Facades: Load bearing walls: wall is structural support for floors & roof.

Use h/weight materials such as brick, stone; can get differential movement between faade & structure minimised. Framed b-dings: walls form non-loadbearing cladding, can use l/weight materials: stone brick, CWing, rscreen & metal cladding, conc; associated increased differential movement. Walls are self-supporting masonry or CWing; normally limited to low rise b-dings.
Windows: b-ding component for closing an opening in a wall that will admit light & may provide vent. Normally, factory produced unit that has 1 or more openings bounded by a perimeter frame. Extensive window assemblies pass in front of floor slab as a form of CWing. CW: a form of mainly vert b-ding envelope which supports no load other than its own weight & the environ.al forces which act on it. Standard system walls: readily available set of
components that can be used to construct a wall, allows variation of spans & finishes to provide some variation of appearance. Existing test data can be used to demonstrate Perf. May need more tests for some applic. Bespoke walls: system using components designed for a specific project, may use standard components assembled in novel way, greater choice of materials & geom, more expensive, longer lead time in design & testing of system.
Stick system: system of framing members used to form a grillage, commonly alum. steel used for fire resist., timber used for appearance/thermal Perf, design of system incls gaskets & jointing details. Delivered to site as pre-cut & machined sections. Frames fixed to floor slab/structure. Opaque & transparent infills, glazed-in. Stick wall constr.:2-storey continuous mullion, supported @ foot, wind load carried @ each floor (& @ foot), vert
movement possible @ first floor & roof, can add additional sections but limited by compression in mullions & movement accommodation. Or single-storey mullions, hung @ each floor, mullions connected by spigots, ease of constr. although vert movement possible @ each spigot. Assembled sequentially or ladder frames installed w/ intermediate transoms. Why? Architectural intent (AI) of narrow framing members & horiz or vert framing emphasis,
economical, flexible, short lead time. Consequences: ext access requ.d, large amount of site work, Perf is labour dependent, slow rate of assembly, lifting equip may be requ.d, site storage requ.d, Perf of wall may be affected by fit out, limited accommodation of structural movement. Unitised constr. narrow storey-height factory assembled unit. Usually delivered to site w/ glazing/infill in place. Units then lifted into place & fixed to floor
slab/structure. Why? AI, higher quality, less dependent on site installation, faster erection, can use standard or bespoke systems. Consequences: may requ. craneage, site storage depending on method of erection, increased lead time, ext access not normally requ.d, Perf may be affected by fit out. Panelised constr.: large factory assembled panels, usually bay width & storey height (conc or steel frame), can be delivered to site w/ glazing/infill in
place, panels lifted into place & generally fixed close to primary structural columns, seals between panels are site-applied or prepared in factory. Why? AI, lack of site storage & site labour, greater pre-fab, faster erection. Consequences: craneage, size limited by transport & lifting equip, lead time & generally bespoke but may use standard components. Structural sealant glazing systems: glass bonded to frame using structural sealant, live loads
on glass transferred through sealant, glass deadweight usually transferred by mechanical means, used as part of stick, unitised or panelised, used in vert or sloping mullions. Why? AI, drainage of sloping glazing, improved thermal Perf. Consequences: structural sealant must be factory applied by specialist, common to bond glass to secondary support frame which is necessary for stick systems & requ.d for repair of unitised systems, sometimes
retaining devices specified in case of sealant failure, glass safety issues. Bolted glazing: TG panels bolted to support system, various types of support structure possible such as brackets fixed to primary structure, steel secondary structure, CW framing system, cable nets & glass fins. Bolts can have countersunk heads to be flush w/ the glass surface & can bolt to LG glazing units. They can be used vert, horiz or @ any angle. Joints between
panels sealed on site w/ silicone sealant. Why? AI for transparency & light transmission, can use standard components or bespoke. Consequences: glass safety issues, appropriate expertise by contractor, lead time for specialist glass & design co-ordinated w/ structure. Slope glazing (within 75 deg of horiz.) can be sealed & unsealed system, constructed using framed systems or bolted glazing. Patent glazing traditionally 2 edge supported
unsealed glazing relying on drainage & flashings for weatherTness, sometimes used to incl l/weight four edge sealed glazing systems. Unsealed systems requ. slope of 15 deg to horiz., framing members incorporate drainage channels, & used where int environ. is not fully conditioned e.g. transport interchanges. Why? AI, lighting, shelter to ext areas. Consequence: glass safety issues, access for constr. & maintce, shading, Perf of glass coatings.
ETFE foil cushions: requ.s continuous supply of air to keep cushion inflated, reduced weight to be supported, large spans reduces to amount of supporting structure, eliminates risk of falling glass. Other options: profiled metal cladding system types vert site built up, horiz site built up, structural liner tray. Mullion transom joint: need to facilitate constr., permit sealing, transfer vert, horiz & turning effect from eccentric loads, accommodate
movement. Types: fixed, overlap or spring cleat. Mullion joint: spigot transfers horiz load, may allow vert movement or may transfer axial load. Sealing may requ.: cover piece in front of mullion, rubber moulding @ front of mullion, wet applied sealant. Built-up walls: constructed in a series of separate layers/operation backing wall, insul, membranes, windows, ext cladding incl. rscreen & ext insul. Usually constructed from standard components.
Backing wall: solid (masonry or conc), frame (site-assembled or pre-fab) or CW. Infill wall: stud wall (steel/timber), solid (masonry), wall spans between floors, movement joints @ top of wall. Continuous back wall: stud wall (steel), solid wall (masonry or conc), wall spans between floors, movement joint @ top of wall unless wall loadbearing. Requ. of backing wall: support cladding, resist loads from occupants, provide air barrier that is continuous
over faade & @ floors, provide vapour control layer to retard the passage of H20 vapour through wall. Rscreen cladding: range of materials, alum. extrusions commonly used for support system using standard profiled or profiles designed to support specific panels, windows fixed in openings in wall. Insul used mineral wool, phenolic foam both mechanically fixed. H20proof/breather membrane normally behind insul. Rscreen supports by back
wall can use simple T or L rail w/ face fixing, more complex shapes can be used for conceal/proprietary fixings. Storey height rails fixed @ 1 point w/ restraint @ remaining brackets, increasing span minimises cold bridging @ brackets & potential for penetrating membranes. Using vert & horiz rails requ.s wider cavity, allows panels to hook onto rails, permits concealed fixing of flat panels. Rails spanning between floors can be steel or alum. rails &
requ.s robust rails & brackets. Rail sections joined by spigot to allow movement. More common for refurb where conc floor provides more reliable fixing. Why? AI of large opaque areas, range of materials, range of cost, used for both new-build & refurb/repair projects. Consequences: wall split into packages therefore co-ordination of packages requ.d, standard components but Perf depends on interfaces, ext access requ.d, craneage depends on
degree of prefab., completion of back wall & windows can allow int work to proceed during rscreen erection. Render on insul systems: insul attached to support wall w/ adhesive or mechanical fixings, insul can be polystyrene & mineral wool, cavity (normally behind insul) recommended for framed back walls. Render can be mineral, polymer modified cementitious, resin & reinforcement can be metal lath, glass scrim, glass fibres or a decorative
finish. Terminology: ETICS Ext Thermal Insul Cladding Systems, EWIS Ext Wall Insul Systems, EIFS Exterior Insul Finish System. Why? AI for larger opaque areas or range colours, economical, used for both new-build & refurb/repair projects, cold bridging minimised & t.mass inside of the insul. Consequences: wall split into packages & requ. co-ordination of packages, Perf depends on interfaces, ext access requ.d, completion of back wall
& windows can allow int work to proceed during completion of ext wall & has a poor record in some countries. WeatherTightness (weathrTness) airTness, H20 penetration resist. & wind resist.. This is applied to wall systems, windows/doors, interfaces such as gaskets, sealants & membranes. Rain control strategies can incl: deflection, barrier perfect (face-sealed), such as glass sealant, or imperfect. Imperfect can be storage e.g.
stone/permeable material -rely on rain stopping, allowing drying out, or cavity (secondary defence) break path through & drained @ the bottom. Requ.s inner air barrier, drained/vented (D&V). Ventilated & pressure moderated (PM), spaced opening to cause convection. H20 can be evaporated into air current. PM regulates pressure so H20 isnt sucked into cavity. B-ding & airflow overhangs can trap H20 being lifted by air flow. Downdraughts
drive H20 down. Intensity of rain on faade if rain continues for long enough, H20 will flow across wall causing heavy wetting. Rain only wets surface when wind blows it, wind will divert H20 to perimeter of b-ding. Gaskets/joints in windows/frame are most likely places for H20 getting in. Not necessarily perfectly sealed. H20 leakage = H20 + openings + forces remove any to elim leakage. A) Gravity b) Kinetic energy (effect of wind) Heavier than
air, therefore hits b-ding or splash from horiz surface C) Surface tension drips along surface. D) Capillary action can lead to algal growth (H20 stays for longer) e) Air currents (gusts) F) Pressure diff. Tradi Wall Constr.: Solid (masonry, stone, brickwork, blockwork) ext walls: rendered finish protecting exposed face of wall. Imperfect rain control barrier storage. If too permeable, add render; can be dense, impermeable therefore susceptible
to cracking from shrinkage. Lime renders are better. Cavity ext walls: allow H20 to drain out of cavity. Weep holes, @ bottom of wall, for drainage. Damproof tray leading H20 to the outside of wall. Conc (panel) constr.: fully (front) sealed single stage approach. W/ sealants issue w/ H20 ingress, although theoretical H20tights but install dependent. Potential double sealant w/ drainage mechanism (front & back w/ w/ inter drains @ end & inter
length). Conc is fairly impermeable. Rscreen walls: air gap between panels. Overlap panels to prevent H20 in. Dont rely on layer being H20tight, rely on cavity behind. H20 penetration resist.: H20 entry to the cavity is governed by: joint geom & gap width of the joints. PE to reduce H20 in cavity (not common). Wetting of the air barrier may be reduced by: increasing cavity width, draining quicker/effective removal of H20, provision of H20proof layer
common practice. H20 removed by: drainage, vent. D&V (vent opening top, air gap in wall, D&V opening @ bottom). Drainage removal of liquid H20 needs sufficient quantity to overcome surface tension effects. Drainage opening of @ least 6mm min no capillary action from surface tension, driven by gravity & avoid obstructions. Sufficient clearance between components. Continuous level or downward path to outside. Vent: removal of trapped
H20 by evaporation, requ.s free flow of air due to wind action or stack effect, opening @ top & bottom of section & of sufficient size. Pressure-equalised (PE): air gap, cavity barrier & regular vent openings in separate zones. Pressure equalisation (Pin = Pout) can be achieved if (2% change): large enough opening, tight enough air barrier, compartmented cavities, vert cavity closers @: 6m spacing & 1.5m within 6m of corners. Horiz cavity closers @:
each storey height, 1.5m from parapet. Panel joints: sealed joints -min. air gap 25mm, closed joints 25mm based on sealant degradation over life of b-ding, labyrinth joints 38mm, baffled 38mm, open 50mm. H20proof membranes: Infront of insul protects insul but more vulnerable to damage. May be difficult to install. May trap vapour if not breathable. Want to prevent some insul from getting wet change thermal properties. Breathable
membrane allows moisture vapour to get out, but is resistant to passage of liquid H20. From high concn to low, can be degraded by UV radiation. Behind insul gives 1 single membrane to provide vapour, air & H20 barrier. Possible position if insul unaffected by H20. Foil-faced insul: H20proof layer, extra foil tapes @ joint, effectiveness is workmanship dependent, may trap vapour. Vapour tight membrane e.g. polyethylene, epdm: put on warm
side of insul, may trap vapour if placed in wrong location. Things to incl: weep hole, drip feature, sealant joint needs to be secure & robust, good membrane seal. H20Tness of windows: front-sealed rely on gaskets being perfect sealed. Outer seals subjected to combined wetting & wind. Issue w/ single glazing & condensation from wet sealant. Misting H20 into cavity & condensation occurs. D&V drain cavity out. PE sealed compartment
already part of b-ding, gaskets must be airtight, additional sealant sometimes used. Drainage recomm: 6mm clearance between glass & frame, 8 or 10mm dia hole, 20 x 5 or 25 x 5 mm slots. PE: inner seals provide air barrier, outer seals provide primary H20 seals. Cavities made into compartments. Each compartment connected to the exterior by protected openings. CW: front sealed risk of gaskets not being perfect. D&V or PE are typically
used. Drainage @ transom slots in pressure plates & cover caps. Potential streaking & staining down pane of glass. Drainage through mullions spouts @ ints, drainage paths can be very long, normally drained every 2 or 3 storeys. Incls holes for vent (top) & slots for drainage & vent (bottom). PE System need compartment seal @ intervals to break up wall. Need air seal @ transom & mullion junction. Slots in pressure plate & bottom of cover
plate. Perf requ.ments incl: pressure plate screws & int clip in beads to be sealed, sealants or gaskets @ the mullion transom joint. Slope glazing consid: H20 accumulates @ back of transom, drainage via mullions (rafters), cover caps chamfered to allow drainage over face. Unitised CW 3 gaskets & cavities for drainage. Outer, intermediate & inner seals. Horiz plate to direct H20 back out the front. Spec of weatherTness: prescriptive
requ.ments standard details, secondary defence sys, gasket requ.ments etc. Perf spec: lab testing to prove design, site tests to check workmanship & to prove detail design. Why test? Proves sys will work. Difficult to predict, test, validate: gasket joints, deflection may impair seals, overloaded drainage syss, complex/innovative design. Not used for: sealant joints normally due to workmanship issue. But can still do on-site tests. Test after detail
design before manu. Product test tested sys on market, test cert. Project tests build a section of wall & test. Rely on these results. Used for large projects & bespoke design. Can take about 3 months so risk of delay. CW are always tested. Rscreens not really test. Assessed for criteria. Windows always tested (Espec where they integrate w/ CWl). Interfaces get tested (unless on rscreen). Test procedures: pressurise box, H20 spray &
measure: air pressure, air leakage, H20 flow, deflections. Joints & interfaces. Envelope interfaces: panel to panel, glass to panel, window to wall, wall to wall, wall to roof. Copings have differential thermal movement. Joint types: open, membrane, gasket, sealant. Product & project specific detailing. Membranes are frequently used to seal: windows to walls, walls to walls, walls to roofs. EPDM is commonly used but a range of breathable
materials are available. Bonding or clamping is requ.d to provide a seal (mechanical). Membranes may be fixed by: site applied adhesive, laminated bonding strip, clamping into a rebate, use of components w/ a race. Designs for around windows lead to different types of adhesive bonding strips. Gasket. Packing material material firmly held between contact surfaces on 2 components who joint is to be sealed usually held in compression but can
be held in tension if approp designed. Clamped relies on compression to maintain a seal. Elastomeric component: EPDM (most common), chlorophene (Neoprene), silicone, TPE. Factory extruded & in well-defined joint. Should be constant section & strength not very flexible. Gaskets functions: limits air & H20 infiltration, allows relative moment, absorbs structural loads, prevent glass (brittle) contacting frame (flexible). Dynamic gaskets:
open & close functionality. Requ.d to provide good seal under low compression. High compression forces in gasket will requ. large operating forces to close window or door. A good seal under low compression (openable). Different shapes allow for range of movements static gaskets. May act in combination but only 1 gasket should determine location of opening window or door. Dynamic gasket shapes O, P, flipper. Static window gasket- Glazing
install sequence: 1. Push-in or slide-in gasket placed, 2. Glazing installed, 3. Bead installed, 4. Wedge gasket inserted to provide compression of both gaskets & lock bead in position. Gasket size & compression: colour coded for easy reference. Different sizes give different compression. Gap width will depend on: glazing THK, tolerance of frame & gasket. Need holding in place: slide in, wedge, push in. Gasket shapes: wedge (crescent & e
gasket), push-in (crescent & e), slide-in (brush & fir-tree). Hollow or closed-cell gaskets: soft, closed-cell & Firm, dense (rubber). Material selection depend on: compression set (recovery under various pressures), ozone/weathering/UV/pressure resist., tear resist. (needed for windows), cost of compound, durability. Can incl: EPDM (most common), chloroprene (better tear resist., may be used for opening joints), silicone (more expensive, may be
used where coloured gasket requ.d), TPE (used for plastic windows, high compression set (not good), can combine w/ pressure plate & beads, may be used for co-extruded gaskets for pvc frames). Compression set (perm deformation) = original recovered. Low = good. Gaskets have to remain compressed to form seal, have to remain compressed under wind load (WL). Failure to compress gaskets may lead to failure of seal or gasket retention.
Initial compression should allow for WL & compression set. If compression is too high, glazing units may be damaged during install. Need to be oversized (1-3%) to allow for stretch in install & compress over time. Wet applied sealant: General Purpose mastic oil based + additive, flexible, skin on surface, become hard over time, less flexible (lose volatile material). Rubber mastic longer flexibility. Others are extruded out of a tube, chemically
react to form a solid material. Lots of type of each depend on additives, filler (depend on spec). Polymer gives sealant its flexibility. Catalyst increase rate of hardening. LE - 5-25 yrs. Sealant needs replacing during b-ding life also effect by UV = degradation. Silicone is most durable. Movement joints flexible material than can accom material. Movement joints: to accom movement from expansion/contraction & shear. Designed for: movement
accomn & rate & frequency of movement. Joints in conc long shrinkage & moisture movement, therefore use plastic sealants. Joints in metal frame, short term response & elastic deformation. Silicone for frame elastic material. Sealant modulus (applied to elastic materials). Low modulus for flexibility, low stresses & forces & high cost. High modulus for high stresses when extended, potentially large forces in substrates, high stresses @
adhesive interface & holding things in position. Low modulus is more expensive as it contains more polymer. Sealant extension (consider tension & compression stretching until full cure). Rapid = hrs. Inter = days. Slow = wks. Compatibility w/ substrates: staining (common w/ stone cladding which is expensive) seepage, mainly into porous stones, seepage across non-porous surfaces that collects dirt, irregular washing depending on the rainH20
flow pattern. Sealants that produce acetic acid (in silicone acids) during cure, not suitable for use w/: some metals (lead), conc, limestone, marble. Reaction w/ materials & effects bond. Surface treatments: paints may contain flow promoters that prevent adhesion, similarly for hygroscopic surface on glass, silicone sealants may be compatible w/ self-cleang glass. Chemicals within sealant may react w/ other polymeric materials incl sealants &
gaskets. Sealant install process: clean, mask, prime, fit backer-rod, apply sealant, tool. Sealant joint failure (cohesive) causes: irregular depth, too shallow @ centre due to over tooling, sealant not suitable for requ.d movement & low temps, lack of bond breaker. Sealant joint failure (adhesive) causes: failure to prime, wet dirty or friable surfaces, excessive (elastic) sealant depth, adhesion to backer, lack of release tape, sealant not suitable for
requ.d movement & low temps. Sealant joint failure (general) causes: insufficient sealant, surface puckering due to early movement, surface tearing due to early movement. Brackets reqi.: transfers loads from cladding to structure via support or restraint, accom induced deviations (tolerances) & inherent deviations (movements), durability resist. to corrosion, compatibility of materials, inspection & maintce & resist fire & quick & simple to install &
adjust (buildable). Design & manu of brackets nearly always bespoke, ease of manu, cost, materials & variations & repetitions of use on a project. Adjustment location: @ the bracket to frame/slab interface, within the bracket, @ the bracket to wall interface. Adjustment mechanisms: cast in channel fixings depend on workmanship & contractual issues, site drilled holes possible clash w/ reinforcement, site welded cleat not preferred,
slotted holes serrated interfaces, friction grip bolts, threaded bars hangers & wind restraint, packers shims of suitable material (incl. bearing, corrosion), packing to acceptable max. dist, 2 way adjustment requ.s small packer in neutral position. Adjustment of brackets prior to cladding insul cannot allow for panel/stick tolerances. Adjustment @ the time of cladding install cannot take account of subsequent 1 off movement. Adjustment post cladding
install requ.s the ability to jack the panels. Movement accom should be present after install, total allowance in movement joint is for tolerance & movement, allowable position post install depends on subsequent load & temp. Accom of movement can be form of sliding & flexing. Secondary truss may be provided for stiffer support point & adjustment of position. Other aspects of buildability: positions of brackets, ease of install & adjustment, site mod
& site design of structural components. Glass primary manu: raw materials mixed & raised to 1500 degC in furnace. Broken glass (cullet) from plant may be added. Glass formed by float process, cast (rolled) process & drawing. All glass is gently cooled after it is formed to avoid locking in thermal stresses which is annealing. Float glass manu flattest w/ least distortion, large production runs, 95% glass production, THK 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 19 &
25 mm & sizes up to 6m x 3.2m. Cast rolled glass manu can produce patterned, plate, WG manu & THK 4, 6, 7 mm & smaller sizes. Drawn glass manu small production runs, antique appearance, plate glass. Glass can be manus as basic glass, body tinted glass achieved by addition of metal oxides to melt, has reduced light transmittance & increased light absorption that leads to overheating. Coated glass: coatings are deposited on to hot
glass & are called hard or pyrolytic coatings. Coatings can incl low-e, low reflectce, self-cleang, coloured. Secondary processing: shaping cutting, edging, drilling, thermal treatment toughening, heat soaking, heat strengthening, bending, soft coating low-e, colour, low reflectce, solar control, fab laminating, printing, fritting & IGU manu. Glass is edge worked: to avoid concentrated edge stresses, for safety if edges are exposed in service &
for appearance. AG: (1 of weakest) used for vert glazing where safety glass not requ.., used for roofing when area underneath isnt used, best optical quality & can be processed into other products. Breakage: large dagger like shard, dangerous to fall through, & if falls. TF: temp diff caused by solar radiation heating centre of pane & shading from frame @ edge. Safe temp diff is 40C for AG. Risk increased for: increased intensity of solar radiation,
solar control glass, int back up constr., int blinds, shadows, glass edge damage. Risk of fracture normally assessed. Modified by toughening to increase init strength & produce a safety glass, heat-strengthening to increase initial strength, laminating to increase post-failure (PF) strength, produce a safety glass & modify other Perf charact. TG can be strengthened by: chemical toughening chemical modification of the surface, used to strengthen thin
glasses (up to 3mm), has a tough surface & limited use in constr., or thermal toughening thermal pre-stress locked in to the glass, giving a stronger safety glass. Toughening process: AG is heated to 630C, then cooled rapidly by surface quenching w/ air, surface hardens before the centre & is pulled into compression. Pre-stress: failure occurs if the compression zone is penetrated, for instance by scoring. Pros: safer breakage mode, stronger
than AG, reduced risk of thermal fracture (TF), structural uses, thinner glass may sometimes be used, same modulus as AG. Cons: has to be cut & edge worked before toughening, limit of size (4x2m readily available & 6x3m possible), not as flat as AG, cannot be drilled, susceptible to NiS failure, subject to anisotropy. Roller wave issues in TG incl orientation & mag, flatness tolerances to be agreed to min disputes. Nickel sulphide (NiS) inclusions
are inherent in all basic glass, are subject to a batch effect, occur once in 4t of Euro glass & formed from nickel from contaminants & sulfur from fuel. More likely in thicker glass. & states of NiS. form changes to the form during toughening of glass, reversion of the state some yrs later causes inclusion to expand & trigger a failure. When failure occur (Double Dee, butterfly effect) proof is requ.d by SEM. Heat soaked toughened glass
(HSTG): process accelerates conversion of NiS inclusion, 99% of panels w/ inclusion will failure during this process. Glass held @ 290C for 2 hours. Feat HSTG: reduces incidence of NiS induced failure to 1% of that in non heat soaked glass, mech properties are unaltered, depends on accuracy of heat soaker, breakages can occur for reasons other than NiS. HSG is produced by toughening process but: it is cooled more slowly than TG, the
resulting induced surface stresses are lower, more difficult to control process as stresses cant be too low or high. Pros: stronger than AG, reduced risk of TF, reduced risk of NiS failure relative to TG, breaks into large pieces & flatter than TG. Cons: Breaks like AG (large shards), not as flat as AG, may be subject to anisotropy, risk of NiS failure. Actual glass strength depends on: inherent strength of AG, induced comp surface stress & duration of
load. TG 120N/mm2, HS 70, AG (basic) 45. Laminated Glass (LG) = 2 or more panes of glass w/ interlayers of polymeric material between them. Laminated to modify: environ.al Perf (acoustic, UV & fire Perf), PF behaviour, appearance (colour, pattern, decorative wires). Init strength of LG is lower than equiv. monolithic pane. Interlayers used for PF strength are: PVB is in flexible 0.38 mm thick sheet & used for most LG & most
economical form of LG. PE (polyester) is cast in place resin & is used for curved glass & TG w/ irregular surface. Ionoplasts are stronger & stiffer than PVBs but more expensive. Interlayers used for environ.al Perf are: PMMA is soft resin when cured & reduces noise transmission through glass, but provides no PF strength. Intumescent materials for insul fire rated glasses. LG used for bullet resistant glazing. Mechanical Perf of LG: weaker than
monolithic of same type & THK, strength reduction depends on duration of load & type of interlayer, PF behaviour depends on type of glass, interlayer & method of fixing & temp. LG breakage glass fragments remain attached to interlayer, safety glass incls PVB layer, security glass incls thicker PVB layer or multiple layers. LG w/ @ least 1 ply of non TG will normally remain in place if fully framed. Delam. can occur if: exposed to weather, edge
covered in H20, incompatible sealants, interlayer is compressed locally during manu, exposed in high temp. Delam. resist. depends upends upon interlayer, minor delam is unlikely to affect safety or structural Perf. Wired glass (WG): steel wire mesh embedded in glass, weakest glass type, used for fire resistant glazing (thin wires), used as a safety glass (thick wires), available as rough cast WG or polished WG. Glass remains attached to wire on
breakage. Wires can break if glass subject to severe impact. Danger of cutting injury if broken or penetrated. Falling if subject to strong impact. Wires can corrode @ cut edges & fractures. Insulated glazing units (IGUs): sealed cavity w/ dry air or gas improves insulation. Air/gas is dried during manu but moisture may leak back in, this will cause condensation & prolonged condensation may cause staining or corrosion of coatings, dual seal requ.d.
These dual seal units can be recognised by a visible second seal of different colour. The use of edge tape (foil) is not recom as it prevents inspection of the seal & edge damage & may trap moisture. Safe use of glass consid incl: injury from impact w/ glass, manifestation to reduce risk of impact, containment to prevent falling, PF behaviour (incl. overhead glass). Build regs requ. for impact: glazing w/ which people are likely to come into contact
while in passage in or about the b-ding, shall break in a way which is unlikely to cause injury (i.e. safety glass) or resist impact without breaking (i.e. small or thick panes) or be shielded or protected from impact. Requ for manifestation: transparent glazing, w/ which people are likely to come in contact w/ while moving in or about b-ding, shall have features which make it apparent (not for dwellings). Glass in critical locations should be: a safety
glass or glass that does not fail under impact or a glass that is shielded from impact. Grading of glass ()- is highest drop height class (1,2,3) @ which product either does not break or breaks safely, mode of breakage (A, B or C) & highest drop height class (1 =1200mm ,2 = 450,3 = 190 (same as ) @ which product provides containment. Breakage classes: A Num cracks appear forming separate fragments w/ sharp edges, some
large (AG or HSG), B Nume cracks appear, but fragments held together & dont separate (LG, safety wired, film-backed AG) & C Disintegration occurs, leading to large no. of small relative harmless fragments (TG). Comparison of safety glass: 4mm toughened float glass (TFG) 1(C)0, 8mm TFG 1(C)2, 12mm TFG 1(C)1, LG w/ >0.76mm PVB 1(B)1, LG w/ <0.76mm PVB 2(B)2 & SWG 3(B)3. Class 3 generally satisfactory, Class 2
requ. in doors & door side panels where smaller dimension great than 900mm. Impact resistant glass robust AG or HSG. Small panes of glass @ least 6mm THK, typ. in doors normally have sufficient strength irrespective of glass used . AG is allowed but may not be most approp solution. If shielding is requ. it should be dimensioned as shown left. If glass door can be secured open then they must be shielded against collision. Manifestation requ
@ 2 height logos or emblems 150mm high or a continuous band of width 50mm, must contract visually w/ bground in all lighting conditions, frameless glass entrance doors, must be differentiated from a glazed screen by a high contrast strip @ top, & on both sides. Glass in barriers (balustrades or glass walls) requ: resist static load (strength & deflection), safety on impact, containment under impact, safety from falling glass. Containment: BS
6180 permits monolithic TG but TG does not provide reliable containment after fracture. LG w/ 0.76PVB or equiv. preferred, although for glazing units 2 panes of TG may be acceptable subject to a RA, & risk to people below should be considered. Glass overhead that breaks: will fall if it not vert & not restrained, may fall if it is vert & not restrained, glass may be selected to min the risk of failure, constructed to fall safely & glazed to remain in place
when broken. Overhead glazing: consider sloping & vert glazing, considers any glass that is not nominally vert to be sloping, limits on approp. Glass types for sloping glazing, no established limits on glass type for vert glass growing reluctance to use mono TG, requ.s a risk assessment (& potentially testing), contractors may have company policy. Overhead slope glazing (upper pane) requ: strength to resist TF & static loads & impact, &, safe
breakage if subject to maintce access. Options could be TG, HSTP AG, WG, LG. Fire Perf of curtain & rscreen walls: CW are not generally fire resisting but precautions are requ.d to restrict spread of fire, such as: firestops between CW & structure, reaction to fire of surfaces, combustibility of materials. Rscreen walls it is necessary to restrict fire spread in cavities using cavity barriers. Response of material to heat source: combustibility,
spread of flame, release of heat & affects: development of a fire, spread of fire up height of & between b-dings. Combustibility based on small scale lab tests. Fire resist.: for non loadbearing, insul will prevent transfer of heat & integrity to prevent passage of flame & smoke. Requ.d to restrict fire spread between b-dings & to protect escape routes. Not normally requ.d for CW if adequate space separation provided. Asses sed by large scale lab tests.
Fire Perf of b-dings (build regs): prime concern is safety of people, AD B, fire eng. provides alt approach. Insurance: concerned w/ limiting b-ding damage. Client: may be concerned w/ business continuity & potential extra/special requ.ments for high important b-dings. Build regs: assumes fire will occur, make requ. for controlling fire spread int & ext. 5 heading for fire safety: warning & escape, int fire spread (linings), int fire spread (structure), ext
fire spread, access & facilities for the fire service. Fire escape, & its provision are a requ. Route should be protected from fire, radiant heat, smoke. May requ. fire resisting faade where route is close. Overhead slope glazing (lower pane) requ: strength to resist TF & static loads & impact, residual strength to remain in place & retain upper pane & resist (reduced) loads, or could be design to fall safely (if not requ. to resist load). Options are LG, WG
or TG if < 5m above ground, of limited pane size & THK <= 13m above ground but not normally recomm. TG for use overhead should heat soaked to min. risk of NiS induced fracture. Broken TG should be retained by a lower pane or fragmented by a mesh to prevent glass falling as clusters. Perf of LG depends on glass type & method of support: @ least 1 pane must not be toughened to give residual stiffness, 2 edge supported glass may fold &
slide out of frame, interlayer of bolted glass may tear around fixings. Overhead vert glazing (OVG) (inner pane): may need to be safety glass & provide containment & resist TF & mitigate blast effects & resist wind load. OVG (outer pane): may need to resist TF, resist WL, resist cradle impacts, min effect of blast, min consequences of failure. For commercial b-dings, solution has been HSTG outer pane & LG inner pane. LG becoming preferred
option for outer pane especially for large pane sizes. Risk assessment (RA) can be used to evaluate risks & ensure that all parties understand their responsibilities. B-ding Perf risks: dissatisfaction w/ appearance, failure security, excessive glare & solar heat gain & noise, &, difficulty w/ cleang, maintce, repair, replacement & demolition. Financial risks: cost of glass, glass replacement after completion due to breakage & non-Perf, disruption cause
by remediation, loss in b-ding value & business, claims for injury. Safety risks: breakage of glass, falling/flying glass, falling against/through glass. Assessment for safety: possible glass configurations, Perf under normal & abnormal conditions, how & when & consequences of breakage, glass fall? Will it fall en masse as a clump of fragments? How far? Where land? How many people? How to limit risks? What are residual risks? Party/parties
carrying residual risks. Glazing carries only loads applied directly to it (WL, snow, barrier loads, access loads, S/W) & failure is local to pane. Structural glass transfers loads & if it fails loads in other elements will increase in glass fins, beams, & progr collapse may occur. Glazing assemblies: Suspended glazing: sheets of glass bolted to metal patch fittings, frameless glazing faade, joints between adjacent panels sealed on site w/ silicone
sealant & glass fins transfer WL to the structure. Supported glazing: glass panels bolted to special brackets directly fixed to elements to b-ding structure, DL carried through cables or roads, 4-8 bolts per panel, var types of support structure possible. Glass shells: tri-glass plates connected by non-structural framing members, works by shell action & in-plane forces. Requ. for safe design: structure design to resist applied loads (stress & deflection),
accom movement (to avoid loads from restrained movement or designed to resist induced loads, fail in a safe manner where structure should give warning of failure, redundancy should be provided to prevent disproportionate collapse, hazard from breakable component should be limited. Prog collapse failure of 1 component due to structural overload or weakness & malicious behaviour, should transfer loads to other components &
should not cause failure of further components. PF behaviour (glass roof): indiv panes of glass should fail safely, & should not fall & in a floor (trafficked roof) applied load should still be supported. Breakage test LG 2 x 10mm HSG w/ 1.52PVB, both panes broken but still supports 0.5kN/m2. Glass fin hanging in clamp, Tness is important dont want glass to fall, once broken. AG is perfectly LE & stronger than no experience in practice
because of flaws/imperfections on surface therefore we work @ 1/1000 th of theoretical strength. Int stresses: Holes create complex stress patterns & can be assessed by tests. Glass is an i) consistent material where the stresses vary massively (unlike steel or alum.). Not all glass is the same patterned is weaker during the chill process (+ enamelled) due to uneven temp. Glass strength depends on duration of loading, area of glass, environ. &
age of glass. Stress corrosion (static fatigue) account for time dependency & effect incld in codes. Soda lime silicate glass & borosilicate glass (45N/mm2) & then thermally toughened soda lime silicate glass (from float 120, patterned 90, enamelled 75) & heat strengthened soda lime silicate glass (from float 70, patterned 55, enamelled 45). Pre-stressed glass strength: Surface pre-stress due to toughening or heat-strengthening (90-120 N/mm2)
strength depends on charact strength of AG & induced surface stress. Strength of AG: charact strength above (c), duration mod factor (kmod) for Short (wind 0.72), Med (snow 0.36 & climate 0.36) & Perm (SW 0.27 & altitude 0.27), size factor (ka) pane araea 0.2-20 m2 (0.93 1.13) & partial material factor (m). Allowable strength Equ. a =kmod.(c/m.ka). Change for prestress: p c /v to front of equ. v material partial factor for pre-stress
(ULS 2.3 unless patterned (3.0) & SLS 1.5 or 2.0 & p is induced surface stress. Strength is not affected by surface defects or stress corrosion until pre-stress is overcome as no surface cracks exist. Built-up sections (large to small deflections): layered (0% composite action), monolithic, composite (0-100% action). LG strength: short term load (wind) the interlayer is stiff & the glass behaves as is monolithic, longer duration (snow or dead load)
PVB or resin interlayer may creep & glass will be less stiff than monolithic & ionoplast interlayers produce stiffer laminates. Load sharing in IGUs: no composite action, stiffness of a pane depends on cube of THK, load shared in ratios of 1:1 to 1:4 or more, using thicker glass for outer pane will reduce visual distortion. Glass plate analysis: elastic bending behaviour may be assumed provided the deflections are less than glass THK & glass pane
is then modelled as an elastic plate. For greater deflections membrane action occurs: the glass is still behaving elastically w/ LE properties but must model the variable geom. Behaviour is dependent on: the THK, height & glass breadth, support conditions, glass stiffness. Non-structural glass: incl 2 or 4 sided frame, point support rigid or flexible structure & structural sealant glazing. 4-edge support: glass acts in bending spanning in 2 directions,
reduces deflection of glass to min., design incls design charts in standards & structural analysis (large deflection theory). 2-edge support: glass acts in bending spanning in 1 direction, deflection greater than 4-edge support, occurs @ patent glazing, floor-to-ceiling glazing. Floor-to-ceiling (2-edge): vert edge is finished as a silicone seal on the edge, thicker glass is requ. but benefit is appearance. Point supported glass: deflection greater than 4edge, concentrated stresses @ fixings, stresses reduced by rotation @ fixings & suitable bearing materials, various types of connection monolithic, LG & glazing units. Spider supports which are in turn supported from a mullion. Connection types: linearly supported (edge clamps), local edge supports (edge clamps), local point supports (simple bolt, countersunk bolt, undercut anchors, corner patches, plate clamping glass to cable net, articulated
bolts), structural silicone sealant. Connecting to IGUs: connecting through 2 panes of glass is possible but has implications for sealing & guarantees, connecting to the inner pane has the same problems as it makes the edge seal is load carrying. Glued connecters: glues can be stronger than the glass & lead to a plucking failure of the glass. Glass-fins can be used to transfer in-plane loads & can be carried by frictional connectors or bolts in
bearing. Frictional connectors: bolts clamp the connector plates against the glass, friction generated between the plates & the glass transfers the in-plane loads & the bolts do not contact the glass. Patch plates rely on friction & are not suitable for glazing units, problem w/ LG as the laminate is compressed. Laminate creeps the tension in the bolts reduces & the load capacity of the connector is reduced, this can be overcome by placing a metal
insert in place of the laminate around the holes. Bearing connectors: glass & plates slip until they contact the bolt, load transfer is by bearing of the glass on the plate & bearing of the plates on the glass, the hole may be lined w/ a softer material, the bolts is in shear not tension. Nylon insert: can be site drilled to give a precisely positioned hole irrespective of manu tolerances & the nylon bush will distribute the loads around its interface w/ the glass.

Support systems: suspended assembly (glass fins or steel structure as wind restraint), glass beams & glass columns & struts. Reflectance & absorption are properties of the glass. Incident radiation(IR) = reflectance (reflec) + absorptance (absorp)+ transmission (%). Reflec depends on surface properties of glass or coating if present varies depending upon the angle of the incident light which is usually measured & specified for normal
incidence of 0deg. Absorp depends on the glass type tints may be added to the glass. Absorp causes glass to heat up until heat loss from the glass is in equil w/ the rate of absorp. Heat loss from the glass occurs by conduction to the frame, convection & radiation & this contributes to the total transmitted radiation. Solar (g) factor & SHGC: The g-value is often used to specify glazing Perf, calculated as a proportion of the IR on the glass, defined as
the sum of the direct transmittance & the absorbed radiation entering the room by long-wave radiation & convection from the glass. Manurs normally quote: reflec, total visible transmittance & total solar heat transmission (g-value). For multiple glazing, radiation reflected from an inner pane will be incident on the inner face of the outer panes & multiple reflections will occur. Secondary reflections also increase the energy transmittance & are incld in
the total transmittance. Emissivity: ratio of the actually emitted energy to the energy that would be emitted by a black body @ the same temp. Net radiation is the radiation emitted less the radiation received from other surfaces. (If all surfaces are @ the same temp then no radiative transfer occurs). Solar radiation: the aim is to moderate the entry of s=wave infra-red energy to control solar gain while admitting visible light to reduce the need for
lighting energy. Glass coatings for solar control rely on 2 physical phenomena to produce their Perf the absorption & transmittance charact & interference eff. Coated glasses are selected to distinguish between s-wave radiation & l-wave infrared. Ordinary glass high absorp of l-wave radiation, glass gets hot & losses heat by convection & radiation. Hard-coat low-e = reflec & transmittance total nearly 100%, band in which s-wave radiation is
transmitted is much narrower & centred on the visible part of the spectrum, higher Perf much greater selectivity & has lower transmittance of s-wave radiation. Selectivity: measure of the efficacy of a control glass may be designed as light transmission/g-value. Reflective coatings have to be positioned to reflect solar radiation outwards. Tinted glasses & high absorp coatings will get warm & should be used as the outer panes. Reflective solar
radiation will cause glasses to become hotter if it passes through the glass as both incident & reflected radiation. The use of low-e coating on surface (outer face of inner pane) will reduce the amount of energy radiated inwards from the outer pane. Soft coatings: have to be protected within the glazing cavity & should be placed surface 2 or 3. Low-e coatings: effective whether placed on the emitting surface or the receiving surface, can be on either
surface 2 or 3 to reduce radiation across the cavity. If a mid-pane used low-e coating should be on surface 3. The use of a double low-e coating on surfaces 2 or 3 will give only marginal improvement over a single coating. Heating dominated climate low-e on surface 3, cooling on surface 2. Solar control polyester films may be applied to the glass to reduce the solar transmission, reduce the emissivity, minimise discomfort glare. These can be
applied to the int or ext surface of the glass or glazing unit. Less durable than plain or hard-coated glass & is typically used as a retro-fit. TF of AG may occur if a sufficiently high temp differential is created across the glass & the greater the absorp of the glass the hotter it is likely to become. Coatings & films also increase the temp of the glass if they reduce heat loss by reducing radiation from the surface & reflect radiation back through the glass.
Shading Devices (SD) may be provided for: reduction of solar gain, control of solar glare or sky glare, aesthetics. Vert devices less dense packing will admit direct light, direct sunlight may cause glare. Dense packing may reduce or eliminate vision out. Light may enter the room as light reflected from the blades. Partial shade degree of shading varies across width @ any time of day, average g-factor may be calculated, can be an economical
solution. Variable spaced horiz bar allow for better vision out. Blinds are angular selective & only block light from a range of incident angles. Can provide solid shade all day if rotating slats. Horiz slats can be set to block sun from low alt, need no further adjustment throughout the day. Vert slats can only block sun from a range of azi, need adjustment through the day. Roller blinds (ROLLB) reduces incidence from all angles but have to be raised
during day. Vert slats only work @ certain sun positions, glare may still enter @ some horiz angles, requ. adjustment through the day, deny vision @ some viewing angles. Horiz slats work over a range of vert shading angles, deny view of sky, may allow vision out below the horizon, may be set once to prevent all glare. ROLLB depends on light transmission & fabric structure. Ext blinds (EXTB) are most eff @ reducing solar gain, may provide
shading against glare & controllable but difficult & expensive. INTB may reduce glare, protect privacy, do not reduce solar overheating & normally controllable. EXTB convect heat to outside. INTB convect & radiate heat to inside & causes glass to get very hot & does not solve solar gain problem. Blinds within an IGU are normally horiz & controllable for tilt & raise/lower mechanism, they are less prone to misuse than INTB & more difficult to
maintain. Mid-pane blinds: collect heat within the IGU or cavity, glass gets hot w/ risk of TF, low-e coating requ.d on surface 3 of IGU or inner glass & cant be used w/ tilt or horiz pivot windows. Shading that limits unwanted solar gain also limits useful daylight. Vert SDs may be beneficial as daylight is most needed when the sky is overcast & the light is coming from above. Or control glasses may be used w/ SDs or alone. Aim to reduce the IR &
may be done by shading part of glass area using solid shading (no direct radiation passes) or partial shading (fritting & grillages). Can ignore shallow angles of incidence as reflectance is then greater transmission. Un-shaded area admits light & heat radiation. Consider min area of daylight & average area for solar gain. Shadow pattern of a SD will depend on: SD geom, optical properties, orientation of faade & sun position. Overhang works best
on a S, SE or SW windows & other orientations can be beneficial if overhang is deep. Deeper overhang blocks more radiation, little benefit in increasing overhang depth to more than 0.8x window height. If window is tall & narrow, increasing width may better than increasing depth. Vert fins worst for E & W windows, unless v. large. Best on N windows. Dark colour reduces reflected radiation. Louvres w/ horiz slats: mounted extly, horiz louvres are
particularly effective @ blocking solar gain but they block lots of daylight. For S, SW/SE orientation, louvres will tend to block most solar gain & allow some view out. Other orientations, a more tilted louvre is needed for opt blocking of solar gain. Not for N windows. Vert Louvres provide more shading than horiz for N, NE-NW windows, provide less shading for other orientations. Glare: visible light @ a level that causes discomfort. Intense levels of
light may additionally reduce the ability to see objects. Caused by direct, reflected or back lighting. No absolute level; principally the contrast between the glare source & the object being viewed. 2 types of glare: direct light on the working surface, overly bright & eye-strain & much brighter than PC screen & washes out the screen, & diffuse light. Back-lit silhouettes & glare from diffusing panels. Int glare particularly occurs for overhead glazing, & also
in conventional windows if the sun if low enough. Winter mornings & evening are a potential problem. Outdoor glare: sunlight reflected from mirrored & other highly reflective surface may be a danger to motorist & pilots & be a nuisance in the landscape. Solutions: INTB (occupant control). Reduction of glare: controllable opaque SD provides good protection in blocking glare & venetian blinds, translucent SDs provide some protection but may
become a bright patch itself defusing glare & light-coloured fabric blinds, transparent SDs do not work so used as least tinted glass. Reflected glare isnt considered in sunpaths. Coated glasses: Why? Prevent the passae of some part of EM spectrum, modify the colour & the reflectance & produce self-cleang glass. Coatings are thin coatings of metals or metal oxides, cause interference of the EM waves. Others are thicker & work by absorbing
EM energy. Hard coatings can be: self-cleang, reflective, low reflec, coloured, solar control, low-e, data-stop. Soft coatings: reflective, low reflectance, low-e or solar control. Hard or pyrolytic coatings are applied to the glass by chemical vapour deposition as it is produced on the float line. The hot glass passes beneath a metal or metal oxide vapour which is deposited on & fuses to the glass surface. The coating cannot be removed from the surface
without damaging the glass. The production is continuous as the glass ribbon passes & Is not easily controlled. This can lead to variations in coating THK & it is not possible to produce high Perf glasses by hard coating them. Local variations in colour may occur as a results of variations in the coating THK. Hard coats are fused to the glass surface & remain so if the glass is subsequently reheated to toughen, heat-strengthen or bend the glass.
Durable & may be used on single glazing or an ext surface of an IGU. Long shelf life w/ a typical emissivity of 0.15 to 0.20. Hard coatings may show a pink pattern as they may reflect red as well as infra-red. Pros & Cons: less expensive, simpler to procure, may not give best Perf such as higher U-values & SHGC, lower quality & slight haze problems @ certain angles. Soft coatings are applied to the glass after it has been manud using physical
vacuum deposition or sputtering. The glass is placed in a vacuum chamber & the target of metal or metal oxide is bombarded to eject material from it. This forms a vapour cloud that condenses on the glass surface @ ambient temp & is not fused to the glass. The coatings can be separated from the surface of the glass by scraping or adhesion. Soft coats may be damaged by abrasion & moisture. Soft coats have to be protected by being assembled
into an IGU shortly after manu & it is necessary to remove the coating around the margin of the glass (edge deletion) & bond the spacer bar directly to the glass. Because of the low adhesion to the glass, it is not acceptable to bond to the coating. Soft coated glasses cannot be toughened, heat strengthened or thermally bent. Coated glasses are prone to problems of appearance iridescence or colouration. The sputtering process creates coated
glasses w/ much higher Perf. Firstly the coating THK can be more tightly controlled to give more uniform & consistent Perf. Secondly multiple coatings may be applied 1 on top of the other. In practice up to 14 coatigs have been applied to a single glass surface. Each coating is its own reflector/fitter & the effects are cumulative. It is therefore possible to define & fine tune the Perf of the glass & typically emissivities of 0.04-0.08. Pros & cons: may give
better Perf, better optical clarity w/ less colour haze, higher quality, must be used in an IGU, edge deletion requ., more expensive, limit the spec of the glass, complex to procure parties involved & lead times. Hard/soft coating: early sputtered coating were very soft. More recently harder coatings have been produced by sputtering. They are still called soft coatings to convey the idea that they have the high Perf associated w/ soft coatings. They
would be better called hard/soft coatings or semi-soft coatings & they do not offer the same high level of environ.al Perf as some soft coatings. Hard/soft coatings are more durable, they have longer shelf lives & some do not need protection within an IGU. Some of these coatings will withstand thermal processing such as toughening, heat strengthening & bending. Manurs should be consulted on processing as this has to be done w/ some care to
avoid marking the surface. Structural aspects: brise soleil (BriS): either integrated w/ CW or a free standing structure. Requ.s discussion between architect, specialist contractor & structural engineer. Horiz BriS: loading (SW, WL, snow & access) Cantilevered from floor slab: mullion bracket penetrates through wall, potential thermal bridge, BriS may not be @ optimum height. Cantilevered @ mullions: add. bending load on mullions (may be
large), rigid connection to mullion may introduce a cold bridge, height of BriS is flexible. Pinned to mullions & tied: small add. bending load on mullions, pinned connection to mullion may avoid cold bridge, height of BriS is flexible & could be hinged (retractable) for maintce. Supported by cable from top: no add. bending load in mullion, pinned connection to mullion may avoid cold bridge, height of BriS is flexible, support cable may be anchored to
ground to resist wind uplift. Free standing: no addit load on mullions, height of BriS is flexible, separate contract package & more expensive. Int fire spread controlled by reaction of fire to int surfaces (incl. facades), compartmentation which can be achieved by use of suitable int wall & floor constr. & requ.s consideration of junctions w/ ext walls & restriction on cavities. Ext fire spread controlled if the ext walls are constructed so that the risk of
ignition from an ext source, & the spread of fire over their surfaces, is restricted by making provision for them to have low rates of heat release, or, if amount of unprotected area in side of b-ding is restricted to limit amount of thermal radiation that pass through wall, taking the dist between wall & boundary into account. >= 1m away from next b-ding is over 18m. Ext walls < 1m of the boundary requ. fire resist. from both sides. Ext wall > 1m from
boundary requ. fire resist. from inside only. Fire resist. periods depend on b-ding use & height. Limits on amount of unprotected area (e.g. glazing) permissible which depend on dist from boundary. For walls far enough from boundary - no limit on unprotected area. Perf of CW: alum. soften & melts, weaken @ 200, melt @ 550 600 & failure (test) @ 30 min. However, glass probably fractures first; typical period to disruption of a wall is 15 min.Glazed
facades requ.: fire resistant glass & appropriate frames. Junctions w/ compartment floor: (build regs state) where a compartment wall or floor meets an ext wall, the junction should maintain the fire resist. of the compartmentation. @ the junction of a compartment floor w/ a CW, the ext wall should be restrained @ floor level to reduce the movement of the wall away from the floor when exposed to fire. The requ. to prove fire stop between CW (bding envelope) & floor applies in all countries. Fire stops are to have same fire resist. as compartment wall/floor & requ.d to restrict spread of heat & smoke. Fire stopping material utilise: mineral wool for thermal insul, foil or spray applied membrane for smoke control & sealants may be used in small gaps. Detailing fire stops: positively fixed in position, positive pressure from fire cell, weight of H20 from fire fighting, loss of support from failure of
fixings, use steel ledge or spikes. Fire stops compressed to form seal & joints are taped to give smoke seal. They must be able to accom movement of floor & wall. During the fire: floors may sag but this is likely to be after failure of the curtain, & the expansion of CW may cause it to bow as there is initial expansion will cause inward bow & if alum. softens the wall may bow outwards. Fire stops effectiveness is increased if faade is composed of fire
resistant material; non-combustible insul but need to control smoke, non-combustible facing on panels w/ combustible insul, & insul removed to allow fire stop to penetrate to back of glass. Brackets: AD B requ.s CW to be restrained to prevent movement away from the floor in fire & not intended to requ. fire resisting brackets. Combustibility of materials: extensive fires have occurred around the world where combustible cladding, notably
polyethylene, cored ACM has been used. Regulations requiring use of limited combustibility materials vary, the requ.ment for limited combustibility materials may be extended to cover all significant materials. Thermoplastic insul: main type is polystyrene but it melts, may form burning droplets causing fire spread. Fire can then spread in void form by melting insul. Therefore, not commonly used in CW & rscreens but used in ext insul systems.
Thermoset insul: Polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, phenolic foam form char. Foil faced phenolic foam satisfies class 0 & is widely used in rscreen walls, used in b-ding above 18m based on Perf test. Mineral wool: incl. glass & rock wool, may not be classed as non-combustible due to resin binder but generally satisfies requ.ments for limited combustibility. Glass wool melts @ a lower temp than rock wool & not suitable for fire barriers. Higher than
foam plastic & requ. greater THK to achieve U-value may need to increase wall THK. AD B requ. cavity barriers @: perimeter of cavity, around window opening, on line of compartment walls & floor, @ max spacing of 20m when the materials within the cavity are non-combustible. Closure in a cavity should provide 30 mins of fire resist., & 15 mins insul. Rscreen cavity is a moist zone & fire barriers must be durable. Cavity vent: requ.ment for
rscreen walls the vent path shall comprise an air gap 25 mm min. dim immediately behind the rscreen (limit depends on type of joint), & the path shall not be reduced in cross section by more than 50% by fire barriers & rails. Potential conflicts between fire barriers & vent/drainage of the cavity that need to be resolved w/ intumescent barriers & barriers coordinated w/ joints. Ext fire spread: attempt to simulate real fire situation following unexpected
fire spread in real fire situation. Permitted by build regs as alternative to prescriptive requ. for: reaction to fire, combustibility of insul & cavity barriers. Rscreen Perf: ext panels likely to be lost allowing fire to enter cavity. Alum. cladding rails are likely to suffer loss of strength. Barriers are likely to be requ.d to prevent fire spread in cavity. The Perf of insul depends on the type of material. Fire resistant glasses incl: may be monolithic or LG, may
provide insul &/or integrity & may provide additional benefits such as acoustics, safety etc. Perf in a fire depends significantly on pane area, frame constr. & glazing method. Integrity only glasses can be monolithic or LG, & this does not incl AG & HSG but may incl TG, WG & borosilicate glass. In a fire TG will behave in a similar manner to AG & HSG but can withstand fire for longer periods due to greater strength & can provide up to 60 min integrity,
can be used monolithically or as piles in LG & panes in IGUs, & requ. minimal edge cover & worked edges as a precaution against thermal failure. In a fire WG may crack but presence of wires holds glass together, ordinary wired glass (WG) = 60 mins, safety WG = 120 min. WG has easy identification as fire resistant glass, can be cut to size on-site, cheapest fire resistant glass available & presence of wires may impair appearance. Borosilicate
glass: stresses reduced due to lower coefficient of thermal expansion, can be HS or TG, can provide up to 90 min integrity, can be used in butt glazing w/ intumescent sealants to provide up to 30 min integrity, & can be used w/ frame designs incorporating larger edge cover than most other monolithic fire glasses. IGU: have some fire Perf as the indiv panes of glazing material, inner pane normally fire resistant glass, outer pane can be any glazing
material in order to provide uniform ext appearance, solar control etc. Seals may need to be specially formulated for fire resist.. Intumescent materials swell when heated & intumescent glazing is glass laminated w/ an intumescent interlayer which both expands to provide insul & become opaque to prevent radiation. Intumescent glass fractures in heat but remains in place & level of fire protection depends upon no. of intumescent interlayers. Needs
UV resistance for ext applications & edge needs to be protected from H20. Blast resist.: gas blasts (deflagration) incl. gas or powder in industrial accidents, & gas in dwellings or bomb blasts (detonation) terrorist action.
blast pressure outwards requ. provide blast relief panels in industrial situation, windows f

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outwards in dwellings, prevent prog. collapse. Blast pressure inwards requ.: blast
resistant windows in industrial situation & prevent prog. collapse. H/weight cladding systems: panels w/ great
mass have inertia & impart smaller forces to the fixes/support structure, stiffer/stronger panels are less likely to
fracture but impart larger forces to the fixings/support structure, pre-cast conc panels generally fail @ their
fixings. L/weight/glazed cladding: glass fractures & panels separate from frames, failure of the infill limits the
loads on the frames & fixings. Zone of effect: flying glass is a major cause of injuries in an explosion, safe
stand-off from truck bomb LG = 50m, TG = 100m, AG = 150m w/ damaged caused within this region.
Window & glass Perf is designed to give: no breakage or acceptable breakage. Range test: Toughenedtoughened pvb laminate test Perf: massive deflection of the LG causes large membrane stresses in the pvb
interlayer, glass has pulled from frame, deeper glazing rebates are used, Perf depends on clamping &/or
bonding of the glass edge. LG test Perf: LG has pulled the frame away from the wall, the frame of an opening
light may be pulled away from the fixed frame, Perf depends on fixings & hardware. Worst to best blast resist.:
AG, TG, LG, & A/T or T/L. RA: no significant risk glazing selection unaffected or b-ding not considered a
target but potential for flying glass due to explosion @ some dist glass selected to provide blast mitigation,
anti shatter film may be used for existing glazing or b-ding considered @ risk of direct attack blast specified in
terms of charge size & dist, glazing design to provide blast resist. using blast enhanced glazing in enhanced
frames or secondary glazing may be used for existing b-dings. Blast mitigation: LG in normal frame, for
glazing unit inner pane min 6.8 mm L/AG, outer pane min 6 mm TG or 6.8 mm L/AG. Sizes to apply to max.
pane 1.5m x 1.2m & specialist advice requ. for larger panes. Int clip in beads may requ. mechanical fixing of
beads. Blast resistant: LG in blast enhanced framea, for glazing unit inner pane min 7.5 mm L/AG, outer
pane min 6 mm TG or 7.5 mm L/AG. Frames w/ 35mm rebate & gaskets or 30 mm rebate if bonded or
clamped. Fixing of frames to surrounding structure must be designed to take blast loads. Resist. to intrusion:
opportunistic burglar will break in any property & doesnt care which, uses light tool & can be deterred by
slowing them down or a determined burglar (bandit) attacks a particular property using larger tools w/
determined effort. Hierarchy of security glass Perf in ascending order: single TG, single AG, IGU w/ 1 pane
annealed, WG, polycarbonate,LG, LG w/ multiple piles. Security/Anti-bandit glazing: BS EN 356 Test: 3 x
4.11 kg steel ball, variable drop height (1.5m, 3m, 6m, 9m), must resist penetration, glass 1100 x 900 mm,
higher Perf glasses tested w/ a mechanical hammer & axe to cut 400 mm square hole from conc of test panel,
record no. of blows. Durability: maintce of acceptable Perf. Service life: period of time after install during
which a b-ding or its parts meets or exceeds the Perf requ.. not necess as new Perf. Design life:
(intended/expected service life) as intended by designer. Demonstrable design life: service life predicted from
test or previous experience. Guaranteed life: period of manurs responsibility, not service life or design life. The
b-ding design life must be agreed by clients & normally default of 60 yrs. The design life of components may be
less: depends on function, maintce strategy & ability to replace/repair. Durability of CW: primary components
all components w/ a predicted service life not less than design life of CW without need for maintce, other than
regular cleang, secondary components: all components w/ a predicted service life less than design life of CW,
assuming regular cleang & maintce in accordance w/ information provided by the CW supplier. Cladding system
needs to be developed w/ approx. 50 yr design life in mind, elements of constr. that requ. replacement within
the stated period (e.g. glazing units, sealants, gaskets etc) shall be nominated by cladding contractor & their
replacement periods clearly stated. Within design life period, assembly shall meet Perf requ. of this spec
without maintce in excess of cleang, minor repairs & renewal of sealants. Materials which cannot meet design
life shall be identified & details provided of the method of replacement. Primary components: framing
components, brackets & fixings, panels & their fixings, thermal insul, vapour barriers, flashings, gutters,
copings, sealants that are inaccessible. Secondary components: int linings, exposed finished to metal,
operating hardware, glazing, gaskets & sealants. METALS Main forms of deterioration (MFOD): corrosion, life
expectancy (LE):100 yrs or more depending on metal, methods of protection (MP):durable metal/grade, use of
protective coatings, design for durability design details, maintce (MAINT): cleang, lubrication, repainting.

Gas explosi

TIMBER. MFOD: fungal decay, insect attack, UV light, moisture movement, adhesive failure of board products,
LE: depends on location & maintce, MP: durable species, preservatives, coatings, design details, MAINT:
repainting. GLASS & CERAMIC. MFOD: alkali attach, mechanical damage, also deterioration of coating,
failure of glazing units. LE: 100 yrs or more for glass, 25 yrs for glazing units, MP: correct use of materials,
MAINT: cleang, replacement either isolated or total. CEMENT & CONC. MFOD: reinforcement corrosion,
sulfate attack, frost attack, alkali silica reaction, LE: 100 yrs plus, MP: correct use materials, MAINT: cleang.
BRICK & TERRACOTTA. MFOD: frost attack, efflorescence, bond of tiles, LE: 100 yrs of more, MP: correct
use of materials, MAINT: repointing & cleang. STONE. MFOD: frost attack, salt crystalisation, acid rain,
unsound particles, LE: 100 yrs or more, MP: correct use of materials, MAINT: cleang. PAINT FINISHES.
MFOD: loss of adhesion, loss of gloss, fading, embrittlement, chalking, LE: 5 to 30 yrs, MP: correct use of
materials, selection of colour, MAINT: cleang & recoating. RUBBER & PLASTIC. MFOD: UV embrittlement,
LE: 20-30 yrs, MP: correct grade of material, maintce cleang & replacement. SEALANTS & ADHESIVES.
MFOD: UV stiffening, effect of movement, LE: up to 25 yrs, maybe more for silicones, MP: correct grade of
material & use of materials, MAINT: replacement. Material compatibility: bimetallic, alkali from conc
corrosion of alum. & etching of glass, interaction of polymeric materials, corrosion due to wood acids.
Chemicals within sealants may react w/ other polymeric materials incl sealants & gaskets. Alkali corrosion all
alum. components in direct contact w/ cementitious surfaces should be isolated, this is particularly a problem w/
freshly poured conc. Finishes should be protected from splashes of conc & similar alkaline b-ding materials.
EE: Cradle to grave is a difficult concept as the designer is not in control of use & decommissioning. Cradle to
gate ignores waste & may underestimate transport. Need to incl energy of material made not material used!
EC: more significant measure of combating climate change. EE/carbon depends on choice of material, source
of material transport energy, plant energy (incl. EE), service life life in this use, recycling or re-using.
Discount cycle: recycled second use, recyclable re-usable. Project based view if material is 100%
recyclable/re-usable, industry based if it is impossible to recycle/re-use all material @ an industry level. EE
(MJ/kg) from low to high timber, conc, insul, glass, composites, metals. EE for CW mullion per unit length of
profile (graph below) EC is same. Alum. - large range which is from different assumptions about recycling rate
(RR) & energy source. Alum. less dense than steel, timber less good when compared in use as it used as a
solid profile. Material EE: Sourcing materials, process efficient like toughening & heat soaking, how well is
the oven insulated. EE depends on: energy of initial production, proportion of re-cycled material used, energy
of reforming. Alum.: 70% RR in UK, EC assumes electr is used to smelt bauxite. Glass: 38% RR for glass in
UK, energy for re-forming is approx. 50% of energy to form virgin material. Waste min methods incl: glass
cutting small pieces allows optimisation, a cutting schedule may run across several jobs, works for common
glass THK such as 4mm glass across several houses. Alum. extruded as continuous profile but shipped as 6m
lengths, can cut shorter @ extruder for large no.s of repetitive components. Timber can be made continuous by
finger jointing to give zero wastage out of an infinite length. @ the design stage, we could requ. design for
disassembly & recycling/down-cycling. Metal rscreen panels have a high probability of recovery & recycling.
Mixed metal products & bonded components are less likely to be recovered. Glass recycling: monolithic
easy, wired difficult, LG possible for thinner glasses, IGUs depends on glasses & edge seals. Improving
potential: fewer bonded joints, sealants & adhesives that may be re-melted, glass-to-glass edges on IGUs,
using gaskets rather than wet applied sealants. Glass is used as: packaging, automotive, furniture. If glass
from packaging has a 70% re-use rate then there is scope for using re-cycled architectural glass to make the
missing 30%. If this is greater than the glass available from constr. then all glass from constr. may have a
secondary use (down cycling). Similar for alum.. Currently no material is re-cycled in to arch glass, & there are
problems w/ contamination (NiS). Alum.: all materials should come from an earlier cycle of use, currently 70%
is recycled across all sectors. Transport energy raw materials, products & waste. LEED sets a 50 mile target
for sourcing. Glass manurs are generally further spaced than this. MODEL EXAM & Answer (2013) Q1a)
Describe the principle of stick system constr. & the principle of unitised constr.. A1a) Stick constr. is a
site assembled form of faade comprising structural framing profiles, mullions & transoms. The normal form of
constr. is storey height mullions w/ transoms spanning between them to form a grillage. Structural grillages of
different geom may be used. The b-ding envelope is completed by installing glazing & opaque panels in the
grillage. Unitised constr. involves prefab. of structural framing members & infill panels in a factory. Completed

units are delivered to site & only site operations are mounting the unit on structure & sealing joints. Unit
dimensions are determined by storey height & width of glazing bay. normally storey height & 1 or 2 glazing
bays in width. Q1b) adv. & disadv. of each approach to constructing a faade? A1b) Stick systems allow a
more flexible programme of design & constr. & have shorter lead times. However, they take longer to construct
@ site & involve more operations & more person hrs working @ height, this has h&s implications.Quality of wall
is highly dependent on site workmanship. Unitised walls are safer to install & many of joints & seals are made
in a factory to higher quality than may be achieved @ site. However, planning & design take longer for a stick
wall. A unitised wall may be installed onto a b-ding very quickly but the wall has to be stored between manu &
installation. Q1c) For each approach to constructing a faade what materials may be used to form the
structure of the faade? A1c) Stick CW may use framing profiles of alum., timber or steel. Unitised walls may
comprise a structural frame w/ in-fill panels or structural panels. In the former, the framing profiles are of alum.,
timber or steel. Structural panels may be conc, timber or insulated metal panels. Q1d) Describe the
architectural appearance of a b-ding particularly suited to the use of i) a stick system & ii) a custom
unitised wall A1d) A stick system is suited to: surfaces w/ little relief, variable dimensions, non-rectangular infills, faceted & free-form architecture. A custom unitised wall is suited to: repeating details, rectangular panels,
heavier forms of constr. Q2a) Why is it important to adopt a system level approach rather than a material
level approach when considering the EE of a systemised b-ding envelope? A2a) Considering the
environ.al impact @ a material level will give results that relate to a unit weight or vol of material. This approach
will completely ignore the functionality of the material. Adopting a system level approach will show the volume
of material requ.d & so the actual impact @ project level. For instance, metals are shown to have lower impact
than alternative when used as structural framing members than as window frames. Adopting a system level
approach incls the interaction between materials & the increased service life that may be achieved; the material
service life is usually governed by the system service life. For instance timber mullions & transoms have longer
service life if an alum. ext cap is used to give weathering protection . Q2b) Describe how service life of
components affects the impact of EE for a systemised b-ding envelope? A2b) EE is often considered as
an upfront impact of constructing a b-ding. However, it is more meaningful to consider the EE discounted over
the useful life of the b-ding. Replacing b-dings less frequently obviously has environ.al benefits. The service life
of a b-ding is heavily influenced by the durability of the faade w/ b-ding looking tired rather than falling down @
the end of life. The service life of the faade will be determined by the shortest service life of any non-repairable
or non-replaceable component. Failure of such a component will mean that the full service life of the other
components is not realised. Q2c) When assessing the EE of glass & alum., what are the consequence of
considering: i) using recycled material ii) assuming the material will be recycled A2ci) Re-cycling of alum.
uses only 10% of the energy requ.d to produce new alum.. The recycling of glass uses 55% of the energy used
to produce new glass. Considering the use of re-cycled material reduces the EE in alum. relative to that of
glass. ii) Assuming that the material will be re-cycled has different implications for alum. & glass. Glass is never
re-cycled once it has been installed in a b-ding to avoid impurities in the manu of architectural glass. Instead it
may be down cycled to packaging or inert filter. Assuming alum. will be re-cycled gives it an advantage
compared to materials that will not be re-cycled. In effect, the initial energy of producing new alum. may be
discounted over more than 1 cycle of use. Note that alum. is more like to be re-cycled if it is easily separable,
as say metal rscreen panels, than when mixed w/ other materials in a composite panel. Q2d) What steps may
be taken @ the design stage to simplify the recycling of a fully glazed stick system CW? A2d) The wall
may be designed such that: the wall can be easily disassembled. Larger glass panes & fewer framing
components. Disassembled by working on the floor slabs. Materials are easily separated: monolithic glass is
used in preference to laminated glass, glass is secured in a rebate by gaskets rather than by bonding, alum. is
anodised rather than painted. Q3a) Describe how the following methods of reducing loss through a
glazing unit work i) Gas filling of cavities ii) Use of low emissivity coatings iii) Use of warm edge
spacers A3ai) Filling the cavity of a glazing unit w/ an inert gas such as argon or krypton alters properties such
as the thermal conductivity, viscosity & specific heat capacity, which in turn will change the conduction &
convection across the cavity. The optimum cavity width will vary depending on the gas used. ii) Low emissivity
coatings reduce the long-wave infrared radiation exchange across the glazing cavity, therefore reducing the
heat loss. It also results in a warmer int surface. Iii) Warm edge spacers are designed to reduce the influence of

the thermal bridge caused by the traditional alum. spacer bar in a glazing unit. They will reduce the amount of
conduction heat loss around the perimeter of a glazing unit which will result in a small improvement in the Uvalue & more importantly an increase in the minimum int surface temp, & therefore a reduction in the
condensation risk. They may be plastic, foam based or thermally broken metal components. Q3b) Describe
how hard & soft coatings are applied to glass. A3b) Hard coatings are applied to the glass by chemical
vapour deposition as it is produced on the float line. The hot glass passes beneath a metal or metal oxide
vapour which is deposited on & fuses to the glass surface. Soft coatings are applied to the glass after it has
been manud using physical vacuum chamber & the target of metal or metal oxide is bombarded to eject
material from it. This forms a vapour cloud that condenses on the glass surface @ ambient temp & is not fused
to the glass. Several coats may be applied 1 on top of the other by this process . Q3c) limitations of using
hard coatings? A3c) The production is continuous as the glass ribbon passes & is not easily controlled which
can lead to variations in coating THK. Due to limitations on accuracy of THK of coatings, it is difficult to produce
high Perf glass by hard coating them. Hard coated glasses are prone to problems of appearance in the form of
iridescence & colouration for example they may show a pink pattern as they may reflect red as well as infrared. Hard coating are single coatings & therefore if a self-cleang or low reflectance coating is to be applied then
it is not possible to also apply a low emissivity coating. Q3d) adv. & disadv. of using soft coatings? A3d)
Adv.: the sputtering process creates coated glasses w/ much higher Perf. Firstly the coating THK can be more
tightly controlled to give more uniform & consistent Perf, in terms of emissivity & reflectance particularly w/
spectrally selective coatings. Secondly, multiple coating may be applied 1 on top of the other. In practice up to
14 coatings have been applied to a single glass surface. Disadv.: Soft coats may be damaged by abrasion &
moisture & therefore have to be protected by being assembled into an IGU shortly after manu. Because of their
low adhesion to the glass, it is not acceptable to bond to the coating & it is necessary to remove the coating
around the margin of the glass (Edge deletion) & bond the spacer bar directly to the glass. Soft coated glasses
cannot be toughened, heat strengthened or thermally bent. Q3e) What factors may affect the decision to
use: i) coated glasses in preference to ext SDs ii) ext SDs in preference to coated glasses. A3ei) Coated
glasses may be used in preference to SDs to: increase area of b-ding on a tight site to increase floor area, to
give an uncluttered architectural appearance, to facilitate ext maintce, to give greater daylight in the b-ding. Ii)
Ext SDs may be used to: allow the use of glass free from discolouration, to signal an ecological or high tech
approach to the b-dings Perf. Q4a) diff. between a face sealed faade & a faade w/ secondary defence
A4a) In a face sealed faade, a single air & H20 seal is placed on the outer face of the faade as the only
barrier to H20 leakage. This is a flawed concept of H20tighness. In a secondary defence system, the outer face
of the faade is designed to limit the ingress of H20 in the wall. A secondary H20 seal & air seal are placed @
the inner surface of the wall. This is a concept of H20 penetration control. An inner seal will be more durable
than an outer seal as it is not exposed to weathering. Q4b) For D&V alum. CW comprising mullions &
transoms & wholly glazed. I) Describe the H20 seals in wall, their location & their function ii) describe 2
ways of draining H20 from wall iii) Describe air seals & their position in the wall iv) How will seals &
drainage be different if wall is to be PE. A4bi) An outer seal is placed between the glazing & the pressure
plate to limit the ingress of H20. This may be gasket or a sealant. An inner seal is placed between the glazing &
the framing profile to prevent the passage of any H20 that passes the outer seal. Ii) H20 may be drained from
each glazing bay @ the transom through drainage holes in the pressure caps (transom drained). Alternatively,
H20 may be drained from several glazing bays through the transoms into the mullions (zone drained), this is
less easy to arrange for long transoms & the H20 has to be drained from the transoms @ intervals. Iii) The
drainage holes will allow air to enter the framing profiles & the air seal will be a gasket placed between the
glazing & the framing profile. This is also the secondary H20 seal. The seal should be continuous & additional
seals are requ.d to prevent air leakage through the transom to mullion joints. Iv) If the wall is to be pressure
equalised, each glazing bay has to be separated from adjacent bays by air seals, it is then only possible to
adopt a transom drained solution to remove H20. In a pressure equalised wall the drainage opening are larger
to act as vents & the pressure within the cavities is greater. This requ.s an air seal w/ higher Perf. Q4c)
Describe layers & their function in a ventilated rscreen wall A4c) The rscreen contains open joints for vent
& drainage but is designed to limit the passage of H20 into the cavity behind it. The cavity in the wall is intended
to intercept H20 passing through the rscreen & drain it back to the outer face. A back wall acts as the support &

will act as or incorporate an air barrier. An insul layer is placed in the cavity or incorporated into the back wall. A
breather membrane may be incld to prevent wetting of cavity insul. A vapour control layer may be incld to
control vapour movement & condensation. Q4d) Taking a whole life view of a project, why might a client: i)
requ. a faade w/ a secondary defence ii) accept a face-sealed faade A4d) A Client may requ. a faade w/

a secondary defence as it is more robust & will be more tolerant of weathering & wear of components
throughout its life. This will add value to the b-ding @ times of changing ownership & will make b-ding more
attractive to any tenants. A Client may accept a face sealed faade because often it will cost less to construct. A
Client may reason that this saving will offset any future cost of repairs. A Client may be looking to sell b-ding can

soon after constr. or make tenants responsible for

repairs. Frameless glazing systems are always face
sealed. However, simplicity of their constr. mean that location of H20 leaks
be easily identified & rectified.