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Chapter I, 2, # 1,2.
1.
n!
n
=
,
m
m!(n m)!
n
n
n+1
+
=
.
m1
m
m
Proof.
To prove the above equation, we write the left-hand side of the equation in terms of factorials
and simplify:
n!
n!
n
n
+
=
+
m1
m
(m 1)!(n (m 1))! m!(n m)!
n!
n!
=
+
(m 1)!(n m + 1))! m!(n m)!
(n!)m + (n!)(n m + 1)
=
m!(n m + 1)!
n!(n + 1)
=
m!(n + 1 m)!
(n + 1)!
n+1
=
.
=
m
m!(n + 1 m)!
2.
n
X
n
(x + y) =
xi y ni .
i
n
i=0
Proof. We will prove the above equation using weak induction (1st form) on n 1. In the case
n
0, both sides
of the equation are equal to 1 (provided x 6= y). In the case, n = 1, we have
=
1
1
=1=
so that the sum on the right simplifies to x + y. Now assume that
1
0
k
X
k
(x + y) =
xi y ki
i
k
i=0
(this is our inductive hypothesis) and we will prove that the equation holds for n = k + 1. We have
(x + y)k+1 = (x + y)(x + y)k
k
!
X k
i ki
= (x + y)
xy
i
i=0
k
!
k
!
X k
X k
i ki
i ki
=x
xy
+y
xy
i
i
i=0
i=0
! k
!
k
X k
X k
xi+1 y ki +
xi y k+1i
=
i
i
i=0
i=0
k1
! k
!
X k
X k
k+1
i+1 ki
i k+1i
=x
+
x y
+
xy
+ y k+1 .
i
i
i=0
i=1
X
X k
k
k+1
k+1
i ki+1
i k+1i
(x + y)
=x
+
xy
+
xy
+ y k+1
i1
i
i=1
i=1
k
!
X
k
k
k+1
i k+1i
=x
+
+
xy
+ y k+1
i1
i
i=1
!
k
X k+1
= xk+1 +
xi y k+1i + y k+1
(by Problem 1).
i
i=1
k+1
k+1
Since
=1=
, we conclude that
0
k+1
(x + y)k+1 =
k+1
X
i=0
k+1
i
xi y (k+1)i .
Chapter I, 5, # 2,4,5,8,9.
2.
and
where iv and jv are nonnegative integers and p1 , p2 , . . . , pr are distinct prime numbers.
(a)
pk11 pk22
Show that the greatest common divisor (m, n) of m and n can be expressed as a product
pkr r where k1 , k2 , . . . , kr are nonnegative integers. Express kv in terms of iv and jv .
n
Given m
d , d = 1, there exists a, b Z such that
n
m
+b
= 1.
a
d
d
2
m
d
, nd = 1, then (m, n) = d.
n
is a common divisor of m and n. We only need to show that m
d , d = 1 where
m
i min(i1 ,j1 ) i2 min(i2 ,j2 )
= p11
p2
pirr min(ir ,jr )
d
and
n
j min(i1 ,j1 ) j2 min(i2 ,j2 )
= p11
p2
pjrr min(ir ,jr ) .
d
Note that for each v, at most one of
iv min(iv , jv )
and
jv min(iv , jv )
m
d
and
n
d,
n
and nd can be nonzero. Thus, we conclude that m
d , d = 1, which gives (m, n) = d.
(b) Define the notion of least common multiple, and express the least common multiple of m
and n as a product p`11 p`22 p`rr with nonnegative integers `v . Express kv in terms of iv and jv .
4.
Let n be an integer 2.
(a)
Show that any integer x is congruent modulo n to a unique integer m such that 0 m < n.
Proof. By Theorem 2.1 (the Division Algorithm), there exist unique integers q and m such that
x = qn + m with 0 m < n. Reducing modulo n, we have
x qn + m m (mod n).
Note that if
x m m0
(mod n)
for
0 m m0 < n,
then n|(m0 m) and n < m0 m < n. The only integer within this range that is divisible by n is
m0 m = 0 so that m0 = m. Thus, m must be unique.
(b) Show that any integer x 6= 0, relatively prime to n, is congruent to a unique integer m relatively
prime to n, such that 0 < m < n.
Proof.
From part (a), we know that there exists a unique integer m such that
x m (mod n)
with
0 m < n.
We just need to show that when (x, n) = 1, it is not possible for m = 0 and that (m, n) = 1. If m = 0,
then x = nq for some q Z and (x, n) = n, contradicting the assumption that n and x are relatively
prime. Also, if (m, n) = d > 1, then de = m and df = n for some e, f Z. From the Division
Algorithm, we have
x = qn + m = qdf + de = d(qf + e)
so that d|x. Of course, if d|x and d|n, then (x, n) d by definition, contradicting our assumption.
Thus, m and n must also be relatively prime.
(c) Let (n) be the number of integers m relatively prime to n, such that 0 < m < n. We call
the Euler phi function. We also define (1) = 1. If n = p is a prime number, what is varphi(p)?
Note that any divisor of any of 1, 2, . . . , p 1 must also be less than p. Since the only divisors of p are
1 and p, we have (i, p) = 1 for all 1 i p 1. Thus, (p) = p 1.
(d)
5.
(5) = 4
(6) = 2
(7) = 6
(8) = 4
(9) = 6
(10) = 4
Chinese Remainder Theorem. Let n, n0 be relatively prime positive integers and let a, b Z.
Proof. Assuming that (n, n0 ) = 1, there exist x1 , x2 Z such that x1 n + x2 n0 = 1. Then we have
solutions to the congruences
x1 n 1 x2 n0 1 (mod n0 ),
x2 n0 1 x1 n 1 (mod n).
Setting
x = ax2 n0 + bx1 n,
we obtain an integer that satisfies the congruences
x a (mod n)
x b (mod n0 ),
completing the proof of the claim.
Now we generalize the theorem stated above. Let n1 , n2 , . . . nr be positive integers that are pairwise
relatively prime (ie., (ni , nj ) = 1 for i 6= j). Then the system of congruences
x a1
(mod n1 )
x a2
..
.
(mod n2 )
x ar
(mod nr )
N
= n1 ni1 ni+1 nr .
ni
(mod ni )
(mod ni ),
8.
p
n
Let p be a prime number and n and integer, 1 n p 1. Show that the binomial coefficient
is divisible by p.
5
Proof.
By definition we have
p
n
p!
,
n!(p n)!
p
n
p
n
is a positive
so that p divides the left-hand side of the equation. However, all of the prime factors of n! and (p n)!
are less than p and must therefore be relatively prime to p. Applying Euclids Lemma to
p
n!(p n)! where (p, n!(p n)!) = 1,
p
n
p
n
9.
Proof.
(mod p).
p
p
p1
p
p
(x + y) x +
x y + +
xy p1 + y p .
1
p1
p
p
p
0
1
2
p1
(mod p),
Exercise 1.
Prove that
xy
Proof.
(mod n).
mod
n
(z, n)
(mod n),
n
z
(z, n)m = (x y)
(z, n)
(z, n)
n
z
m = (x y)
(z, n)
(z, n)
=
=
so that
n
z
,
(x y)
(z, n)
(z, n)
n
z
with (z,n)
, (z,n)
= 1 (this was a consequence of the first part of the proof of Chapter I, 5, # 2(a)).
We can write
n
z
1=a
+b
for some a, b Z,
(z, n)
(z, n)
which gives
(x y) = a(x y)
The integer
n
(z,n)
n
z
+ b(x y)
.
(z, n)
(z, n)
divides both of the expressions on the right side of this equation, and must therefore
mod
as desired.
n
(z, n)
Proof.
So,
a1 ab = a1 ac
b = c.
2.
By definition,
G G0 = {(g, g 0 ) | g G and g 0 G0 } .
If x is a fixed element in G, there are n ordered pairs in G G0 of the form (x, ). The element x can
in be chosen from m possibilities, creating a total of mn elements in the direct product.
3.
We begin with the n = 2 can and use weak induction. Let x1 , x2 G. Then
1
1 1
1
(x1 x2 )(x1
2 x1 ) = x1 (x2 x2 )x1 = x1 x1 = e
1
shows that (x1 x2 )1 = x1
2 x1 . Now assume that
1
(x1 xk )1 = x1
k x1 .
Then
1
1
1
(x1 xk+1 )1 = ((x1 xk )xk+1 )1 = x1
= x1
k+1 (x1 xk )
k+1 xk x1 ,
4.
(a)
Proof. Assuming that xn = e for n 1, we see that the set of all positive integers k such that xk = e
is nonempty. By the Well-Ordering Property, it must have a least element, which we denote by d and
call the order or period of x. By Theorem 1.1,
hxi = {e, x, x2 , . . . xd1 }.
In particular, the element xd1 satisfies xxd1 = xd = e so that x1 = xd1 . Of course, we only have
the inequality d 1 0 (not d 1 1 as required). However, in the case d 1 = 0, we have d = 1 so
that x = e. Since x1 = e in this case, the integer m = 1 satisfies the claim.
(b)
x = e.
Let G be a finite group. Show that given x G, there exists an integer n 1 such that
Proof. We consider the subgroup hxi, which must be finite since it is contained in G. Also, x1 hxi
which implies that there exists a nonnegative integer m such that x1 = xm . It follows that n = m + 1
satisfies the claim:
xm+1 = xxm = xx1 = e.
6.
Proof. Note that the property we are assuming of G is equivalent to saying that every element in G
is its own inverse. Assume that x and y are two arbitrary elements of G. We know from Problem 3 of
this section (the n = 2 case), that (xy)1 = y 1 x1 . Since x and y are their own inverses, we have
(xy)1 = yx.
On the other hand, xy G is its own inverse ((xy)1 = xy) so that we obtain xy = yx.
9.
jk = i,
ki = j,
and i2 = j 2 = k 2 ,
where we denote i2 by m.
(a)
Proof.
We must show that hi, j, ki = {e, i, j, k, m, mi, mj, mk}. First, note that the properties
ij = k,
jk = i,
ki = j
yield
mj = i2 j = ik,
mk = j 2 k = ji,
mi = k 2 i = kj,
showing that G is nonabelian. Next, we show that m2 = e by multiplying it times each of the generators:
m2 i = mkj = jij = jk = i
m2 j = mik = kjk = ki = j
m2 k = mji = iki = ij = k
To complete the proof, we refer to the multiplication table given in part (b), noting that both the closure
and inverse properties are satisfied.
(b)
mi
mj
mk
mi
mj
mk
mj
mi
mk
mk
mj
mi
mi
mk
mj
mi
mj
mk
mi
mi
mk
mj
mj
mj
mi
mk
mk
mk
mj
mi
11. (*Modified*) Let r denote a 90 rotation of a square in the counterclockwise direction and let s
denote a flip about line of reflection. In class, we defined the dihedral group D4 to be the group
{e, r, r2 , r3 , s, sr, sr2 , sr3 | s2 = e = r4 and rs = sr3 }.
Construct a multiplication table for D4 .
13.
r2
r3
sr
sr2
sr3
r2
r3
sr
sr2
sr3
r2
r3
sr3
sr
sr2
r2
r2
r3
sr2
sr3
sr
r3
r3
r2
sr
sr2
sr3
sr
sr2
sr3
r2
r3
sr
sr
sr2
sr3
r3
r2
sr2
sr2
sr3
sr
r2
r3
sr3
sr3
sr
sr2
r2
r3
Proof. Since H is a subgroup of G, we have that e H. Thus, e = xx1 = xex1 xHx1 , from
which we see that xHx1 6= . So, it remains to be shown that xHx1 satisfies the closure and inverse
properties. Let z, z 0 xHx1 with z = xyx1 and z 0 = xy 0 x1 . Then
zz 0 = (xyx1 )(xy 0 x1 ) = xy(x1 x)y 0 x1 = x(yy 0 )x1 xHx1
since yy 0 H. We also have that y 1 H so that xy 1 x1 xHx1 and
(xyx1 )(xy 1 x1 ) = xy(x1 x)y 1 x1 = x(yy 1 )x1 = xx1 = e.
It follows that (xyx1 )1 = xy 1 x1 , and we conclude that xHx1 is a subgroup of G.
15. A root of unity in C is a number such that n = 1 for some positive integer n. We say that
is an nth root of unity. Describe the set of nth roots of unity in C. Show that this set is a cyclic group
of order n.
Proof.
This extension seemed to be the natural choice after investigating the MacLaurin Series expansions for
ex , sin x, and cos x. Note that
e2i = cos(2) + i sin(2) = 1
and that solving the equation
cos() + i sin() = 1
yields only the solutions = 2m, where m Z. Thus, ei is periodic with period 2 and we can define
the element n = e2i/n , which is clearly an nth root of unity. In fact, we see that whenever 0 k < n,
the element nk = e2ik/n is an nth root of unity and the periodicity of ei implies that
n
o
n := hn i = e2ik/n 0 k < n
11
16. Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n. Show that for each positive integer d dividing n, there
exists a subgroup of order d.
We have that G = hai = {e, a, a2 , . . . , an1 } for some a G that satisfies an = e (with n
being the order of a). Let d be a positive integer that divides n and consider the subgroup han/d i. Since
(an/d )d = an = e, it follows that the elements
Proof.
for
0ij<d
0ji<d
17.
Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n and let a be a generator. Let r be a nonzero integer
that is relatively prime to n (note that G is nontrivial in order for (r, n) to be defined - ie., n > 1).
(a)
Proof.
for some
0 i j < n.
Then
(ar )i (ar )i = (ar )j (ar )i
12
(ar )ji = e,
where 0 j i < n. However, the only powers of a that result in e are multiples of the order. Thus,
n|r(j i). From (r, n) = 1, there exists a, b Z such that ar + bn = 1. Multiplying by j i, we have
the equation.
(j i) = a(j i)r + b(j i)n.
The integer n divides both of the terms on the right and must therefore divide j i. The only such
integer within the range 0 j i < n is j i = 0. We conclude that i = j and har i = hai.
(b)
Proof. We are trying to prove that if har i = hai, then (r, n) = 1. To accomplish this, we will prove
that har i = ha(r,n) i. There exists x, y Z such that (r, n) = rx + ny. Since
a(r,n) = arx+ny = (ar )x (an )y = (ar )x har i,
it follows that ha(r,n) i har i. From the definition of a greatest common divisor, we have r = (r, n)s for
some s Z. Thus,
ar = (a(r,n) )s ha(r,n) i,
which implies har i ha(r,n) i. Hence, we conclude that ha(r,n) i = har i.
(c)
Let p be a prime number, and G a cyclic group of order p. How many generators does G have?
The integers 1, 2, . . . , p 1 are all relatively prime to p. From part (a) of this problem, we see that the
p 1 elements a, a2 , . . . , ap1 are all generators.
Exercise 2.
and
13
Exercise 3.
Proof.
The variation of Theorem 3.1/3.2 from Chapter I that we stated in class asserted that (m, n) can be
written as a linear combination of m and n:
(m, n) = xm + yn
for some
x, y Z.
and
n = e(m, n),
4.
Proof.
Let x, y G. Then
ca (x)ca (y) = (axa1 )(aya1 ) = ax(a1 a)ya1 = axya1 = ca (xy),
showing that ca preserves the group operation. To see that the map is injective, note that
ca (x) = ca (y)
axa1 = aya1
a1 axa1 a = a1 aya1 a
x = y.
Finally, for any x G, the element a1 xa 7 x, proving that the map is surjective.
(b)
Show that the set of all such maps ca with a G is a subgroup of Aut(G).
Proof. By part (a), the set of all such maps is a subset of Aut(G) and since there is at least one
element in G, namely eG , the subset is nonempty. We just need to show that it is closed under the
operation in Aut(G), composition, and that inverses are also in the set. Let a, b G and consider
(ca cb )(x) = ca (cb (x)) = ca (bxb1 ) = abxb1 a1 = (ab)x(ab)1 = cab ,
for all
x G.
5. Let the notation be as in the previous problem. Show that the association a 7 ca is a homomorphism of G into Aut(G). The image of this homomorphism is called the group of inner automorphisms
of G and we denote it by Inn(G). Thus , an inner automorphism of G is one which is equal to ca for
some a G.
Proof. In the previous problem, we proved that a 7 ca is a homomorphism when we showed that
ca cb = cab .
10.
Let f : G G0 be a group isomorphism and a G. Show that the order of a is the same as
the order of f (a).
Proof.
Thus, |f (a)| |a|. On the other hand, since f is an isomorphism, f 1 : G0 G exists and also
satisfies the properties of homomorphisms. Let a0 = f (a) so that f 1 (a0 ) = a and note that for any
m 1 such that a0m = eG0 , we have
eG = f 1 (eG0 ) = f 1 (a0m ) = (f 1 (a0 ))m = am .
15
Thus, |a| |f (a)|. Hence, we conclude that |a| = |f (a)|, and note that these arguments hold even if the
order is infinite.
11.
Let G be a cyclic group and f : G G0 a homomorphism. Show that the image of G is cyclic.
Proof. Suppose that G = hai, then we claim that G0 = hf (a)i. Let a0 f (G), then by definition,
a0 = f (b) for some b G. However, b = am for some m Z so that a0 = f (am ) = (f (a))m , proving
our claim.
Exercise 4.
abelian.
16
6.
Proof.
and
xH2 x1 H2
for all x G.
Let h H1 H2 and consider xhx1 . Since h H1 , we have xhx1 H1 and since h H2 , we have
xhx1 H2 . Thus, xhx1 H1 H2 for all h in H1 H2 . Hence, x(H1 H2 )x1 H1 H2 .
7.
Let f : G G0 be a group homomorphism and let H 0 be a normal subgroup of G0 . Let
H = f 1 (H 0 ) (the preimage of H 0 ).
(a)
Proof. We have already shown that H is a subgroup of G. To see that H is normal, fix and element
x G and let h H. Then f (h) = h0 for some h0 H 0 . We have
f (xhx1 ) = f (x)f (h)f (x1 ) = f (x)h0 f (x)1 H 0
since f (x) G0 and H 0 is normal in G0 . Thus, by the definition of H, we have that xhx1 H implying
that xHx1 H.
(b)
17
(1)
It is assumed in Theorem 4.8 that f is surjective, so that for any x0 G0 , there exists an x G such
that f (x) = x0 . If we consider the coset x0 H 0 in G0 /H 0 , we see that (x) = x0 H 0 . Hence, is also
surjective and the isomorphism (1) becomes
G/(Ker)
= G0 /H 0 .
It remains to be shown that Ker = H. Let h H, in which case we have f (h) H 0 . Then
(h) = f (h)H 0 = H 0 (the identity coset in G0 /H 0 ), proving that H Ker. Now suppose that
k Ker. Then (k) = f (k)H 0 = H 0 , implying that f (k) H 0 . By the definition of H, we have k H
so that Ker H. We conclude that H = Ker, giving the desired isomorphism.
10.
Let G be a group. Define the center of G, usually denoted Z(G), to be the set of all elements
a G such that ax = xa for all x G. Show that the center is a subgroup, and that it is a normal
subgroup. Show that it is the kernel of the conjugation homomorphism x 7 x in Exercise 5, 3.
Proof.
First, we show that Z(G) is a group. Note that ex = x = xe for all x G implies that
e Z(G) so that Z(G) 6= . Now let a, b Z(G). By definition, ax = xa and bx = xb for all x G so
that
(ab)x = a(bx) = a(xb) = (ax)b = (xa)b = x(ab)
for all x G.
Thus, Z(G) is closed. Multiplying both sides of ax = xa on the right and left by a1 yields
a1 axa1 = a1 xaa1
xa1 = a1 x
for all x G.
So, Z(G) contains inverses and must be a subgroup of G. Now, we show that Z(G) is the kernel of the
homomorphism f : G Inn(G) given by a 7 ca . (Note: in the statement of Problem 10, Lang uses
in place of c to distinguish between the homomorphisms G Inn(G) and G Aut(G). Since it
seems more natural to denote the conjugation map by c, we will not adopt Langs new notation.) First,
let a Z(G) and notice that the map
ca (x) = axa1 = (xa)a1 = x(aa1 ) = x = ce (x)
is the identity map. This proves that Z(G) Kerf . Now let b Kerf so that cb (x) = ce (x) for all
x G. We have
bxb1 = x
=
bx = xb for all x G,
proving that b Z(G) and Kerf Z(G). We conclude that Kerf = Z(G) and note that we have
previously shown that the kernel of a homomorphism is normal.
11.
Let G be a group and H a subgroup. Let NH be the set of all x G such that xHx1 = H.
Show that NH is a group containing H and that H is normal in NH . The group NH is called the
normalizer of H.
18
Proof. First, we prove that NH is a subgroup of G (in which case, it will necessarily be a group).
Since eHe1 = H, we have that e NH and NH 6= . Suppose that a, b NH so that aHa1 = H and
bHb1 = H. Then
(ab)H(ab)1 = abHb1 a1 = aHa1 = H,
so that ab NH . Also,
H = aHa1
a1 Ha = a1 aHa1 a = H
21.
(a)
Proof.
Assume that G is abelian and let xH and yH be two left cosets of H in G. Note also that
since xh = hx for every x G and h H, xH = Hx, H is necessarily normal, and G/H is defined.
Then
(xH)(yH) = (xy)H = (yx)H = (yH)(xH)
shows that G/H must also be abelian.
(b) Let G be a group and H a normal subgroup. Show that G/H is abelian if and only if H
contains all the elements xyx1 y 1 for all x, y G.
Define the commutator subgroup Gc to be the subgroup generated by all elements xyx1 y 1 with
x, y G. Such elements are called commutators.
Proof.
(xH)(yH)((xH)(yH))1 = (eH) = H
(xH)(yH)(xH)1 (yH)1 = H
(xH)(yH)(x1 H)(y 1 H) = H
(xyx1 y 1 )H = H
xyx1 y 1 H,
Exercise 5.
Prove that SL2 (R) is a normal subgroup of GL2 (R) and that GL2 (R)/SL2 (R)
= R .
Proof. Let G = GL2 (R) and H = SL2 (R) and define the map f : G R to be the determinant
map f (A) = det(A). We have already noted that f is a homomorphism since
det(AB) = det(A)det(B).
19
x 0
f
= x,
0 1
proving that f (G) = R .
??
An interesting consequence of this result is the observation that for A GL2 (R), the left coset
ASL2 (R) = {B GL2 (R) | det(B) = det(A)}.
Although this consequence can be shown directly, it follows immediately from Exercise 5.
1 2 3
(a)
= (1 2 3) = (1 3)(1 2) = even.
2 3 1
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
2.
1 2
3 1
3
2
1
3
2
2
3
1
1 2
2 3
3
1
4
4
1
2
2
1
3
4
4
3
1
3
2
2
3
4
4
1
= (1 3 2) = (1 2)(1 3)
even.
= (1 3)
odd.
= (1 2 3) = (1 3)(1 2)
even.
= (1 2)(3 4)
even.
= (1 3 4) = (1 4)(1 3)
even.
In each one of the cases of Exercise 1, write the inverse of the permutation.
(a)
(1 3 2).
(b)
(1 2 3).
(c)
(1 3).
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(d)
(1 3 2).
(e)
(1 2)(3 4).
(f )
(1 4 3).
3.
Show that the number of odd permutations of {1, 2, . . . , n} for n 2 is equal to the number of
even permutations.
Proof. For any odd permutation , note that (1 2) is even and (1 2) 6= (1 2) whenever 6= . So,
there are at least as many even permutations as there are odd permutations. On the other hand, if
even, then (1 2) is odd and (1 2) 6= (1 2) whenever 6= shows that there are at least as many odd
permutations as there are even permutations. One outcome of this observation is that |An | = (n!)/2 for
n 2.
6.
Two cycles (i1 , . . . , ir ) and (j1 , . . . , js ) are said to be disjoint if no integer i is equal to and
integer j . Prove that a permutation is equal to a product of disjoint cycles.
Proof. Let be a permutation of Jn = {1, 2, . . . , n}. In order to write as a product of disjoint
cycles, we begin by picking any a1 Jn . Define
a2 = (a1 ),
a3 = (a2 ) = 2 (a1 ),
....
The infinite sequence a1 , (a1 ), 2 (a1 ), . . . must have some elements being repeated (since Jn is finite).
Suppose that i (a1 ) = j (a1 ) for some j > i. Then a1 = m (a1 ) where m = j i. Thus,
= (a1 a2 . . . am ) . . . .
Of course, may not consist of only one cycle. Next, we pick any element b1 from Jn that did not
appear in the cycle (a1 a2 . . . am ). Proceeding as before, we obtain a cycle (b1 b2 . . . bk ). Note that
this this new cycle has no elements in common with (a1 a2 . . . am ) because if i (a1 ) = j (b1 ), then
ij (a1 ) = b1 , contradicting our choice of b1 . This process may be continued until we exhaust all of the
elements in Jn , yielding
= (a1 a2 . . . am )(b1 b2 . . . bk ) (c1 c2 . . . cs ),
a product of disjoint cycles.
Proof. Given that ab = ac, we can write ab ac = 0. Since R is a ring, we have a(b c) = 0. Now,
a 6= 0 and R integral implies that b c = 0. Thus, b = c.
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4.
Let R be an integral domain, and a R, a 6= 0. Show that the map x 7 ax is an injective
mapping of R into itself.
Proof. Assume that ax = ay for some x, y R. Then by the previous problem x = y, proving that
x 7 ax is injective.
5.
Proof. Let a be any nonzero element of R. We must show that a is a unit. If a = 1, then a1 = 1 ad
we are done. So, assume a 6= 1 and consider the sequence a, a2 , a3 , . . . . Since R is finite, there exists
i < j such that ai = aj , implying aji = 1. Since a 6= 1, we have that j i > 1 and aji1 is the
inverse of a.
7.
Let r be a ring and x R. We define x to be nilpotent if there exists a positive integer n such
that xn = 0. If x is nilpotent, prove that 1 + x is a unit, and so is 1 x.
Proof.
Also, 1 + xn = 1 implies
1 = 1 + xn = (1 + x)(1 x + x2 + (1)n1 xn1 ).
Hence, 1 x and 1 + x are units.
10. Let R be the set of numbers of type a + b 2 where a, b Q. Show that R is a ring, and in fact
that R is a field.
Proof.
and
(a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 R
(a + b 2) = a + (b) 2 and 1 = 1 + 0 2
show that additive inverses and 1 are contained in R. Thus, R is a subring of R which is clearly
a
b
2 = 1,
2
(a + b 2)
a2 2b2
a 2b2
proving that a + b 2 is a unit. Hence, R is s field. This field is usually denoted by Q( 2).
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11. Let R be the set of numbers of type a + b 2 where a, b are integers. Show that R is a ring, but
not a field.
Proof.
The arguments used in the previous proof to prove that the given set is a subring hold here as
well. However, it remains to be seen that R is not a field. Consider the element 1 + 2 2. If there exists
a + b 2 R such that
(1 + 2 2)(a + b 2) = 1,
then a and b must satisfy the system of equations
a + 4b = 1
2a + b = 0.
The solutions are a = 17 and b = 27 , which are not integers. Thus, 1 + 2 2 is not a unit and R is not
12.
1. Show that R is
and
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i R
show that R is closed under addition and multiplication. Also,
(a + bi) = a + (b)i
and
1 = 1 + 0i
prove that R is a subring of C. The ring R described here is called the Gaussian Integers and is
usually denoted by Z[i]. In order to find the units in Z[i], consider the norm map N : Z[i] Z given
by
N (a + bi) = a2 + b2 .
This map preserves the operation of multiplication (you must check this!) and hence, maps units to
units. The only units in Z are 1. However, N (Z[i]) is the set of nonnegative integers, implying that
the units in Z[i] are exactly the elements that N maps to 1. Solving
a2 + b2 = 1
gives the four solutions
a = 1, b = 0,
a = 1, b = 0,
a = 0, b = 1,
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a = 0, b = 1,
13.
Proof.
We may follow the same steps as those in the previous proof to show that R is a (commutative)
subring of C. To set that R forms a field, let a + bi be a nonzero element in R and note that
b
a
(a + bi)
i
= 1.
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
Hence, every nonzero element in R is a unit. The resulting field is usually denoted by Q(i).
Exercise 6.
Proof.
On the first exam, we proved that an element a+nZ in Z/nZ is a unit if and only if (a, n) = 1.
In the case of a prime p, every nonzero left coset has a representative that is relatively prime to p. Thus,
Z/pZ is a field.
Chapter III, 2, # 1, 4, 8.
1.
Show that a field has no ideal other than the zero ideal and the field itself.
Proof. Let F be a field and I a nonzero ideal of F . We will show that 1F I as we proved in class
that any ideal containing 1 must be the entire ring that it is contained in. Since I is not the zero ideal,
it contains some nonzero element x. Because x is contained in F , it is a unit and there exists x1 F .
Ideals absorb products from F , so that we have 1F = x1 x I.
4.
Proof.
8.
The following example will be of interest in calculus. Let R be the ring of infinitely differentiable
functions defined, say, on the open interval 1 < t < 1. Let Jn be the set of functions f R such
that Dk f (0) = 0 for all integers k with 0 k n. Here D denotes the derivative, so Jn is the set of
functions all of whose derivatives up to order n vanish at 0. Show that Jn is an ideal in R.
Proof. The proof of this problem requires use of several properties you encountered in calculus.
Namely, that the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives and that constants can be pulled
24
out in front of derivatives. These properties, along with several inductive arguments can be used to
complete the proof. The details are left to you.
3. (a) Let n be a positive integer, and let Zn = Z/nZ be the factor ring of Z modulo n. Show that
the units of Zn are precisely those residue classes x having a representative integer x 6= 0 and relatively
prime to n.
Proof.
(b) Let x be an integer relatively prime to n. Let be the Euler function. Show that x(n) 1
(mod n).
Proof.
Then by definition, S has cardinality (n). Such a set is called a reduced residue system modulo
n and we may write it in the form S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , a(n) }. The elements in S are exactly the representatives that yield units in Z/nZ. If x S, then the set {xa1 , xa2 , . . . , xa(n) } is equal to the set S (you
should check this). Thus, multiplying together all of the elements in each of the two sets results in the
same product modulo n:
a1 a2 a(n) xa1 xa2 xa(n)
(n)
a1 a2 a(n)
(mod n)
(mod n)
Now (ai , n) = 1 for all i so that the number a1 a2 a(n) is also relatively prime to n. Canceling this
factor from both sides of the above congruence completes the proof.
6.
Let F be a finite field having q elements. Prove that xq1 = 1 for every nonzero element x F .
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Proof. If F is a finite field with q elements, then the group of units of F , denoted F , has order
q 1. If x F (ie., x is a nonzero element of F ), then a corollary of Lagranges Theorem implies
that xq1 = 1F . This proves the first part of the problem. To prove the second part note that if x F ,
then we can multiply both sides of the equation xq1 = 1F by x to obtain xq = x. If x 6 F is in F ,
then x = 0F and we have 0q = 0, completing the proof.
??
Problems 17-19 were proved in class, so their solutions will not be given here. ??
20.
Proof. This problem is a direct application of Chapter 1, 5, Problem 9. The details of the proof are
left to you.
21.
Proof.
Exercise 7.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(mod M )
and
zx zy
(mod M ).
(mod M )
x + x0 y + y 0
and
(mod M ).
We proved similar properties for congruence modulo n in Z. The proofs for this general case follow the
same approach and are up to you to complete.
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