Engineering materials are numerous and they differ in their properties (macro and structural)

and so when choosing materials for engineering construction, various factors must be taken into
consideration with respect to their properties.
Macroscopic properties of materials this refers to the coarser structure of the materials
which are visible to the naked eyes. It includes the physical, tangible properties of the material which
can be seen or felt e.g. colour, texture.
Structural properties are the properties exhibited by the material due to the way it was
formed e.g weight, strength, density, reaction to stress and strain.
Note that all engineering properties are subjected to either stress and strain which leads to
deformation and failure in some cases; therefore, their behavior under stress and strain must be
understood and taken into account when choosing materials.

STRESS
Stress is defined as the internal balancing force that is set up within a material when load is
applied to it or otherwise defined as the internal force which resists any tendency towards
deformation. There are basically three types of stress considered for any engineering material viz
(i) Tensile stress this type of stress causes an extension in the length of the material due to
stretching.
(ii) Compressive stress this type of stress causes a shortening in the length of a material due to
compression.
(iii)Shear stress this type of stress impacts a twist on the material.
Note that tensile stress and compressive stress are called direct stress.
Stress is expressed as force exerted per unit area.
i.e.
stress ()
=
force =
F
(N/m2)
area
A

STRAIN
Strain is defined as the dimensional change caused by stress. It is a measure of the
deformation produced in a member under stress. It is also defined as the ratio of change in length to
the original length when a material is subjected to stress.
strain ()
=
l
L
Note that strain has no unit since it is a ratio.

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Hookes law states that strain developed is directly proportional to the stress producing it.
This law holds within certain limits for most materials.
Using the diagram below, when stress is gradually applied to a material at the initial stage,
the strain produced will be directly proportional to the stress applied i.e O to A where A is called the
limit of proportionality. Within this range, when the applied stress is reduced to zero, the material
regains its original length. The material is said to behave elastically. The property of a material to
recover its original length on

removal of load is called ELASTICITY and the deformation which occurs within the limit of
proportionality is called ELASTIC DEFORMATION.
Beyond point A to point B, any additional loading or stress will lead to inelastic or non-linear
strain i.e Hookes law is no longer obeyed and when the stress is reduced to zero, the material will
no longer regain its original length. Point B is called the ELASTIC LIMIT. Beyond point B to point
C, without additional loading or stress, the material will undergo continuous strain at constant stress.
Point C is called YIELD POINT.
Beyond point C to point D, further strain is only provided by measuring the stresss. Point D
is called the BREAKING POINT. It indicates the maximum stress that the material can
accommodate before fracture takes place at point E physically on the material.
Note : when loads are applied beyond the limit of proportionality and then remove, it is observed
that the material recovers only part of its extension (deformation) and it is stretched permanently. In
this condition, the material is said to have undergone inelastic or plastic deformation.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
This is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
Within the limit of proportionality, ratio of the direct stress to the strain produced is called YOUNG
MODULUS or MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E.
E
=
direct stress =

direct strain

PLASTIC FLOW
This is defined as the continuous elongation of a material that has undergone yield under
stress. The deformation is caused by the movement of large blocks of atoms sliding relative to one
another across certain planes (slip planes) within the crystal, which is due to the existence of small
imperfections or defect within the crystals. These structural defects are called dislocation.
Plastic deformation is due to the movement of dislocation across the slip planes of a crystal
under the action of an applied stress.

a
b
c
d

=
=
=
=

original unstressed condition

elastic strain only
elastic and plastic deformation
is unstressed i.e no elastic strain, permanent plastic strain remains

CREEP
Creep is the constrained slow straining of a material under the influence of a constant load. The
creep curve is composed of three parts viz:
Primary creep or transient creep this is due to normal process of slip and strain hardening
occurs which quickly reduces the rate of strain.
Secondary creep or steady state creep this occurs after the primary creep, the material
continues to strain very slowly at a constant rate.
Tertiary creep this occurs after the secondary creep. The rate of strain accelerates rapidly
lesding to failure.

PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

There are various civil engineering construction materials and such materials include
aggregate, cement, concrete, plastic, glass, asbestos, paint etc.

AGGREGATES
These are inert materials that are used with cement and water in concrete production. They
are materials used for engineering works. Some of the aggregate are sand, crushed stones, gravels,
shale, slate, slag etc. All these vary in weight and strength. The strength, durability and strength of
concrete depends on the type of aggregate used.
There are basically two types of aggregates used in concrete production and they are coarse and fine
aggregates.
Coarse aggregates are defined as the aggregates that cannot pass sieve 4.75mm i.e the
aggregates are 4.75mm or more in size.
Fine aggregates are defined as the aggregates that can pass sieve 4.75mm i.e the aggregates
are less than 4.75mm in size.
CLASSES OF AGGREGATE
Aggregate are also classified by weight into three major groups viz
1.
Normal weight aggregates: They are used to produce normal weight concrete having
density between 2160 2560 kg/m3. The specific gravity is from 2.5-3.0. Examples are
sand, gravel, crushed stone and air-cooled blast furnace slag.
2.
Lightweight aggregate: They are used to produce structural lightweight concrete. The
weight ranges from 1360 - 1840 kg/m3. Examples are clay, shale, slate and slag.
Lightweight aggregates are used to produce insulating concrete due to its insulating
properties. Also used in making reinforced or prestressed concrete although their greatest
use is in the production of precast concrete blocks. Examples are pumice, scoria, perlite,
vermiculite and diatomite.
3.
Heavyweight aggregates: They are used to produce heavyweight concrete. The density
varies from 4800 - 8500 kg/m3 depending on the type of aggregate, the dimensions and
the degree of compaction. Has a specific gravity value from 4.5 or more. Heavy weight
aggregate provide an effective and economical use of concrete for radiation shielding by
giving protection against X-rays, gamma rays and neutrons. They are also used for
coating submerged pipelines. Examples are barite, limonite, magnetite, iron and steel
punching. They are often in water development works.
Ideally aggregate should be chemically inert, durable, hard, and tough and be able to compact into a
dense compact as well as provide a good bonding with cement paste. The physical properties are as
follows:
(a)
Strength: this affects the strength of concrete with good resistance to impact, crushing
and abrasion. The ability of aggregate to withstand compressive stress. This can be

determined by subjecting hardened concrete made with aggregate to a test called crushing
strength test.
(b)
Porosity: this affects the strength and water absorption, permeability and durability.
Aggregate with high porosity will produce a less durable concrete especially when
subjected to freezing and thawing. The water absorption is defined as the weight of water
absorbed by a dry aggregate in reaching a saturated dry state and is expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the dry aggregate.
(c)
Thermal properties
(d)
Bond properties: this is affected by the shape and surface texture of the aggregate
particles. A stronger bond is obtained with a rough surface than with a smooth one.
(e)
Moisture movement or drying shrinkage: due to the porous nature of aggregate, it
expands on wetting and contracts on drying.
(f)
Density
(g)
Toughness: this is the resistance to failure by impact. It is determined by Aggregate
impact test (AIV) and Aggregate crushing value (ACV).
(h)
Hardness: this is resistance to wear and it is determined by an abrasion test.
It is to be noted that aggregate must be very clean before using i.e. be free from clay coatings or
other organic impurities that may affect the setting of cement paste when used in concrete
production Since concrete is made up of 70-75% of aggregate. For coarse aggregates, visual
inspection will show impurities but for fine aggregates, standard test are carried out to determine the
quantity of silt and organic materials present. The test is known as Silt Test.

SILT TEST
Silt test is a cleanliness test that measures the amount of slit material present in a fine
aggregate sample.
Apparatus: Sand specimen, 1litre jar, clean water, ruler
Method:
Put 5cm3 of the specimen sand in the 1litre jar and fill the jar full with clean water.
Cover the jar and shake very well to achieve good mix. Allow the jar and its content
to rest for several hours.
Observation: As the sand settles at the bottom of the jar, the silt will be deposited last on top. When
the water is clear again, measure the depth of the silt deposited.
Conclusion: If the silt deposited exceeds 3mm, the aggregate contains too much fine and cannot be
used directly for concrete without washing.

COLORIMETRIC TEST
This is another cleanliness test that determines whether fine aggregates contains injurious
amount of organic matter.
Apparatus: 340g prescription bottle, sand specimen, sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Method:

Fill a 340g prescription bottle with sand to a 130g level. Fill the bottle to a 200g level
with 3% solution of NaOH, shake the bottle well and allow to stand for 24hrs.
Observation: If the liquid which was originally clear is now coloured, it indicates the presence of
organic matter. Clear colour to a little discolouration shows that the organic content is
not too serious while clear colour to dark colouration shows serious organic content
and so such aggregate should be washed properly before using.

GRADING OF AGGREGATES
This is the method of determining the percentage of a particular size of particles in a given
aggregate i.e the largest to the smallest particle size. This is done by Sieve Analysis test and plotting
in a graph the %tage mass of a sample passing through a given mass. The results are used for quality
and mix design. The grading of an aggregate can have considerable effect on the workability and
stability of a concrete mix; thus it is the most important factor in concrete mix design.
Poorly graded sand or one having a uniform particle size will produce a weak and porous
concrete with poor workability. There is no ideal grading of aggregate for all concrete works but
engineer employs grading curves to determine the best grading of aggregates to produce a concrete
mix of predetermined strength, workability and water content. The sieves used are no 4(4.75mm),
8(2.5mm), 16(1.25mm), 30(630m), 50(315m) and 100(160m) for fine aggregates while for
coarse aggregates, the sieves used are 6in(150mm), 3in(75mm), 1in(37.5mm), in(19mm) and no
4(4.75mm).
Effects of Aggregates Grading
It affects relative aggregate proportions
It affects cement and water requirement
It affects workability
It affects economy
It affects porosity
It affects shrinkage
It affects durability of concrete

Apparatus:
Method:

GRADING TEST/SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST

Sieving machine (mechanical or electrical shaker), weighing balance, aggregate
specimen
Weigh the sieve empty one by one; arrange the sieve in descending order of diameter.
Weigh 1000g of dry sample, pass it through the sieve by pouring on the topmost
sieve. Weigh the amount of material retained on each sieve and calculate the
percentage of each.

CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST

This is the ability of aggregate to withstand compressive stress and it is done by subjecting
hardened concrete specimens made with aggregate to compression tests.
Apparatus: Aggregate concrete specimen, mould, tamping rod
Method:
Aggregate concrete specimen is prepared and the specimen is use to fill the
cylindrical mould. The mould is filled in three layers with each layer tamped 25times
with a tamping rod. The top of the mould is leveled off and covered with glass or
metal plate to avoid evaporation. The specimen is removed from the mould after
24hours and place in the appropriate place for curing to take place for each curing
period i.e 7, 14, 21 and 28days. After the specimen is removed and subject to
compression using compression testing machine.

SEDIMENTARY TEST
For this test, a 250ml measuring cylinder is required and the procedure is as follows:
Method:
Fill the cylinder to 50ml mark with salt water (1teaspoon to 1/2litre)
Pour in sand until the level of sand is up to the 100ml mark
Add more salt water until content reaches 150ml
Shake the cylinder vigorously; taking care not to spill any of the contents
Stand the cylinder on a leveled surface and tap it gently until the surface of the sand is
leveled horizontally
Leave mixture to stand for 3hours
Measure the thickness of the silt layer (this would have formed on the top of the sand)
The thickness should not exceed 8ml or 8%of the sand volume for acceptability of
aggregate for construction

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
This test is used to find the characteristics of the fine particles in the aggregate. The
aggregate is washed and the washing wall is poured into a graduated cylinder and made up to
1000ml with distilled water. The suspension is shaken together to allow for even dispersion of
particles and the cylinder is made to stand with a hydrometer inserted to the f or specific gravity at
the depth h at intervals time i.e. , 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30minutes, 1, 2, 4hours and then once and twice
daily.

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE

This is a measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load. The test is carried out on material passing the 12.7mm retained in the 9.52mm BS
sieves. The aggregate is placed in a standard mould and a load of 40tonnes is gradually applied to

the material over a period of 10minutes. The load is released and the amount of material passing
2.36mm sieve is determined. This weight of the sample is termed the aggregate crushing value.
Note: The lower the value, the stronger the material or higher its resistance to crushing.

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

This is a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The
test is carried out subjecting aggregate that passes the 12.7mm sieve and retained on the 9.52mm BS
sieve to 15blows of a 13.6-14.1kg hammer falling through a height of 381mm. after impact, the
material passing the 2.36mm sieve is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the original
sample and termed the aggregates impact value.
Note: The lower the value obtained the stronger and more resistant is the aggregate to impact.
Generally, aggregates with value greater than 35 are too weak to be used in pavement, as they will
crumble under the roller weight curing compaction.

AGGREGATE ABRASION TEST

This is used to determine eradicate the ease or difficulty with which aggregate particles will
deteriorate under attrition. The test is carried out on 33cm3 aggregates passing the 12.7mm and
retained on a 9.25mm sieve. The particles are mounted on, at project above the surface of a setting
compound contained in a small shallow tray. The tray is upended and the aggregate pressed in
contact maintained by a load of 2kg for 500revolution at a speed of 2830rev. per minute. As the disc
rotates, standard abrasive sand is fed continuously to its surface first in front of the mounted tray. On
completion of the revolutions, the test sample is removed and percentage loss is weight of the
aggregate calculated. This is called abrasion value of the aggregate. The lower the value, the tougher
and harder the aggregate to abrasion. Aggregate abrasion value higher than 15 are not enough/too
soft for surface dressing.

STONE
Stone is one of the oldest building materials and it has been regarded as preferred material in
permanent building constructions. It was the predominant material used before the turn of the
twentieth century. Since that time, stone has assumed a new role, rather than being used as a basic
structural material, it has been developed into a facing material, used in comparatively thin slab over
a skeletal framework of steel or concrete. Thus the inherent qualities of stone which brought it into
prominence are beauty, permanence, adaptability and economy.
Rock and stone are often used synominously but rock refers to the geological origin while
pieces of rocks are called stone.

CLASSIFICATION OF STONE
Stone can be classified by the geological origin, composition or commercial forms.
Geological origin: This can be divided into three categories viz
(i)
Igneous rock: This type of rock is formed from the cooling and consolidation of molten
magna. The texture of this type of rock is determined by the rate of cooling. The common
types are plutonic and volcanic rocks.
Plutonic rocks are crystalline and coarse grained in nature due to slow rate of cooling
condition and are consolidated in large mass at great depths in the earth crust. Examples
are granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro etc.
Volcanic rocks are extrusive i.e. they cool and consolidate at the surface of land and sea
as lava or volcanic explosions. They cool very fast. Examples are basalt, andersite,
pumice, obsidian, felsite etc.
(ii)
Sedimentary rock: This is formed by the action of water either depositing minerals at the
bottom of a water body or depositing them on the earths surface from the earth interior
bringing minerals which were deposited as the water evaporated. Examples gravels, sand,
clay, limestone, chalk, gypsum etc.
(iii) Metamorphic rocks: They are rocks that have been changed from their original structure
by the action of extreme pressure, heat, moisture and various combinations of these
factors. Metamorphic rocks are from igneous or sedimentary rocks after heat, pressure,
chemical reaction, vapour and solution have taken place. Examples are marble, slate,
quartzite, gneiss etc.
By composition: Stones are classified based on their composition viz
(i)
Rocks containing silica mainly
(ii)
Rocks containing silicates chiefly
(iii) Rocks containing calcareous minerals
The main silica mineral is quartz. Quartz is the most abundant mineral on earth surface. It is
the chief constituent of sand and is found in most clays and in several of the building stones. Silicate
minerals include feldspar, hornblende, serpentine and mica. Feldspar is a silicate of alumina in
combination of lime or potash and colours may be red or pink.
Hornblende is a silicate of alumina with linear iron. It is a strong, tough mineral appearing in
green, brown and black crystals. Mica is mainly silicate of alumina but may be in combination of
other minerals such as iron or potash. It appears in soft clear crystals.
Calcareous minerals include calcite which is basically carbonate of lime, dolomite, a
carbonate of lime in combination with varying amounts of magnesia.
By commercial forms: This is based on the form on which stone is made available commercially
(i)
Rubble (fieldstone): Fieldstone which may have been broken into suitable sizes or may
include irregular pieces of stone that have been roughly cut to size.
(ii)
Dimension stone (cutstone): makes up the largest portion of stone used in building.
Consists of pieces that have been cut according to a set of drawings.

(iii)
(iv)

Flagstone (flatslab): consists of thin pieces which may or may not have had their face
dimension cut.
Crushed stone: consists of pieces varying in sizes from 3/8 to 6in (9.5mm 150mm) and
is used to a large extent in the concrete industry.

PROPERTIES OF STONES
The properties of stone are as following
(i)
Strength
(ii)
Hardness: required where stone is to be used in floors, staircase etc. An example of such
stone is granite.
(iii) Workability: ease of producing the required sizes and shapes have a direct bearing on the
cost. It is an economic factor.
(iv)
Durability: ability of stone to withstand the effects of rain, wind and dust, heat and fire.
Determines the maintenance free life of a stone structure.
(v)
Colour: important in the aspect of aesthetics.
(vi)
Grain: affects its desirability for decorative purposes.
(vii) Porosity: ability of the stone to withstand frost action and the marking and staining
caused by the dissolving of some mineral constituents in water.
(viii) Texture: fineness of grain affects workability and cost. Fine textured rocks splits and
dresses more readily than coarse rock. It is also important for ornamental purposes.
(ix)
Ease of quarrying: is a prime consideration in judging the suitability of stone for
building. The bedding and joint planes must be such that the stone can be produced in
sizeable sound blocks. The rock exposure should be free from closely spaced joints,
cracks and other line of weakness. Deep and irregular weathering is also desirable.
(x)
Accessibility

BUILDING STONE
These are stones which satisfy the properties or the stonr requirement and which are
commonly used in buildings. They include granite, marble, limestone, sandstone, slate, schist,
serpentine, greenstone, quartzite, travertine, argillite and some natural lava.
GRANITE: is of igneous origin. It is composed of quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica. It
is generally very strong, hard, durable and capable of taking high polish. Its main chemical
ingredients are silicon oxide and aluminium oxide.
Granite has a variety of uses in building such as flooring, interior and exterior wall facing, column
and mullion facing, stair treads and flagstones, as well as for rubble veneers. Colours include red,
pink, yellow, green, blue, white, black or brown.

MARBLE: is an example of metamorphic rock i.e one that has been changed from its
original structure. In this case, limestone and dolomite have been recrystallized to form marble.
Types of marble include carrara, parian, numidian, onyx, Vermont and brecciated marbles.
Marble is used mainly for wall or column facing and for flooring. The colour of marble ranges from
pure white through all shades of gray to black including violet, red, yellow, pink and green.
LIMESTONE: is a sedimentary rock with three distinct types being found
Oolithic limestone: is a calcite-cemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell
fragments particularly non-crystalline in nature. It is very uniform in composition and
structure.
Dolomitic limestone: is rich in magnesium carbonate and somewhat crystalline in character.
It has greater compressive and tensile strength than oolithic limestone.
Crystalline limestone: is composed of calcium carbonate crystals. It has high compressive
and tensile strength. It is very low in absorption and has a smooth texture.
Limestone is composed of two basic ingredients calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.
Limestone is one of the most commonly used building stones and is produced in all three types
dimension (cut), ashlar and rubble. It is used in paneling, ashlar veneer, window stools and sills,
copings, facings of all kinds, mantels and sculpture.
SANDSTONE: is a sedimentary class of stone made up of silica grains cemented together.
The hardness and durability of the particular sandstone depends on the type of cement. Some
common sandstones are Berea sandstone, linroc sandstone, ledgestone, Kaibab sandstone etc.
The basic elements in sandstone are silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide. Sandstone is used in
textured finishes such as split face or chipped face, rubbed finishes and hammered finishes are also
available.
SLATE: is a metamorphic rock formed by the metamorphosis of clays and shales which
have been deposited in layers. A unique characteristic of slate is the relative ease with which it may
be separated into thin, tough sheets called SLATES. Colurs include black, green, red, grey and
pruple, in some cases the colour changes after long exposure. The basic ingredients include silicon
oxide, aluminium oxide, potassium oxide, magnesium oxide.
Slate is normally produced in three textures natural cleft, sand rubbed and honed. Common uses of
slate include flooring, flagstone exterior and interior wall facing, windows sills and stools, counter
tops, coping and caps, and roofing tiles. When used as roofing tiles, the slabs are cut into various
lengths and widths and predrilled for nailing.
SCHIST: is also a metamorphic rock of foliated structure which splits easily into slabs or
sheets. Its composition varies, depending on the basic material on which the process of
metamorphosis took place. Colours include green, red, gold, brown, white, grey and blue.

Uses include interior and exterior wall facing, fireplaces, sidewalks and landscaping.
SERPENTINE: is an igneous rock which takes its name from the mineral serpentine, its
chief constituent. Serpentine has a fine grain, is dense and homogenous in structure. It is used in
interiors or in sheltered locations because it is subjected to deterioration due to weathering.
QUARTZITE: is a type of stone which is sometimes confused with granite but it is quite
different in composition. It is harder than some granite. It is made up of grains of quartz sand
cemented together with silica. It has coarse crystalline appearance.
Colours include ivory, tan, red, gray, brown and buff. The main elements are alumina and silica.
Uses include ashlar veneer, as treads, mantels, hearths, and coping. Because of its coarse appearance,
quartzite is used where rustic effect is required.
ARGILLITE: is a metamorphic rock formed from clay. It is different from shale in that it
has undergone metamorphosis and differs from slate in that it has no well defined cleavage lines. Its
main constituents are silicon dioxide, iron oxide, aluminium oxide, calcium, and magnesium and
sodium oxide. It is used for flatwork such as floor tile, wall base and window trims.
GREENSTONE: is a heavy, close-grained stone. Main ingredients are silicon, aluminium,
iron, calcium and manganese oxides.
TRAVERTINE: is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Its been
formed at the earth surface through the evaporation of water from hot springs. It is used as an
exterior decorative stone because of its pleasing texture.

PRODUCTION OF STONE
QUARRYING
Quarrying is the process of removing stone from its natural bed. The method of quarrying
depends on the nature of the stone. Some stones are stratified horizontally and the horizontal
demarcation between the strata is known as BEDDING PLANES while other stones are stratified
vertically, the vertical separations are more visible and they are called JOINT PLANES. In some
stones, both are apparent.
In one method of stone removal, holes are drilled closely together at right angles to the
bedding planes or joint planes or both. Wedges are then driven into the holes to split the rock along
the drilled line.
Another method involves the use of machine. After the burden has been removed, channel
machine are brought in to outline the boundaries of the quarry. The machine has a chisel mounted on
one or both sides and cut channels or canals 10ft (3m) deep into the stone, one down each side and
one down the center. Next, the first three lateral cuts are made. This may be done with a channel
machine but more often, a wire saw is used.

A wire saw consists of a in (6mm) wire string between pulleys mounted top and bottom or
frames which are anchored in the center canal and one or the other of the side canals. The saws use
quartz sand as a cutting agent. They are simply the transport vehicle serving to carry the sand
through the cut.
The long blocks thus formed are cut into shorter lengths. The outside corner one the key
block is removed first by placing wedges every few feet along the top of the cut and driving them
down to tilt the block and breaks it loose at the bottom of the cut. Large tongs grasp the block and a
crane removes it from the quarry. The stone blocks thus produced are transported from the quarry by
truck and taken to a plant where the stone panels required are cut from them. Power saws are used to
cut the blocks to the required dimensions.

CLAY
This is an earthen mineral mass capable of mixing with water and forming a plastic viscous
mass which on drying retains the shape and if burnt, acquires the strength of a stone. It consists of
several oxides and chemically bonded organic impurities. Clay consists of silica and alumina with
small amounts of oxide of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium. Purest clay consists mainly of
kaoline which has minerals like mica, quartz, calcite, feldspar and magnesite.
Clay can be used in producing many things such as clay roof tiles, ceramic acid resistance
pipes, sewer and drainage pipes, clay blocks and clay bricks. Clay blocks are hard pieces of unbaked
solid mass of clay used for building while clay bricks are hard pieces of baked clay used for
building. Clay bricks are produced with or without additives. They may be hollow, solid, in type.
Clay bricks can be produced by the following ways
(i)
Hand made: they are irregular in shape and size. Bricks are made by throwing the clay
into a wooden mould, placed over a stool board which forms the frog, the surplus clay is
struck off with a wooden or wire striker. The mould is wetted and sanded to pre vent the
clay from sticking to the mould, but when sand is used, a sand-faced brick is produced.
(ii)
Machine made: they are fed into steel mould and shaped under high pressure thereby
producing a regular in size and shape bricks. The bricks are kiln burnt in either a
Hoffman kiln or Tunnel kiln.
(iii) Wire cut: The clay kneaded in a pug mill and extruded through a rectangular opening.
The band of clay is then cut into bricks by means of wire mounted in a frame. Wire cuts
bricks have no frogs and wire marks can be seen on both ends of the bricks.
CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS OF CLAY BRICKS
Bricks are classified under three headings which are varieties, quality and types.
Classification based on variety are
(i)
Common bricks: are usually machine made and are suitable for building generally but of
poor appearance. They are used for general works.

(ii)
(iii)

Facing bricks: could be hand or machine made but selected to give attractive appearance.
Engineering bricks: are usually machine-made, dense and strong, semi-vitreous with
defined strength. Suitable for both internal and exterior uses and extreme exposure.

Classification based on quality

(i)
Internal Bricks: they are suitable for internal works. They need to be protected on site
from bad weather.
(ii)
Ordinary Bricks: they are normally durable in external face of the wall, although some
may not be suitable for exposed situation.
(iii) Special Bricks: they are specially designed for use in conditions of extreme exposure
such as in retaining wall, sewers and paving.
Classification based on types
(a)
Solid Bricks: these are bricks manufactured with holes passing through or nearly passing
through them not exceeding 25% of their volume.
(b)
Perforated Bricks: these are bricks manufactured with holes passing through them
exceeding 25% of their volume.
(c)
Hollow Bricks: these are bricks manufactured with holes passing through them exceeding
25% of their volume and larger than the holes for perforated bricks.
(d)
Cellular bricks: these are bricks manufactured with holes closed at one end and whose
size do not exceed 20% of the volume of the brick.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

PROPERTIES OF CLAY BRICKS

Appearance: clay exists in different colours
Strength: crushing strength test is carried out on clay bricks to know the compressive
strength. The strength is up to 175 N/mm2.
Water absorption: determine by simple vacuum test and is expressed as a percentage of
dried weight of a brick.
Soluble salt content
Moisture content
Fire resistance: having been fired at a temperature higher than those which normally
arise in building fire, clay bricks provide excellent resistance to fire.
Sound insulation

LIME
Lime is also known as hydrated lime or slaked lime. It is made by burning limestone CaCO3
calcium carbonate in a kiln. The CaCO3 breaks down into quicklime (calcium oxide) and CO2.
Water is then added to the formed quicklime to form slaked lime or hydrated lime otherwise known

as calcium hydroxide. Slaking is the addition of water to quicklime in a dry condition. Lime is one of
the chief plastering material but it is weak and shrinks on drying. Lime is used in the production of
cement and iron.

GYPSUM
Gypsum has been recognized as a valuable building material for several thousand years. It is
used for interior finish and it is also durable. Gypsum is found in rock formation in various parts of
the world notably in Canada, France USA, England, Italy and Russia. When the rock is crushed,
grounded and heated, about 75% of the combined water is driven off forming the hemihydrates
known as Plaster of Paris. If this POP is mixed with water, a chemical recombination takes place and
the original rock structure is re-formed.
Gypsum is a hydrous calcium sulfate with chemical formula CaSO4(2H2O). This is also
widely used as a plastering material and it is better than lime due to the fact that it is shrinkage free.
It also provides a strong surface which does not cause alkali attack on paint work. Gypsum plaster
(P.O.P) is obtained by mining natural gypsum rock, crushing it into powder and heating it up to
150oC to expel the water in it. Gypsum is found in rock formation in various parts of the world.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM
It is soluble in hydrochloric acid.
It is soluble in about 500 parts of water
Its specific gravity is 2.3
When anhydrite CaSO4 is exposed to air, it absorbs water and is converted into gypsum.
USES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

for preparing gypsum mortar

for structural items like slab, partitions panel, plaster board, ceiling, pillar etc
for the manufacture of ornamental and finishing materials e.g artificial marble

PLASTICS
Plastics can be natural or synthetic in origin; they are generally taken to imply a group of
organic materials that become plastics on heating and then could be moulded into required shape and
on cooling, they regain rigidity.
A polymer is a large molecule containing hundreds or thousands of atoms formed by
combining one, two or occasionally more kinds of small molecules (monomers) into a chain or
network structure.
Polymers sometimes referred to as resins are generally compounded with other materials
such as fillers, plasticisers, pigments etc to yield finished product known as plastics. Polymers are a

group of carbon containing organic materials which have macromolecular structures e.g.
polyethylene, polystyrene and epoxy resins.

POLYMERISATION AS A METHOD OF PRODUCTION

Proteins (animal origin) and cellulose (plant origin) are natural polymers. Silicons are
synthetic inorganic polymers while plastics and rubber are the synthetic organic polymers. A
polymer is a chemical substance made up of repeating units, each unit being called a monomer. The
process of linking the monomers together to form polymers is polymerization. Polymerization is a
method of producing plastics.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
Plastics is broadly classified into two viz Thermoplastics and Thermosetting.
Thermoplastics: These are polymers which are composed of independent linear polymer
chains. These type of plastics can be softened and resoftened repeatedly by application of heat, they
usually hardened on cooling. Examples are polyethene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), nylon,
polypropylene etc
Thermosetting plastic: These are cross linked polymers which once formed, cannot melt
because the segments of the macromolecular network cannot move freely relative to one another.
Fabrication must be carried out before the cross links are formed. They cannot be resoftened once
they had set and hardened, they remain permanently hard after heating. The plastics are durable and
fairly strong. Examples are phenol-formaldehyde (PF), urea-formaldehyde (UF), expoxies etc

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
The Civil Engineer is concerned with the mechanical properties such as deformation, strength,
impact, friction of plastics.
1. Density: Plastics are generally light in weight
2. Thermal behavior: plastics do not conduct heat readily and so plastics are used more as
thermal insulants. They are good electrical insulators.
3. Permeability: solid polymers do not contain interconnected pores and so are regarded as
impermeable except when used as very thin sheets or surface coating; where they may
transmit measurable amounts of gases, vapours and liquid by direct permeation through the
solid.
4. Durability: This has to do with environmental factors on plastics and such factors are
ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, heat, oxygen, ozone and water. These factors produce
physical and chemical changes at the molecular level.

5. Toxicity: some of the organic monomers from which polymers are formed are synthesized
and are recognized as toxic and severe controls are placed on the handling.
6. They have good sound and heat absorption properties.
7. They withstand moisture, grease and oil very well.
8. They are not attacked by fungi and insects.
9. Rigidity: plastics have low rigidity and so are not suitable as load bearing materials.
10. They can be moulded to any shape and are easy to work upon.
11. They are easy to install and so require little maintenance care.
12. Plastics are relatively weak in tension.

USES OF PLATICS
Used as structural plastics i.e making of roofing and cladding panels, window frames,
reinforcement spacers, large tanks, conduit and building panels.
Used as polymer membrane e.g. damp proof course materials.
Coatings to control corrosion on metals, wood and concrete and used as binders in paint
production.
Used as chemical grouts for soils to reduce the permeability in soils and stabilization.
Used as expansion bearing and resilient mountings e.g in bridges and pipelines to reduce
sound transmissions.
Pipes for water and gas distribution, drainage, carrying industrial efficient and sewage and in
chemical plant construction.
Used as adhesive in production of timber work.
Polymer concrete e.g as admixtures to improve durability.

GLASS
Glass is one of the oldest and most versatile materials known to man. Glass is a hard,
transparent, brittle material with a relatively high softening point, substantially insoluble in water
and organic solvents and non inflammable. Glass is a mixture of sand, soda ash, limestone and
dolomite, a small amount of alumina, a few residual materials and broken glass (cullet0 heated to a
very high temperature from which various products of glass are formed by different processes.
Glass is also defined as an inorganic product of fusion which has been cooled to a rigid condition
without crystallization i.e. glass is non-crystalline but amorphous.
Methods of producing Glass
1. Blowing:
this is the process used in producing special shapes such as bottles
2. Drawing used in producing ordinary sheet glass used for window panes louvers

3. Rolling:
this is used to produce rough-cast and patterned glasses. In this process wire
can be incorporated in the glass during rolling to produced pre-stresses or reinforced glass
4. Floating:
this process is used to produce glasses that have parallel and flat surfaces so
that vision is not distorted e.g glasses for making mirrors and windscreens.
5. Pressing:
used for making fences and hollow glass blocks
6. Extrusion and blowing of fibres:
used for reinforcement.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
It is a hard and weather resisting non-crystalline material
Durability:
glass is extremely durable as it does not deteriorate easily, provided it is
cleaned regularly.
It is a brittle material.
Strength:
glass is elastic up to its breaking point and completely brittle. It is weak in
tension.
It is chemically inert as it is highly resistant to chemical attacks from alkali, salts or acids. It
is attacked only by hydrofluoric acid which is used to etch it.
Thermal insulation: though a good conductor of heat, when double glazed, provides
thermal insulation approximating that of a 105mmbrick wall.
Appearance: It is transparent and more or less colourless. Translucent and opaque glasses
are produced by subjecting the material to different processes to produce different types of
glasses.
When heated, it softens and can be bent.

TAR, BITUMEN AND ASPHALT

Tar and bituminous binders are liquid materials with adhesive properties used to bind or hold
aggregates together, stabilize soil as well as water proofing surfaces.

TAR
Tar is defined as a dark viscous black liquid with adhesive properties obtained from
destructive distillation of coal, wood, shale. Tar is insoluble in carbon disulphide.
Tar can be classified based on its source
1. Coal Tar:
obtained as a by-product in the destructive distillation of coal or as a byproduct in the manufacture of coal gas.
2. Wood Tar: obtained by the distillation of resinous wood. It contains creosote and as such
has strong preservative properties.
3. Mineral Tar: obtained by distillation of bituminous shales.

PROPERTIES OF TAR
Tars may be overheated and spoil easily.
Tar is easier to get out of tanker.
Tar is not susceptible to dissolving action of petroleum solvents or distillates. A tar surfacing
may have a longer life span than bituminous one.
Tar is liquid at lower temperature and solidifies at comparatively higher temperature.

USES OF TAR
Tar is used as a preservative for wood work and metals embedded in the earth.
Tar felts are used for water proofing especially in basements, damp proof courses and roofs.
Road tars are used as a binder in road construction.
Crude tar is used for coating wooden poles and sleepers, iron poles and finishing.
Coal tar is also used in binding employed mansory, timber and steel structures.

BITUMEN
Bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material, black or brown in colour having adhesive
properties consisting essentially of hydrocarbon derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum
(crude oil) found occurring naturally as rock asphalt and soluble in carbon disulphide.

PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
1. Bitumen is brittle at low temperature because it contains a higher percentage of free carbon.
2. Bitumen responds less rapidly than tars to small changes in temperature.
3. It is usually non-volatile and softens gradually when heated.
USES OF BITUMEN
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Preparation of paints
Filling and packing of construction joints
Waterproofing mansory and concrete foundations
Waterproofing and insulating roofs
Preparation of sealing, sound insulating and waterproofing materials
Soil stabilization to prevent soil from taking up sufficient water to lose stability
Preparation of plastics
Used in road construction and maintenance

CLASSES OF BITUMEN
Bitumen are classified into three based on their mode of production. The classes are
penetration grade bitumen, cutback bitumen and emulsion bitumen.
a. Penetration Grade Bitumen:
This is produced directly by fractional distillation of
crude oil. They are also called straight-run bitumen.
b. Cutback bitumen: are produced by fluxing low viscosity bitumen with oils such as
creosote, diesel and kerosene. Cutback bitumen is classified into three depending on the type
of solvent used to dilute the bitumen. They are slow curing cutback bitumen (SC), medium
curing cutback bitumen (MC) and rapid curing cutback bitumen (RC).
(i) Slow curing cutback bitumen: this is produced either by direct distillation of the
petroleum crude in a manner similar to that by which asphaltic bitumen are made in which case
many of the volatile oils are left in the mixture which makes the liquid more fluid than the
penetration grade ones or by fluxing asphaltic bitumen with slowly volatile oils such as diesel. SC
are liable to remain liquid in or on roadways for a relatively longtime thereby making the binding
strength to develop slowly correspondingly. SC is best used with dense graded aggregate which
provided a strong inter-locking framework and do not require immediate strong cementing action
from the binder e,g surface dressing. SC should never be used as binder for open-graded road
surfacing.
(ii) Medium curing cutback bitumen: this is produced by combining 100/300 penetration
grade bitumen with kerosine or with coal tar, creosote oil or anthracene oil. These oils evaporate
rapidly more than the oil used in SC, yet it takes some considerable time before the consistency of
the base asphaltic bitumen is reached. MC have good aggregate coating properties and are very
useful when fine-graded and dusty materials are incorporated in a road surface and it is desired to
use a binder which is less viscous.
(iii) Rapid curing cutback bitumen: this is prepared by diluting suitable penetration grade
bitumen with a very volatile petroleum distillate such as petrol or naphtha. They are used when a
quick change back to the residual semi-solid binding agent is desired.
(c) Bitumen emulsion: are produced by dispersing globules of bitumen in water with
emulsifying agents. An emulsion is a relatively stable suspension of one liquid in a state of
minute subdivision dispersed throughout another liquid in which it is not soluble. The liquid in
which it is dispersed is called internal phase while the surrounding liquid is called continuous or
external phase. Emulsifying agents such as soap, acids or alkalis are added to promote the
dispersal and stability of the bitumen-water mixture. The bitumen is carried by the water which
means that the resulting mixture is thinner than bitumen. This mixture needs no heat and is
therefore easy to apply.
The emulsifiers used belong to two groups which are anionic and cationic emulsifiers.
The anionic emulsifiers form anionic or alkaline emulsion. The anionic emulsion relies on loss of
water by evaporation before breaking (change from a liquid to a coherent film whereby the
suspended particles congeal together) occurs. This causes difficulty in usage during wet season.

The cationic emulsifiers consist of amino salts made by reacting hydrochloric acid or acetic acid
with an organic amine or diamine. Cationic emulsion breaks due to chemical coagulations and
not loss of water by evaporation. This makes it usage very suitable during the wet periods.

ASPHALT
Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral
matter. It is a composite material consisting of mineral aggregate bonded together by bitumen.

PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
It is plastic, strongly adhesive and waterproof.
It is very resistant to water, alkalis and sulphates at ordinary temperature.
It is attacked by weak acids, hot alkalis, mineral oil, grease, hot sugar solutions and dairy
products.
USES OF ASPHALT
Use in road construction and maintenance
Used in waterproofing
Used for tanking

ASBESTOS
Asbestos is a silicate of magnesium which occurs as a dark green glassy rock that can be split
into dull white extremely thin fibres. It is a gey-white silky material that can ithstand high
temperature. It is light in weight and possess appreciable longitudinal strength. It is a mineral crystal
consisting of thin rough fibre-like texture.

PROPERTIES OF ASBESTOS
Asbestos is non-combustle and is able to withstand high temperature without change in form
or structure.
It has good resistance to alkalis, salts and organic solvent.
When combined with Portland cement, lime, plastics and bituminous binders: are used for
various purposes in construction.

CORROSION
Corrosion is a gradual destruction of a material by rust or chemical. It is also defined as the
disintegration of a material into its constituents due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. It

can also be defined as a loss of electron of metals reacting with water and oxygen. Rusting is
weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms which is typical example of electrochemical
corrosion. The rust formed is a brown substance that forms on a metal which have been in contact
with water or moisture and air. It is a gradual process. Rust is ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] formed by
the reactions of ferrous hydroxide with oxygen. The two major factors affecting corrosion are
moisture and air.

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

EFFECTS OF CORROSION
Economic effects: Corrosion has led to huge sums of money being spent in the production
of corrosion resistant alloys/metals.
Health effects: corrosion continues to affect the technology developed for implantation in
human bodies. Examples include failure through broken connections in pacemakers,
inflammation caused by corrosion products in the tissue around implants and fracture of
weight-bearing prosthetic devices such as the use of metallic hip joint.
Safety effects: corrosion of structures which can result in severe injuries or even loss of
life. Safety is compromised by corrosion contributing to failures of bridges, aircraft,
automobiles, gas pipelines etc.
Technological effects: The economic consequences of corrosion affect technology. A great
deal of new technology development is held back by corrosion problems because materials
are required to withstand, in many cases simultaneously, higher temperatures, higher
pressures, and more highly corrosive environments.
Cultural effects: Corrosion has led to the serious deterioration of artistically and
significant artifacts and statues.
Corrosion has led to high cost of maintaining metallic and corrosion-prone non-metallic
structures.

TYPES OF CORROSION
1. Erosion corrosion: This result from the disruption of protective passive films by erosive
or abrasive process. Once the protective or passive film is removed in an aqueous electrolyte,
the electrochemical processes for the type of corrosion mentioned takes place.
2. Selective leaching: This occurs when an alloy is selectively removed by corrosion because
there exist differences in potential between different constituents of an alloy a situation
analogous to that of the galvanic corrosion of coupled dissimilar metals. This results in an
increase in the concentration of the remaining components and selective leaching occurs.
This type of corrosion is also called parting.
3. Galvanic/Thermogalvanic corrosion: Two metals having different potentials in a
conducting electrolyte result in the more anodic metal usually being attacked by galvanic
corrosion. Because of electrical contact between two different metals, galvanic corrosion
differs from other forms of corrosion in that the anodic and cathodic sites of the corrosion
cell reside separately on the two coupled different metals comprising the corrosion cell, while

for intergranular and uniform corrosions, the cathodes and anodes exist on the surface of the
same metal. Another factor besides the coupling of different metals that can lead to galvanic
corrosion is a difference in temperature at separated sites on the same metal surface.
4. Intergranular corrosion: With the exception of metallic glasses, the metals used in
practical devices are made up of small crystals (grains) whose surfaces join the surfaces of
other grains to form grain boundaries. Such boundaries adjacent to these boundaries can
under certain conditions be considerably more reactive (by being more anodic) than the
interior of the grains. The resulting corrosion is called intergranular corrosion. It can result in
a loss of strength of metal part or the production of debris (grains that have fallen out).
5. Uniform corrosion: This results from the sites, not necessarily fixed in location, that are
distributed over a metal surface where the anodic and cathodic reactions take place. Uniform
corrosion damage, sometimes called wastage, is usually manifested in the progressive
thinning of metal part until it virtually dissolves away or becomes a delicate lace-like
structure.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

PREVENTION OF CORROSION
Cathodic protection: This makes the structure to be protected to be the cathode of a corrosion
cell thereby bringing the structure into or near immunity region.
Anodic protection: This makes the structure to be protected to be the anode of a corrosion
cell thereby bringing the structure into passivity region.
Environmental modification by changing the pH to bring the structure to be protected into
either immunity or passivation regions.
Corrosion resistant alloys are developed to be corrosion resistant.
Coating of the corrosive cells with use of paints, wax, grease and lacquers.
Corrosion inhibitors can be added to the environment in which a given metal must be used to
make the environment less corrosive. The inhibitors act either by adsorbing on metal surfaces
by providing barriers to the environment or by keeping the environment from becoming more
corrosive by providing a buffering action.

CEMENT
Cement as one of the engineering materials can be defined as a material with adhesive and
cohesive properties capable of binding loose fragments into a whole. Cement is a finely grounded
powder which when mixed with water undergoes a chemical reaction (hydration) to produce a very
hard and strong binding medium for aggregate particles. In construction works, cement is used as
binding material.

Chemical composition of cement

Raw materials used are as follows
Lime (quicklime)
CaO
60 66%
Silica
SiO2
19 25%
Alumina
Al2O3
3 8%
Iron Oxide
Fe2O3
1 5%
Magnesia
MgO
0 5%
Sulfur Trioxide
SO3
1 3%
Pottasium Oxide
K2O
negligible
Sodium Oxide
Na2O
negligle
Oxides of sodium and potassium are alkalis and they affect the rate of gain of strength of cement.
TYPES OF CEMENT
There are various types of cement with each meeting a particular need or usage. The four
basic constituents are varied during production to produce a certain type of cement. The types
include the following
PORTLAND CEMENT
This is the first type of cement and most common. It was first produced in 1824 by Joseph
Aspdin by burning limestone and clay to produce powder. He called it Portland cement because after
the hardening of the powder, it resembled stone from a quarry near Portland, England.
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
This is the most commonly used type and very suitable for all construction purposes. It is
made by burning limestone with silica and alumina. Moisture in the initial condition is removed by
firing the materials in a kiln and then grinding the clinker to a fine powder with gypsum added to
control the rate of setting. Initial set time is 45minutes and final set takes place within 10hours.
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
It is like the Ordinary Portland Cement except that the cement powder is more finely
grounded and contains higher C2S content this makes the cement powder to react more
rapidly/quickly with water thereby helping to develop more strength quickly. It is used in
circumstances when formwork is to be removed early for re-use or where sufficient strength for
further construction is required early e.g. when traffic over a culvert on a roadway is needed as soon
as possible. The early strength development helps in the quick removal of formwork thereby
increasing speed of construction work.
The major difference between the OPC and RHC is that RHC is more finely grounded and as
such a much greater surface area is available for reaction with water. RHC should not be used in
mass concrete construction or in large structural sections because of its higher rate of heat

development. On the other hand, for construction at low temperatures, the use of this cement may
provide a satisfactory safeguard against early frost damage.
EXTRA RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
This is made by adding an accelerator such as Calcium Chloride CaCl2 to either OPC or
RHC. The rates of hardening and heat generation are increased but the concrete must be protected
from freezing or frost condition. The early strength caused by CaCl2 causes drying, shrinkage and
cracking of concrete. This type of cement is proned to the attack of sulphates.
LOW-HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT
In this type of cement, the heat generated during hydration process is less than that of OPC.
This type of cement is used in large mass concrete works such as dams. There is slow rate of
hardening which does not affect the ultimate strength of the cement. It is used in situations where
amount and rate of heat generation must be minimized. It is also used in massive concrete works
structures where temperature rise resulting from heat generated during hydration is a critical factor.
SULPHATE RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT
Sulphate constituents in this type of cement have a disintegration effect on OPC because they
combine with the cement constituents thereby increasing the volume. It is used in sulphate bearing
soils, marine works, sewer installation and manufacturing process where soluble sulphates are
present. It is used in structures liable to sulfate concentration attacks in water. It has resistance to
action of seawater, sulphate bearing clays. It has a low heat of hydration.
WHITE AND COLOURED CEMENT
This is produced by reducing the content of iron compounds in the cement through special
selection of raw materials (china clay, pure chalk or limestone) and special manufacturing processes
to produce white concrete finishes. It is mostly used for architectural purposes. Coloured cement is
produced by adding sulphate pigments to the white cement.
HIGH ALUMINA OR ALUMINOUS CEMENT
It is different from other types of cement in its method of manufacture, composition and
properties. It is manufactured from bauxite and limestone or chalk in equal proportion. It has high
and early strength development and high resistance to the destructive effects of sulphates and acids.
Its rapid heat evolution permits the concrete to be placed at lower temperature than OPC concrete.
WATERPROOF AND WATER REPELLANT CEMENT
This cement is less permeable to water by mixing the cement with a metallic soap.

PORTLAND BLAST FURNACE CEMENT

This is made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker and granulated blast furnace slag which is
a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron and a little gypsum to retard its setting time. It
evolves less heat than the OPC and is more resistant to chemical attack by sulphate or seawater.
SUPER SULPHATED CEMENT
This consists of granulated blast furnace slag, calcium sulphate and small %tage of Portland
cement or lime. It is highly resistant to destructive chemical effects of seawater and high
concentration of sulphates in groundwater. It has low heat of hydration and requires more water to
complete its chemical reaction than OPC. It requires a longer mixing period and deteriorates quickly
if stored under damp condition. It is used in the construction of marine works and sewers.
HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT
For this type of cement, the substances added during the grinding process form a water
repellant film around each grain of cement thereby preventing deterioration during storage. The
cement prevents partial hydration of cement prior to use during storage in humid condition.
MANUFACTURE METHOD OF CEMENT
There are three methods of manufacturing cement viz
dry method
wet method
combined method

Dry method
This method involves grinding, mixing and burning of cement constituents in their dry forms.
Advantages
It uses less fuel in burning.
Disadvantages
There is production of poor quality clinker (hard slag).
The method is very unpopular.
Wet method
This method involves grinding and mixing constituents in the presence of water and the
mixture is burnt inform of mud.
Advantages
The materials are grinded in the presence of water.
Homogeneity of materials are achieved.
It produces good quality of clinker (hard slag).

Disadvantages
The fuel consumption used in burning is very high i.e. 1.5-2times greater than that of dry
method.
Combined method
This method involves preparing the raw materials by the wet method, then dewatering and
processed to granules and burnt by the dry method.
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT
Cement is produced from two basic materials limestone and clay in the proportion of 4parts
to 1part respectively. The raw materials are quarried. The limestone is transported to a gyratory
crusher or jaw crusher for reduction in size and then passed to a hammer mill for further reduction in
size and then finally to the tube mill where clay is introduced and crushed together.
In case of using the wet method, water is added at this point to form Slurry stored in tank
under constant agitation and transported into Rotary kilns fired with crushed coal or gas and burnt.
At 125oC, excess water is removed and at 870oC, limestone breaks down into CaO2 and CO2. At
1480oC, Clinker is formed which is now cooled, crushed and to which about 3% crushed gypsum is
added. The mixture is grinded finely that nearly all of it passes through 200mm mesh (75m) sieve.
The sieved product is the Cement which is finally bagged.
SLURRY: blended mixture of finely grinded raw materials and water
GYPSUM: - added to retard setting of cement. The grayish colour of cement is due to the presence of
iron.
CLINKER: - is fired slurry from which excess water had been driven off.
Excessive iron makes grinding of clinker difficult. Excessive magnesia and sulphate
compounds caused unsoundness of cement. Greenish colour of cement after the addition of water is
due to the presence of magnesium oxide. Unsoundness is the inability of hardened cement paste to
retain its volume after setting. It is due to excessive lime. The unsound cement may crack and
disintegrate to such an extent as to allow the ingress of moisture and causes corrosion to exposed
steel.
Excessive quantities of soda and potash may cause efflorescence in cement.
Typical sources of raw materials used in Portland Cement
Lime

Silica

Alumina

Iron

Cement rock
Limestone
Marl

Sand
Traprock
Calcium silicate

Clay
Shale
Slag

Iron ore
Iron dust
Iron oxide

Chalk
Marble

Quartzite

Kaolin
Copper slag
Fly ash

Iron pyrite

To maintain the quality of cement, frequent tests are carried out on cement itself, hardened
cement paste or on concrete made from the cement. The tests are fineness test, soundness test,
setting time test, false time test and compressive strength test.
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
There are three properties which govern it acceptability. They are
1. Fineness: This is the total surface of the cement particle available for hydration. The
smaller the particle sizes of the cement, the better the fineness quality. The rate of hydration
depends on the fineness of cement particles.
2. Setting Time: it refers to the time it takes the cement paste to change from fluid to a rigid
state. Setting is mainly caused by a selective hydration of C3A and C3S and is accompanied
by temperature rise in the cement paste. The initial set corresponds to a rapid rise in
temperature and the final set corresponds to the peak temperature.
3. Soundness: This is the ability of cement not to cause large change involume after the
cement paste has set.
FINENESS TEST
Cement fineness is determined by sieving a sample of the freshly produced cement for
15minutes using a No 170 0r 0.09mm sieve. The residue on the sieve shall not exceed 10% by
weight of the total weight for OPC. Fineness of cement affects the rate of hydration positively
because the finer the cement, the faster the strength development takes place and the more rapid the
setting and early hardening. As fine increases, the amount of water required for a slump concrete
decreases.

SOUNDNESS TEST
This is carried out by determining the ability of hardened cement paste to retain its volume
after setting using Le Charterliers Apparatus. Soundness is the excessive expansion of cement paste
during setting.
SETTING TIME TEST
This is the total time taken by cement paste to harden up. It is made up of two degrees of
setting known as initial and final setting time. The initial setting time is the time which has elapsed
between the additions of partial penetration of needle into the cement paste. Setting is an initial stage
of strength development while hardening is the final stage. The initial setting time for OPC shall not

be less than 30minutes and this is to allow time for mixing and placing in position of the concrete
made using the cement.
Final setting time is the period between the initial setting time and the period the cement
paste refuses needle penetration. Setting time test is carried out using Vicat Apparatus.
Apparatus: Vicat apparatus, stop clock, mould, cement and water
Method:
Fill the mould 75mm diameter and 38mm deep with cement paste to which sufficient
water had been added and place it upon the metal plate of the vicat apparatus.
Initial setting: This is measured by means of a needle having a flat end fixed to the vicat apparatus
by lowering it to penetrate the cement paste at different parts of the specimen at
repeated intervals until the needle fails to pierce the paste completely. The time which
was elapsed between the addition of water and this partial penetration of the needle is
called the initial setting time.
Final setting: This is determined using a different setting needle which on gentle application, the
central flat point makes an impression on it but unable to penetrate it.
Setting can be regulated by the addition of accelerator or retarder like gypsum.
FALSE SET
This is a characteristic which results in loss of plasticity without much heat being developed,
a short time after the concrete is mixed. Further mixing without additional use of water usually
restores plasticity. The use of chemical admixtures may delay the occurrence of false set.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
This strength is determined by making tests on 50mm (2in) mortar cube in which standard
sand is used. Strength tests at various ages (7, 14, 21 and 28 days) indicate the strength producing
characteristics of the cement. The strength of cement is defined by its compressive and tensile
strength.
The strength grade is found by measuring the tensile strength of slab specimen 40 x 40 x
160mm in size and by the compressive strength of half a slab specimen made of a plastic mortar
composed of 1part of cement to 3parts sand (by weight) and tested after 28days while the specimen
is held under moist condition. The breaking stress of 28days old cement is called the activity of
cement.

CONCRETE
It is a construction material formed by mixing sand, cement, gravel and water and at times
admixtures. It is a man made composite. Sand and gravel are the aggregate while cement is the
cementing material. Any cementing material like lime could be used to form lime concrete.
Admixtures could be added before or during mixing stages of concrete production.

The quality of concrete is a factor of the texture of the ingredients. A change in the
proportion will cause a change of some or all of the construction and engineering properties of the
concrete.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE
This is based on the aggregates used and it is classified into three viz
(i)
Normal weight aggregate: produced by using normal weight and artificial
aggregate such as sand, gravel, crushed rock, cooled blast furnace slag, broken bricks
(ii)
Lightweight aggregate: produced using lightweight aggregate such as slag, slate,
pulverized fuel ash, shale, industrial waste materials etc
(iii) Heavyweight aggregate: produced by using heavy weight aggregate such as scrap iron,
lead etc
MATERIALS USED IN CONCRETE
Materials used are fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel), cement and water. Choosing
the materials, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and curing concrete must be given good
attention in order to get quality concrete.
(i)
Fine aggregate (sand): aggregate that passes sieve 4.75mm e.g. sand and crushed stone.
It should be free from excessive silt and chemical or organic matter. Dirty sand will
produced weak concrete in terms of poor bonding between cement and grains of sand.
(ii)
Cement: choice of cement has to do with the prevailing situation.
(iii) Coarse aggregate (gravel/stone): aggregate that is retained on sieve 4.75mm e.g. gravel,
stone, crushed stone. It should be well graded, clean, hard and free from organic matter
and excessive clay and silt.
(iv)
Water: it should be free from suspended particles, organic matter and dissolved salt.
Unclean water will affect the hydration process of cement.
CEMENT CONCRETE
Concrete produced when cement is used as the binding material alongside the others. It can
be plain or reinforced concrete.
(i) Plain concrete: a mass concrete where reinforcing bars are not used. Has considerable
compressive strength but little tensile strength. It is weak in bending, shear and
torsion. Used in situation where high compressive strength is needed with little or
no tensile strength required such as in foundations, dams, gravity retaining walls.
(ii) Reinforced concrete: concrete where reinforcing bars are used. The bars are embedded in
the concrete at the time of casting so as to produce a composite material known as
reinforced concrete. The bars cater for all tensile stresses while concrete cater for
the compressive strength.
USES: used in construction works such as foundations, floor, retaining walls, lintels, columns,
beams, pavement etc

LIME CONCRETE
Concrete in which lime is the binding material alongside the others. It is used as a base
concrete under floor, leveling course for foundations and for plain cement concrete footings for
masonry walls and columns, as fillings for haunches over masonry arch works and for roof finish.
PREPARATION OF CONCRETE
The stages involved in the preparation are as follows:
Storage of materials: The materials are stored in a place where they will not disturb other
works on site. They must not be far from the point of usage and must be well kept.
Batching of materials: This is the process of measuring concrete materials in their correct
proportion before they are mixed. Proportion could be by designer or code of practice as the
case may be. Mix proportions are specified by volume or weight. Mix proportion is always
given in ratios of cement, sand and gravel e.g. 1:2:4 means 1part of cement to 2parts of sand
to 4parts of gravel.
As the quantity of sand and gravel increases without a corresponding increase in quantity of
cement, the strength of the concrete decreases. The use of headpan in batching refers to
specification by volume while by weight requires the use of weighing balance.
Mixing of the materials: this can be by manual (hand) or mechanical (machine) method.
Manual method is often used for small jobs. It can be done on a boarded platform, on a layer
of lean concrete surface or on a well cleared and free from organic/vegetable matter ground. It is
usually slow and produces a less thorough mix.
Mechanical method: There are two groups viz batch mixers and continuous mixer. Batch
mixer is either of the tilting drum or close drum. The tilting rotates in a vertical form while the close
drum rotates in a horizontal form.
Continuous mixer: often used for large construction works. It is faster, cheaper and produces
a more thorough mix and advantageous in increasing the strength of concrete.
Transporting, Placing and Compacting concrete
Mixed concrete should be transported and placed within half to one hour of mix since the
initial setting time of OPC takes place within this period and also, concrete looses water due to
evaporation. For short distances, headpan, wheel barrow can be used in transporting concrete while
for long distances; transit mix truck can be used. Concrete tremmies are used in placing concrete
under water. Concrete is placed gently to avoid segregation of materials i.e. separation of concrete
materials.
Compaction of concrete is done by the use of poker vibrator. Compaction helps concrete to
consolidate well i.e. concrete is compressed under load to expel water from the voids.
Curing of concrete: This is keeping the freshly laid concrete under uniform conditions of
temperature and moisture during the hydration of the cement so as to attain the required
strength. Curing is dome by keeping concrete moist or providing a warm temperature. Curing
can be done by the provision of plastic sheeting, hessian or matting and water spraying.

Concrete Casting
Casting can be in two ways viz casting-in-situ method or pre-cast method
Casting-in-situ: This is casting in the position of final rest
Advantages: Transportation cost is not involved
Less risk of damaged members
Jointing of members to main body is not a problem
Disadvantages: Weather can disturb construction
Less speed in construction
Risk of displacing reinforcement is high
Pre-cast: This is casting of concrete member somewhere and later bringing to final place of
use.
Advantages: Work is not interrupted by weather
Speed in construction
Less risk of displaced reinforcement
Better finish is possible
Disadvantages:
Transportation and handling costs are incurred
Members may be damaged through handling
Jointing members may be a problem

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
The properties of fresh concrete are
Workability: it is the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from the mixer to its
finally compacted shape
Consistency: measure of wetness or fluidity of a mix which is dependent on water-cement
ratio
Mobility: measure of ease with which a mix can flow into and completely fill the formwork
Compatibility: ease with which a given mix can be fully compacted; all air trapped in mix
being removed
Workability depends on the consistency, mobility and compatibility of the concrete mix.
STANDARD TESTS FOR FRESH CONCRETE
The tests for fresh concrete are slump test and compaction factor test.
Slump test is used to detect changes in the compatibility of concrete. It measures the wetness of a
fresh of a fresh concrete mix. Slump is a reduction in height.
Apparatus: Standard slump cone of 12 (30.5cm) high and 8 (20cm) in diameter at the bottom,
10cm in diameter at the top, 16mm tamping rod, ruler and concrete.

Method:

Fill the come in three equal layers, each layer being tamped 25times with a tamping rod.
Level off the cone and lift it up carefully. Measure the slump or reduction in height by the
use of ruler.

Compaction Factor test: This determines the workability of concrete by assessing the compaction of
fresh concrete while subjecting it to a standard amount of work with that of a free falling concrete.
The higher the compaction factor, the better the workability.
Apparatus: Two containers with hoppers and cylinder
Method: Weigh the mould empty, say A and set up the apparatus as shown below. Lock the top
hopper and do not lock the lower hopper. Fill the upper hopper with concrete and unlock
to allow the concrete to fall through the lower hopper into the cylinder. Weigh the
cylinder and the free fallen concrete in it, say B.
Clean the cylinder and fill with fresh concrete in three layer with each layer compacted
with 25blows. Scrape off level. Weight the cylinder now with compacted concrete. The
weight of the free fallen concrete (B-A) is compared with the weight of the compacted
concrete (C-A).
Conclusion: The compacting factor is weight of free falling concrete in cylinder
weight of fully compacted concrete in cylinder
i.e.
BA
CA
DEFECTS OF CONCRETE
(i) Segregation: is the separation of fine particles from large particles in concrete mix. It occurs
when concrete is dropped from excessive height during placing and over-vibration during
compaction.
(ii) Bleeding: this is the general displacement of some of the water in concrete leading to the
rising of some of the water to the surface when the concrete is unable to hold all its water.
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
These are properties that are retained by the concrete for the remaining part of its life. The
properties are strength, deformation under load, durability, permeability, shrinkage.
Water Cement Ratio: This is the relationship between the quantity of mixing water and the
amount of cement in a concrete mix. It is expressed as W/C either by volume or by weight or by the
number of litres of water per 50kg (the weight of a bag of cement).
Setting Time: This includes the following
Initial setting time
Final setting time

Flash set: takes place in cement with insufficient gypsum to control the rapid reaction of
tricalcium aluminate with water.
False set: it produces a rapid stiffening of the paste but it is not accompanied by excessive
heat.
Setting of concrete is the stiffening or hardening of concrete. Setting time is the total time taken by
freshly mixed concrete to harden up and it is made up of initial setting time and final setting time.

ADMIXTURES
They can be added before and/or during mixing stage of concrete production. They are as follows:
(i) Accelerators: They speed up rate of setting and strength development thereby reducing
setting time e.g. calcium chloride (CaCl2), sodium carbonate (Na2CO4), sodium
sulfate (Na2SO4).
(ii) Retarders: Slows down rate of setting and strength development thereby increasing setting
time e.g. gypsum (CaSO4).
(iii) Air-Entraining agents: They retain air in order to improve workability e.g. wood resins.
(iv) Water reducers: They reduce water requirements of concrete for a given consistency e.g.
calcium formate.

CURING
Curing is the act of controlling the temperature of concrete and water content in the concrete for a
definite period of time after placing.
Curing time depends on
o Air temperature
o Shuttering material
o Concrete temperature
o Curing material
o Size of concrete pour
Curing is essential for concrete mix to achieve its designed strength. Curing improves strength of
concrete, durability, resistance to abrasion and frost damage.
METHODS OF CURING CONCRETE
Plastic membrane sprayed on the surface
Polyethene sheeting laid on the surface
Damp hessian mat laid on the surface and kept damp by subsequent watering
Damp sand spread on the surface of the freshly laid concrete and kept damp
Spraying or sprinking with water
Water ponding
Spraying of impervious membrane immediately after finishing a concrete operation

Steam curing
Covering with sawdust

JOINTS IN CONCRETE
Joints are intention opening/plane of weakness, deliberate inset into concrete pavement when
been laid to cater for changes in dimension due to variation in temperature and moisture which
causes concrete to warp, expand or contract as it dries out. The main reason for protecting joints is to
discourage the pumping action induces at the joint ends i.e. the purpose of filling and sealing joints
is to prevent the seepage of moisture to the subgrade and also to preserve the original joint space.
Joints help to keep stresses in the concrete within safe limits; thereby converting the strength
of the concrete to resist induced stresses due to traffic load.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF JOINTS

Joints must be waterproof at all times to ensure surface water does not sip into the subgrade
to reduce the sudgrade strength
Joint must be flexible enough to allow free movement of slabs at all times
Joint should not detract from the riding quality of a roadway
Joints should not lead to unexpected undersigned structural weakness
Joint should interfere as little as possible with the placing of concrete pavement

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
Joints are classified into four namely: expansion joints, contraction joints, construction joints and
warping joints.
Expansion joints: These are joints primarily designed to provide space into which expansion of
concrete slabs can take place when the temperature rises above that at which the concrete was laid.
Expansion joints prevent development of compressive stresses of damaging magnitude as well as
buckling or blow-up of slabs. They are used between slabs and at locations where pavements join
fixed structures such as bridge abutments or at intersection with other pavements. Expansion joints
are usually used transversely in a pavement.

Contraction joints: This joint is provided to limit tensile stresses induced in the pavement due to
contraction or shrinkage of the concrete and to prevent or control cracking. They are constructed at
right angles to the centerline of the roadway. Contraction joints permit angular movement between
adjacent slabs section; thereby providing some extra relief to the warping stresses developed within a
concrete pavement. There are two types namely butt joint and dummy joint

Warping joints: These are also known as hinge joints. They are simply breaks in the continuity
of the concrete which allows a small amount of angular movement to occur between adjacent slabs;
thus preventing excessively high stresses due to restrained warping from being developed within the
pavement. Warping joint are mainly used for longitudinal jointing but could be used as transverse
joints in unreinforced concrete. There are two type viz dummy warping joint and tongue and groove
warping joints. Dummy warping joint is similar to dummy contraction joint except that the tie
bars/dowels are not lubricated to allow sliding to occur.

Construction joints: These are joints other than deliberately designed expansion, contraction or
warping joints which are formed in the course of construction. They are formed when construction
work is unexpectedly interrupted due to mechanical breakdown or on the onset of bad weather, at
points where joints are not normally required by the design.

CONCRETE FINISHES
Concrete finishing is creating a concrete of a desired texture and hardness. Concrete finishing
can be functional or decorative as well. Concrete that will be visible, such as slabs like driveways,
highways patios often need finishing. Concrete slabs can be finished in so many ways depending on
the intended service uses. Some surfaces may require strikeoff and screeding to proper contour and
elevation, while for other surfaces a broomed, floated or troweled finish may be required.

Screeding or strikeoff is the process of cutting off excess concrete to bring the top surface to proper
grade. Bullfloating eliminated high and low spots and embeds large aggregate particles immediately
after strikeoff.
TYPES OF FINISHING TOOLS
There are different types of tools used in concrete finishing and they are
Tampers
Bull floats / Darbies
Edgers
Grooves
Hand floats
Trowels

APPLICATION OF CONCRETE FINISHING

Concrete finishing can be applied or carried out in different part of a building. Some are
Walls, both internal and external
Floors
Ceiling below soild floors
Driveways / Parking areas
Stairs
Garage and Basement
FORMS OF CONCRETE FINISHING
The most common forms of concrete finishing are screeding, plastering and rendering.
Screeding: A screed is a metal or board strip dragged across a freshly poured concrete slab to give it
a proper level while screeding is the process by which the board is dragged over a freshly poured
concrete to bring it to a desired and required level. Screeding could be done manually by hand or by
machine. Hand screeding is the most common type because it is easy to handle and very cheap, it
also saves time and there is low cost of operation while the mechanical screeding is used in an area
where a very large surface area is required but it is very costly.
Rendering: Rendering is basically used for external works of the building. Render is a mortar
consisting of cement and fine aggregate and lime in some cases which is applied to a wall surface. A
satisfactory render depends not only upon knowledge of the properties of the constituent materials
but also on selecting suitable mix properties so that the render is compatible with the background to
which the render is being applied.
Before selecting a suitable rendering, attention should be given to weatherproofing, durability and
appearance. There are many types of rendering, some are
(a) Pebbledash or dry dash: A rough finish of exposed small pebbles or crushed stone thrown on
to a freshly applied coat of mortar.

(b) Rough cast or wet dash: A rough finish produced by throwing on a wet mix containing a
proportion of coarse aggregate.
(c) Scraped or texture finish: Treatment of the surface of the final coat at the appropriate stage of
setting with different tools. It can produce a variety of finishes depending on the artistry and
skill of the craft operative.
(d) Plain coat: A smooth or level surface finished with a wood, felt or other suitably faced float.
Plastering: This is an internal finishing. It is required to conceal irregularities in the background and
to provide a finish that is smooth, crack free, hygienic, resistance to damage and easily decorated.
It may also be required to improve fire resistance, to provide additional thermal and sound
insulation, to modify sound absorption or mitigate the effects of condensation.
Note: Rendering is an exterior concrete finishing process while plastering is an internal concrete
finishing process.

FERROCEMENT
Ferrocement is a composite material made of cement mortar and layers of wire mesh or
similar small diameter steel mesh closely bound together to create a stiff structural form. It is a
special form of reinforced concrete, which exhibits behaviour that is different from the conventional
reinforced concrete in performance, strength and potential application.
Ferrocement derived its name from the combination of ferrous product such as mesh wire and
cement. It is a type of thin wall reinforcement concrete construction made up of layers of continuous
and relatively small diameter mesh.
CONSTRUCTION
The desired shape may be built from a multi-layered construction of chicken mesh or other
steel mesh, and if needed reinforced with steel wire or steel bars. Over this finished framework, an
appropriate mixture of cement, sand and water is spread out. During hardening, ferrocement is kept
moist to ensure the setting of the cement. Like other application of cement, a considerable time is
necessary for the material to fully cure and reach its final strength. The curing time is dependent
upon the span or application load.
The economics advantage of ferrocement structures is that they are stronger and more
durable than other traditional building methods. Ferrocement structures can also be built quickly. In
inclement weather conditions, the ability to erect and enclose the building allows workers to shelter
within and continue interior finishing.
ADVANTAGES
The advantages of a well built ferrocement structures are low weight, low maintenance cost
and long litetime in comparison with steel structures. However, meticulous building precision is
considered crucial especially with respect to the cement composition and the way in which it is

applied in and on the framework. Ferrocement has relatively better and mechanical properties and
durability than ordinary reinforced concrete within certain loading limits. It behaves as a
homogenous elastic material and these limits are wider than for normal concrete. Other advantages
are its non-flameability and high corrosion resistance characteristics.
A ferrocement construction has 10 to 25% of the weight of a comparable construction made of
bricks.
DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantage of ferrocement construction is the labour intensive nature of it, which
makes it expensive for industrial application in the western world.
FUNCTION OF WIRE MESH IN FERROCEMENT
To acts as a lath, providing the form and to support mortar in green state
To absorb the tensile stress on the structure which the mortar on its own would not be able to
withstand in the hardened concrete.

USES
Ferrocement is used in thin walled structure where strength and rigidity are developed
through from and shape
For terrestrial and marine uses e.g construction of roof, water tanks, fishing vessels,
pontoons, fishing and cargo boats, submarine structures etc
For decorative panels and tile, wall panel floor, pipes and irrigation conduit