Ledwith, M. & Springett, J. (2010) Participatory practice: community-based action for
transformative change. Bristol: The Policy Press.
Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J.E. (2001) Practical research: planning and design. 7th ed. Upper
Saddle,
Patrick, L. (2002) The Five Dysfunctions of a Team: A Leadership Fable Jossey-Bass, N.J.:
Merrill Prentice Hall.
Maree, K. & Pietersen, V.L. (2007) In Creswell, J.W., Ebersohn, L., Eloff, I., Ferreira, R.,
Ivankova, N.V., Jansen, J.D., Nieuwenhuis, J., Pietersen, V.L., Plano Clark, V.L. & van der
Westhuizen, C. First steps in research sampling. RSA, Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers

95

Marthur-Helm, B. (2000) Equal opportunity for South African Women: A Benefit or Barrier?
Women in Management Review Journal 20 (1): 31-43.
Marshall, J. (2000) Living Lives of Change: Examining Facets of Women Managers' Career
Stories. In Pieperi, M., Arthur, M., Goffee, R. and Morris, T. (eds.). Career Frontiers: New
Conceptions of Working Lives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 186-200
McCright, A., and Clark, T (Eds.). (2006) Community and Ecology:
Dynamics of Place, Sustainability, and Politics. San Diego, CA: JAI Press,
Elsevier Ltd
Mesfen, B. (2000) Leadership: Entrepreneurial tool to success. Worcester, Mass.: Clark
University, IDCE
Meshack, M. (2004) Potential and Limitations of Stakeholders Participation of Community
Based Projects: the case of Hanna Nassif roads and drains construction in Dar es alaam,
Tanzania. International Development Planning Review. Volume 26, Issue 11. P 61-82
Metzger M, Alexander J, Weiner B. (2005) The effects of leadership and governance
processes on member participation in community health coalitions. Health Education
Behaviour. 32:455473. Doi: 10.1177/1090198104271967. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
Middlehurst, R. (2012) Leadership and Management in Higher Education: A Research
Perspective * Working Paper No. 2
Mitchell, M.J. & Jolley, J.M.(2007) Research design explained. 6th ed. USA: Chicago Printing
Press
Mitroussi, A., & Mitroussi, K. (2009). Female educational leadership in the UK and Greece.
Gender in Management: An International Journal, 24(7), 505-522.
McQuaid, R. (2010) Theory of Organisational Partnerships: Partnership Advantages,
Disadvantages and Success Factors. In: Osborne, S. P. (ed.) the New Public Governance:
Emerging Perspectives on the Theory and Practice of Public Governance. London:
Routledge.
Mohrman, K. (2010) Public Universities and Regional Development. In: Inman, P. & Schuetze,
H. G. (Eds). The Community Engagement and Service Mission of universities. Leicester:
National Institute of Adult Continuing Education.
Molm, L. D., Collett, J. L. & Schaefer, D. R. (2007) Building Solidarity through Generalized
Exchange: A Theory of Reciprocity. American Journal of Sociology.
Moody, J. & Paxton, P. (2009) Building Bridges: Linking Social Capital and Social Networks
to Improve Theory and Research. American Behavioural Scientist.

96

Moolenaar, N. M. & Sleegers, P. J. (2010) Social Networks, Trust, and Innovation: The Role
of Relationships in Supporting and Innovative Climate in Dutch Schools. In: Daly, A. J. (ed.)
Social Network Theory and Educational Change. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press
Mutch, C. (2005). Doing educational research: A practitioners guide to getting started.
Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press
Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership theory and practice. (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Neuman L and Robson. (2009) Basics of Social Research, Third Canadian Edition, Loose
Leaf Version (3rd Edition)
Powell, G.N., & Graves, L.M. (2003) Women and Men in Management, 3rd ed, Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publication
Ploch, L, A. (1976) Community Development in Action. Journal of Community Development
Society.
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2005). Expert Group Meeting.
Achievements. USA
Rhode, D. L. (2003) The difference difference makes, in Rhode, D.L. The difference
difference makes: women and leadership. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
Republic of South Africa. (1998) Employment Equity Act no 55 of 1998. Pretoria: Government
Printers
Rubin, H., & Rubin, I. (2005) Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
United Nations (2005) The hunger project United Nation, Rome, Italy
The Office on the Status of Women, the Presidency, RSA. (2005) South Africas National
Programme of Action on Womens Empowerment and Gender Equality 2005 2015. Pretoria:
Government Printers
Torbert, Bill and Associates (2004) Action Inquirythe Secret of Timely and Transformational
Leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler
Redekop B. (2010) Physicians to a dying planet: Helen Caldicott, Randall Forsberg, and the
anti-nuclear weapons movement of the early 1980s.
Robbins, S.P. 1990 Organizational theory: Structure, design and applications. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

97

Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., Odendaal, A. & Roodt, G. (2009) Organizational Behaviour:
Global and Southern African Perspectives. 2nd ed. Cape Town: Pearson Education South
Africa (Pty) Ltd.
Rosette, A. S., & Tost, L. P. (2010) Agentic women and communal leadership: How role
prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology
Robson, C. (2000) Small-scale evaluation: Principles and practice. London: Sage.
Senge, P., Smith, B., Kruschwitz, Laur, J., & Schley, S. (2008) The Necessary Revolution:
How Individuals and Organizations Are Working Together to Create a Sustainable World.
New York: Double Day.
Singh, V. & Vinnicombe, S. (2003) Constructing a professional identity: how young female
managers use role models. Paper presented at the 2nd Gender, Work and Organization
Conference, June, Keele.
Schaeffer, Leonard (2002) The Leadership Journey. Harvard Business Review: 42-48
Schurink, W.J. (2004) Lecture ten: Data analysis. Johannesburg: Department of Human
Resource Management, University of Johannesburg.
Schurink, W.J. (2005) Lecture thirteen: Evaluating qualitative research. Johannesburg:
Department of Human Resource Management, University of Johannesburg.
United Nations (2005) The Millennium Development Goals Report
Tanenbaum, L. (2002) Catfight: Women and competition. NY: Seven Stories Press
Tripathi, C.P. & Reddy, N.P. (2002) Principles of Management. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill.
Van Wart, M. (2013) Lessons from Leadership Theory and the Contemporary Challenges of
Leaders: Theory to Practice, Public Administration Review, 73 (4), 553565.
Vinkenburg, C.J., van Engen, M.L., Eagly, A.H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. (2011) An
exploration of stereotypical beliefs about leadership styles: Is transformational leadership a
route to women's promotion? The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1021.
Wellington, J. 2000. Educational research: Contemporary issues and practical approaches.
London, England: Biddles Ltd.
Williams, P. (2002) The competent boundary spanner. Public Administration. pp. 103124.
Yin, R. K. (1994) Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications
98

Zaleznik, A. (2004) Managers and Leaders: are they different? Harvard Business Review
Journals
Zulu, G. (2007) A Comparative Study of Women in Management. Thesis report. Pretoria:
Unisa

99

Appendix A: Letter of Granting Permission to Conduct the Study

100

Appendix B: Letter to Respondents

Mpho Putu
333 Mondeor, 2091, Mobile no. 084 8360966, email:mphoputu@gamil.com
_________________________________________________________

Dear Participant

My name is name is Mpho Putu. I am a MBA student at Regent Business School. I am

conducting a research study as part of the requirements for my MBA dissertation, entitled:
Assessing the Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the Development of
Community Nutrition and Development and I would like to invite you to participate.

The research looking at women participation and contribution in your CNDC. If you decide
and agree, I will meet with you for an interview to discuss your role as a leaders in your CNDC.
The meeting will take place at Tlapa CNDC on the 12 June 2016 at 2 pm The interview will
be audio recorded so that I can accurately reflect on what is discussed. The tapes will only
be reviewed by members of the research team who will transcribe and analyse them. They
will then be destroyed.
Participation is confidential. Study information will be kept in a secure location. The results of
the study may be published or presented at professional meetings, but your identity will not
be revealed.

I will be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. You may contact me at
084 836 0966 if you have study related questions or problems.

I will call you within the next week to see whether you are willing to participate.

With kind regards,

Mpho Putu

101

Mpho Putu
333 Mondeor, 2091, Mobile no. 084 8360966, email:mphoputu@gamil.com
_________________________________________________________

Dear Participant

My name is name is Mpho Putu. I am a MBA student at Regent Business School. I am

conducting a research study as part of the requirements for my MBA dissertation, entitled:
Assessing the Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the Development of
Community Nutrition and Development and I would like to invite you to participate.

The research looking at women participation and contribution in your CNDC. If you decide
and agree, I will meet with you for an interview to discuss your role as a leaders in your CNDC.
The meeting will take place at Tlapa CNDC on the 4 June 2016 at 900 pm. The interview will
be audio recorded so that I can accurately reflect on what is discussed. The tapes will only
be reviewed by members of the research team who will transcribe and analyse them. They
will then be destroyed.

You may feel uncomfortable answering some of the questions. You do not have to answer
any questions that you do not wish to. Participation is confidential. Study information will be
kept in a secure location. The results of the study may be published or presented at
professional meetings, but your identity will not be revealed. There is no compensation for
responding nor is there any known risk.

I will be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. You may contact me at
084 836 0966 if you have study related questions or problems.

Thank you for your consideration. If you would like to participate, please contact me at the
number listed below to discuss participating.

With kind regards,

Mpho Putu

102

Appendix C: Letter to Respondents

Mpho Putu
333 Mondeor, 2091, Mobile no. 084 8360966, email:mphoputu@gamil.com
_________________________________________________________
Dear Participant

My name is name is Mpho Putu. I am a MBA student at Regent Business School. I am

conducting a research study as part of the requirements for my MBA dissertation, entitled:
Assessing the Leadership and Management Role Played by Women in the Development of
Community Nutrition and Development and I would like to invite you to participate.

The research is looking at women participation and contribution in your CNDC. If you decide
and agree, your will be asked to participate in a group discussion about your role as a leaders
in your CNDC. The meeting will take place at Kgothatsanang CNDC on the 04 June 2016 at
2 pm and should last for about 40 minutes the group interview will be audio recorded so that
I can accurately reflect on what is discussed
Because we will be talking in a group, we cannot promise that what you say will remain
completely private, but we will ask that you and all other group members respect the privacy
of everyone in the group. You may feel uncomfortable answering some of the questions. You
do not have to answer any questions that you do not wish to. Participation is confidential.
Study information will be kept in a secure location.

I will be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. You may contact me at
084 836 0966 if you have study related questions or problems.

Thank you for your consideration. If you would like to participate, please contact me at the
number listed below to discuss participating.

With kind regards,

Mpho Putu

103

Appendix D: Research Instrument

Question to be used for the One to One Interviews (8 participants)

1. When you think about the word leadership, what comes to mind? How do you define
leadership (Objective 1)
2. Describe your own leadership and management qualities that has made you a
successful leaders? (Objective 2)
3. What are some of leadership roles played by women in this organisation? (Objective
1)
4. What has been the constraints in your leadership development (objective 4)
5. Share some of the changes you have seen in your community a as result of your
leadership in your CNDC (0bjecive 4)
6. Describe situations in which you are most successful as a leader (objective 4)
7. How does your leadership style impacted your work in your community (0bjective 3)
8. In what way has your leadership qualities assisted in community development
(Objective 2)
9

What leadership traits you observed from your colleagues that assisted you in your
leadership community moving forward (Objective 3)

10. Describe how has other women leaders influenced you (Onbective1)

Question for the Focus group (4 x 3 focus group)

1. How would you describe your management and leadership function in your
current responsibilities in the CNDCs (Objective 1)
2. In your opinion, what are the characteristic of a good leader? Why is important to
you in your leadership? (Objective 2)
3. Describe the leadership styles displayed by women leaders in your CNDC and
community (objective 4)
4. What are some transformational moments you have experiences in your
leadership (Objective 1)
5. There are many ways to define success, and many different yardsticks to measure
it by. How do you define success in terms of your work? Describe as best you can
anything that has helped you become successful, by your own definition (Objective
3).

104

Appendix E: Interview Schedule

Date

Data Collection

01 July 2016

One to One Interview

01 July2 016

02 July 2016

02 July 2016

Time

CNDC
Tlapa CNDC

Two respondents

9H40
9H50

Group Interviews

10H45

Responded 1
Responded 2

Three respondents

Responded 1,2,3

One to One Interview

Kgetleng River

Two respondents

14H00
14H40

Group Interviews

15H00

Responded 3
Responded 4

Three respondents

Responded 4,5,6

One to One Interview

Bapong

Two respondents

9H00
10H00

Group Interviews

12H00

Responded 5
Responded 6

Three respondents

Responded 7,8,9

One to One Interview

Kgothatsanang

Two respondents

14H00
14H40

Group Interviews

15H00

Three respondents

Responded 7
Responded 8

Responded
10,11, and 12

105