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A poly-phase power system consists of 2 or more alternating currents of equal frequency and
amplitude but offset from each other by a phase angle.
For motors, an advantage of three-phase power is simpler construction which requires less
maintenance. Also, a more powerful machine can be built into a smaller frame and will
generally operate at a higher efficiency than single-phase motors of the same rating.
1.2 Voltage:
1.2. A- Motor Nameplate Voltage
The motor nameplate voltage is determined by the available power supply which must be known in
order to properly select a motor for a given application. The nameplate voltage will normally be less
than the nominal distribution system voltage to allow for a voltage drop in the system between the
power source and the motor leads.
The bellow image lists motor nameplate voltages and provides the best match to distribution system
voltages and meets current motor design practices.
Both voltages are standard for the particular rating as listed in the above image.
The two voltages are in a ratio of either 1:2 or 1:3 (e.g. 230/460, 60 Hz; 2300/4000, 60 Hz; or
220/380, 50 Hz).
Current: Locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same degree that voltages are
unbalanced but locked-rotor KVA will increase only slightly. Full-load current at unbalanced
voltage will be unbalanced in the order of six to ten times the voltage unbalance.
Temperature Rise: A 3.5% voltage unbalance will cause an approximate 25% increase in
temperature rise.
1.3 Frequency
1.3. A- Standard Frequency
The predominant frequency in the United States is 60 hertz. However, 50 hertz systems are common
in other countries. Other systems, such as 40 and 25 hertz are isolated and relatively few in number.
1.3. B- 50 Hz Operation of 60 Hz Motors
General Electric standard motors rated at 60 Hz may be successfully operated at 50 Hz at reduced
voltage and horsepower as shown in the following table:
Select motor overload protection for 60 Hz Amps and 1.0 Service Factor.
Sixty hertz motors intended for use as shown above should be ordered as 60 Hz motors with no
reference to 50 Hz operation.
An increase or decrease in voltage may result in increased heating at rated horsepower load.
Under extended operation this may accelerate insulation deterioration and shorten motor
insulation life.
An increase in voltage will usually result in a noticeable decrease in power factor. Conversely,
a decrease in voltage will result in an increase in power factor.
Locked-rotor and breakdown torque will be proportional to the square of the voltage.
Therefore, a decrease in voltage will result in a decrease in available torque.
An increase of 10% in voltage will result in a reduction of slip of approximately 17%. A voltage
reduction of 10% would increase slip by about 21%.
VVI is a square wave inverter in which voltage and frequency vary in proportion (constant volts
per hertz).
PWI is a pulse width modulated inverter and the same as the VVI type except pulses are varied
in time to simulate a sine wave.
CCI is a constant current inverter, which utilizes a square wave current supply as opposed to
voltage.
2- System requirements:
This will include:
Horsepower.
2.2 Torque
Torque is one key motor characteristic (in addition to horsepower) that determine the size of motor
for an application. Torque is merely a turning effort or force acting through a radius.
2.3 Horsepower
Horsepower take into account how fast the motor shaft is turned. Turning the shaft rapidly requires
more horsepower than turning it slowly. Thus, horsepower is a measure of the rate at which work is
done. By definition, the relationship between torque and horsepower is as follows:
Full-load torque in lb-ft = (Hp x 5252) / Full-Load rpm
2.4 Torque-Speed performance of a motor
The following graph illustrates a typical speed torque curve for a NEMA design B induction motor. An
understanding of several points on this curve will aid in properly applying motors.
The locked-rotor kilovolt-ampere-per-horsepower range includes the lower figure up to, but not
including, the higher figure. For example, 3.14 is letter A and 3.15 is letter B.
By manipulating the preceding equation for KVA/Hp for three-phase motors the following equation
can be derived for calculating locked-rotor current:
In the next Topic, I will continue explaining the AC Motors Selection Procedures. So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an
introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type
of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail
the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.
Today, I will explain the Brushless DC motor (BLDC) and the AC induction motors as follows.
You can review the following related topics for review and good following.
Electrical Motors Basic Components
2- Brushless DC motors
Brushless DC motors
In brushes DC motors, the mechanical commutator and associated brushes are problematical for a
number of reasons as follows:
1. Brush wear occurs, and it increases dramatically in low-pressure environment.
2. Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains explosive materials.
3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or electronic devices, etc.
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining popularity. BLDC
motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer, Medical,
Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they are
electronically commutated.
BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors, a few of these
are:
1. Better speed versus torque characteristics.
2. High dynamic response.
3. High efficiency.
4. Long operating life.
5. Noiseless operation.
6. Higher speed ranges.
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it useful in
applications where space and weight are critical factors.
Construction
BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field generated by the stator and the
magnetic field generated by the rotor rotates at the same frequency.
BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding to its type, the stator has
the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors are the most popular and widely used.
1- Stator
3- Hall Sensors
Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end of
the motor.
Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal,
indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three
Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.
Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall
sensors may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor
manufacturer defines the commutation sequence, which should be followed when controlling
the motor.
Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts.
Required current can range from 5 to 15 mAmps.
Theory of Operation
Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power (current
enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the
third is in a non-energized condition.
Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated by the
stator coils and the permanent magnets of the rotor.
In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the windings should shift
position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator field. What is known as Six-Step
Commutation defines the sequence of energizing the windings.
In six-step commutation, only two out of the three Brushless DC Motor windings are used at a
time. Steps are equivalent to 60 electrical degrees, so six steps make a full, 360 degree
rotation. One full 360 degree loop is able to control the current, due to the fact that there is
only one current path. Six-step commutation is typically useful in applications requiring high
speed and commutation frequencies. A six-step Brushless DC Motor usually has lower torque
efficiency than a sine-wave commutated motor.
In aerospace, there are a number of applications, like centrifuges, pumps, robotic arm
controls, gyroscope controls and so on.
These applications may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop or in total closed
loop.
3- Positioning Applications:
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this category. The applications
in this category have some kind of power transmission, which could be mechanical gears or timer
belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these applications, the dynamic response of speed and
torque are important. Also, these applications may have frequent reversal of rotation direction.
These systems mostly operate in closed loop.
Finally, a comparison between Brushed DC motor (BDC) and Brushless DC motor (BLDC) is as shown
in the below image.
Second: AC Motors
Alternating current (AC) motors use an electrical current, which reverses its direction at regular
intervals.
The main advantage of DC motors over AC motors is that speed is more difficult to control for AC
motors. To compensate for this, AC motors can be equipped with variable frequency drives but the
AC motors in common use today may be divided into two broad categories:
1. Induction (asynchronous) motors.
2. Synchronous motors.
3. Linear Motors.
These two types of motors differ in how the rotor field excitation is supplied as follows:
For induction motors, there is no externally-applied rotor excitation, and current is instead induced
into the rotor windings due to the rotating stator magnetic field.
For synchronous motors, a field excitation is applied to the rotor windings. This difference in field
excitation leads to differences in motor characteristics, which leads in turn to different protection
and control requirements for each motor type.
1- Induction motor
Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipments in industry.
Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for brushes), but for
this to happen, the rotate than rotor must at a lower speed the magnetic field to allow for the
existence of an induced voltage.
Therefore a new term is needed to describe the induction motor which is the slip.
The slip:
A driving torque can only exist if there is an induced current in the shading ring. It is determined by
the current in the ring and can only exist if there is a flux variation in the ring. Therefore, there must
be a difference in speed in the shading ring and the rotating field. This is why an electric motor
operating to the principle described above is called an asynchronous motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the shading ring speed (N) is called slip (s)
and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.
S= (Nsyn Nm)/ Nsyn
Where s is the slip. Slip is one of the most important variables in the control and operation of
induction machines.
s = 0 : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed.
s = 1 : if the rotor is stationary.
s is ve : if the rotor runs at a speed above the synchronous speed.
s is +ve : if the rotor runs at a speed below the synchronous speed.
Advantages:
1. Simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance.
2. Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW.
3. Run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load.
4. Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source.
5. Most popular motor today in the low and medium horsepower range.
6. Very robust in construction.
7. Have replaced DC Motors in areas where traditional DC Motors cannot be used such as mining
or explosive environments Of two types depending on motor construction; Squirrel Cage or Slip
Ring.
Disadvantages:
1. Not easy to have variable speed control.
2. Requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control.
3. Most of them run with a lagging power factor.
Principle of operation:
The stator is usually connected to the grid and, thus, the stator is magnetized.
Stator magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage in the rotor
windings.
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel cage and woundrotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings.
Construction:
An induction motor has two main parts
1- Stator
The plates have notches for the stator windings that will produce the rotating field to fit into (three windings for a
3-phase motor). Each winding is made up of several coils. The way the coils are joined together determines the
number of pairs of poles on the motor and hence the speed of rotation.
2- Rotor
This is the mobile part of the motor. Like the magnetic circuit of the stator, it consists of stacked plates insulated
from each other and forming a cylinder keyed to the motor shaft.
Types of Induction Motors
A- Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
Squirrel-Cage Rotor
It consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. These bars are short-circuited at both
B- Wound Rotor:
Wound Rotor
It has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. It is wound for as many poles as the stator.
The three phases are wired internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a
shaft with brushes resting on them.
Each of the two types of Induction motors above can be classified into two main groups as
follows:
I- Single-phase induction motors:
These only have one stator winding, operate with a single-phase power supply, have a squirrel cage
rotor, and require a device to get the motor started. This is by far the most common type of motor
used in household appliances, such as fans, washing machines and clothes dryers, and for applications
for up to 3 to 4 horsepower.
Single phase induction motors come also with wound rotor which has excellent starting and
accelerating characteristics, and they are ideal for Value Operators, Farm Motor Applications, Hoists,
Floor Maintenance Machines, Air Compressors, Laundry Equipment and Mining Equipment.
II- Three-phase induction motors:
The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced three-phase supply. These motors have high
power capabilities, can have squirrel cage or wound rotors (although 90% have a squirrel cage rotor),
and are self-starting. It is estimated that about 70% of motors in industry are of this type, are used
in, for example, pumps, compressors, conveyor belts, heavy-duty electrical networks, and grinders.
They are available in 1/3 to hundreds of horsepower ratings.
Now, let us see the first classification of induction motors based on the above types:
1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:
This category have many types as shown in the below image.
In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Single Phase, Squirrel Cage Induction
3. The maximum generated torque ranges from 250% to 350% of the rated torque.
Applications:
Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers and other low
starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 hp. Avoid using this type of motor in
any applications requiring high on/off cycle rates or high torque.
Types:
Split-phase motors are designed to use inductance, capacitance, or resistance to develop a starting
torque and so, they have many types as follows:
1. Capacitor-Start.
2. Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor.
3. Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor.
4. Resistance-Start.
1- Capacitor-Start
Construction and operation principle:
1. Since the capacitor is in series with the start circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically
200% to 400% of the rated torque.
2. The starting current, usually 450% to 575% of the rated current, is much lower than the splitphase due to the larger wire in the start circuit.
3. Sizes range from fractional to 10 hp at 900 to 3600 rpm.
PSC motors have low starting current, usually less than 200% of the rated current, making them
excellent for applications with high on/off cycle rates.
Advantages
1. The motor design can easily be altered for use with speed controllers.
2. They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power Factor (PF) at the rated
load.
3. Theyre considered to be the most reliable of the single-phase motors, mainly because no
centrifugal starting switch is required.
Applications
Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the design. These
include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs and intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting
mechanisms, gate operators and garage door openers.
4- Resistance-Start
Construction and operation principle:
supplies enough torque to start the motor. When the motor comes up to speed, a speed-controlled
switch disconnects the starting winding from the line, and the motor continues to run as an induction
motor. The starting torque is not as great as it is in the capacitor-start.
C- Universal motor:
Universal motor
Universal motors are mostly operated on AC power, but they can operate on either AC or DC. Tools
and appliances are among the most frequent applications.
Please review the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors Part One for more information
about Universal motor.
2- Three Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:
Almost 90% of the three-phase AC Induction motors are of Squirrel Cage type. Here, the rotor is of the
squirrel cage type and it works as explained earlier. The power ratings range from one-third to
several hundred horsepower in the three-phase motors. Motors of this type rated one horsepower or
larger, cost less and can start heavier loads than their single-phase counterparts.
Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are classified by application with a design letter which
gives an indication of key performance characteristics of the motor, these classification are made by
NEMA and IEC. The main Classifications of Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are shown in
the below image.
A- Repulsion motor
Construction:
Repulsion motor
The motor has a stator and a rotor but there is no electrical connection between the two and the
rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is connected to a commutator which is in
contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes which can be moved to change their angular position
relative to an imaginary line drawn through the axis of the stator. The motor can be started, stopped
and reversed, and the speed can be varied, simply by changing the angular position of the brushes.
The principle difference between an AC series motor and repulsion motors is the way in which power
is supplied to armature. In Ac series motor the armature receives voltage by conduction through the
power supply. But In repulsion motors the armature is supplied by induction from the stator windings.
A- Repulsion-start induction-run
A repulsion-start induction motor is a single phase motor having the same windings as a repulsion
motor , When an induction motor drives a hard starting load like a compressor, the high starting
torque of the repulsion motor may be put to use. The induction motor rotor windings are brought out
to commutator segments for starting by a pair of shorted brushes. At near running speed, a
centrifugal switch shorts out all commutator segments, giving the effect of a squirrel cage rotor, the
brushes may also be lifted to prolong bush life. This means that they started as repulsion motors but
running as induction motor Starting torque is 300% to 600% of the full speed value as compared to
under 200% for a pure induction motor.
B- Repulsion-Induction Motor
A repulsion-induction motor is a form of repulsion motor which has a squirrel-cage winding in the
rotor in addition to the repulsion motor winding. A motor of this type may have either a constant
speed or varying-speed characteristic.
This type of 3-phase induction motor has high starting torque, which makes it ideal for
applications where standard NEMA design motors fall short. The wound-rotor motor is
particularly effective in applications where using a squirrel-cage motor may result in a starting
current that's too high for the capacity of the power system.
In addition, the wound-rotor motor is appropriate for high-inertia loads having a long
acceleration time.
The slip-ring motor or wound-rotor motor is a variation of the squirrel cage induction motor.
While the stator is the same as that of the squirrel cage motor, it has a set of windings on the
rotor which are not short-circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip rings. These are helpful
in adding external resistors and contactors.
Wound Rotor
The slip necessary to generate the maximum torque (pull-out torque) is directly proportional
to the rotor resistance. In the slip-ring motor, the effective rotor resistance is increased by
adding external resistance through the slip rings. Thus, it is possible to get higher slip and
hence, the pull-out torque at a lower speed.
A particularly high resistance can result in the pull-out torque occurring at almost zero speed,
providing a very high pull-out torque at a low starting current. As the motor accelerates, the
value of the resistance can be reduced, altering the motor characteristic to suit the load
requirement. Once the motor reaches the base speed, external resistors are removed from the
rotor. This means that now the motor is working as the standard induction motor.
This motor type is ideal for very high inertia loads, where it is required to generate the pullout torque at almost zero speed and accelerate to full speed in the minimum time with
minimum current draw.
Applications:
They are generally used to drive high-inertia loads (e.g., large pumps, cranes, grinders).
In the next Topic, I will continue explaining The Synchronous Motor Types. So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an introduction
only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads.
But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and
Pumps Loads calculations.
Construction:
Like the asynchronous (Induction) motor, the synchronous motor consists of a stator and a rotor separated by the
air gap. It differs from the asynchronous motor in that the flux in the air gap is not due to a component of the stator
current: it is created by magnets or by the field coil current provided by an external DC source energizing a
winding placed in the rotor.
The main components of a synchronous motor are as follows:
1- Stator:
Stator
The stator consists of a housing and a magnetic circuit generally comprising silicon steel laminations and a 3phase coil similar to that of an asynchronous motor supplied with 3-phase AC to produce a rotating field.
The stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency supplied. This motor rotates at a
synchronous speed, which is given by the following equation:
Ns = 120 f / P
Where:
f = frequency of the supply frequency
P= number of poles
2- Rotor
Rotor
Synchronous rotors are designed primarily for applications requiring highly efficient motors. Each pole
assembly is made from high strength steel laminations with a DC field winding encircling the pole
body. The field winding consists of a rectangular section of insulated copper wire wound directly on
an insulated pole body and bonded by a high temperature, high strength insulating epoxy resin which,
when cured, results in a coil impervious to dirt, moisture and other contaminants.
The rotor carries field magnets or coils through which a direct current flows and which create
interposed North and South poles. Unlike asynchronous (Induction) machines, the rotor rotates with
no slip at the speed of the rotating field.
There are two types of rotor structures as follows:
1. Salient pole rotor.
2. Round or cylindrical rotor (Non-salient-pole rotor).
Salient pole structure is used for low speed applications, such as hydroelectric generators.
Salient-pole rotor: four and more poles.
Round rotor structure is used for high speed synchronous machines, such as steam turbine
generators.
Non-salient-pole rotor: usually two- and four-pole rotors.
Advantages:
Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors:
1. Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied.
2. Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, e.g. stepper motors.
3. They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor
windings.
4. Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the
load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by
increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the
whole installation.
5. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required (as in
ball mills and similar apparatus).
6. They run either at the synchronous speed or they do not run at all.
Types:
There are two major types of synchronous motors as follows:
1. Non-excited motors.
2. DC-excited motors.
1- Non-excited motors
These motors employ a self-starting circuit and require no external excitation supply.
In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of solid steel. At synchronous speed it rotates in step with
the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The
external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it. The rotor is
made of a high-retentively steel such as cobalt steel. These are manufactured in three types as
follows:
Reluctance motors.
Hysteresis motors.
A- Reluctance motors
Reluctance motor is A synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has salient poles and a cage so that it starts like an
induction motor, and runs like a synchronous motor.
Principle of operation:
Reluctance Rotor
A classic squirrel cage rotor with notches (or flats) in the rotor periphery. The number of
notches will correspond to the number of poles in the stator winding. The sections of the rotor
periphery between the high reluctance areas are known as salient poles. Since these poles
create a low reluctance path for the stator flux, they are attracted to the poles of the stator
field.
The reluctance synchronous rotor starts and accelerates like a regular squirrel cage rotor, but
as it approaches the rotational speed of the field, a critical point is reached where there is an
increased acceleration and the rotor snaps into synchronism with the stator field.
If the load (particularly inertial) is too great, the motor will not attain synchronous speed.
Motor pull-in torque is defined as the maximum load that the motor can accelerate and pull
into synchronism at rated voltage and frequency.
An applied load greater than the rated pull-in torque will prevent the motor from pulling the
load into synchronism and will result in rough, non-uniform operation.
Reluctance synchronous motors may be designed for poly-phase operation, as well as single-phase
versions in split-phase, CS and PSC configurations.
Reluctance synchronous motors ratings range from sub-fractional to about 30 hp. Sub-fractional
horsepower motors have low torque, and are generally used for instrumentation applications.
Moderate torque, integral horsepower motors use squirrel cage construction with toothed rotors.
Switched Reluctance Motors
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor in which torque is produced by the
tendency of its moveable part to move to a position where the inductance of the excited
winding is maximized.
SRM is a type of synchronous machine. It has wound field coils of a DC motor for its stator
windings and has no coils or magnets on its rotor.
It can be seen that both the stator and rotor have salient poles; hence, the machine is a
doubly salient, singly excited machine.
Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series or parallel to form one
phase of the motor.
Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4 (6 stator poles and 4
rotor poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc.
The configurations with higher number of stator/rotor pole combinations have less torque
ripple.
Applications:
1. Flameproof drive systems for potentially explosive atmospheres.
2. Washing machine.
3. Environmentally friendly air conditioning system for passenger trains.
4. Servo systems for advanced technology weaving machine.
B- Hysteresis motors:
Hysteresis motors
Although the stator in a hysteresis synchronous design is wound much like that of the
conventional squirrel cage motor, its rotor is made of a heat-treated cast permanent magnet
alloy cylinder (with a nonmagnetic support) securely mounted to the shaft like "hard" cobalt
steel. This material has a wide hysteresis loop (high retentively), meaning once it is
magnetized in a given direction, it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse the
magnetization.
The motors special performance characteristics are associated with its rotor design. The rotor
starts on the hysteresis principle and accelerates at a fairly constant rate until it reaches the
synchronous speed of the rotating field.
Instead of the permanently fixed poles found in the rotor of the reluctance synchronous
design, hysteresis rotor poles are induced by the rotating magnetic field. During the
acceleration period, the stator field will rotate at a speed faster than the rotor, and the poles
which it induces in the rotor will shift around its periphery. When the rotor speed reaches that
of the rotating stator field, the rotor poles will take up a fixed position.
if the load is increased beyond the capacity of the motor, the poles on the periphery of the
rotor core will shift.
If the load is then reduced to the pullin capacity of the motor, the poles will take up fixed
positions until the motor is again overloaded or stopped and restarted.
The hysteresis rotor will lock-in at any position, in contrast to the reluctance rotor which has
only the lock-in points corresponding to the salient poles on the rotor.
Applications:
Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings, primarily as servomotors
and timing motors. More expensive than the reluctance type, hysteresis motors are used where
precise constant speed is required.
They are not self-starting. Because of the constant magnetic field in the rotor these cannot use
induction windings for starting, and must have electronically controlled variable frequency
stator drive.
Some of these motors have a spring return mechanism to reverse the rotation just in case it
starts turning the wrong way.
Applications:
Industrial drives, e.g., pumps, fans, blowers, mills, hoists, handling systems, elevators and
escalators, people movers, light railways and streetcars (trams), electric road vehicles, aircraft flight
control surface actuation.
Advantages:
The use of permanent magnets (PMs) in construction of electrical machines brings the following
benefits:
1. No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation system and thus there are no excitation
losses which mean substantial increase in the efficiency.
2. Higher torque and/or output power per volume than when using electromagnetic excitation.
3. Better dynamic performance than motors with electromagnetic excitation (higher magnetic
flux density in the air gap).
4. Simplification of construction and maintenance.
5. Reduction of prices for some types of machines.
Disadvantages:
1. High cost of permanent magnets.
2. Magnet corrosion and possible demagnetization.
3. Large air gap in surface mount PM machines.
In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Synchronous Motor. So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an introduction
only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads.
But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and
Pumps Loads calculations.
2- DC-excited motors
They are made in sizes larger than 1 hp, these motors require direct current for excitation which can
be supplied from a separate source or from a dc generator directly connected to the motor shaft.
These motors are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices where correct
time is required.
Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field circuits on the rotating rotor:
1. Supply the DC power from an external DC source to the rotor by means of slip rings and
brushes Brush type Synchronous motors.
2. Supply the DC power from a special DC power source mounted directly on the shaft of the
machine brushless type Synchronous motors.
A rotor of large synchronous machine with a brushless exciter mounted on the same shaft.
The field exciter for a brushless synchronous motor typically consists of an AC generator with the
field windings on its stator, armature windings on its rotor, and with its rotor mounted on the motor
shaft. The output of the generator is rectified by solid-state rectifier elements also mounted on the
rotor shaft and fed directly to the motor field windings without the need for brushes or slip rings.
Because of the proliferation of solid-state power electronic technology, and because the brushlesstype motors require less maintenance almost all new synchronous motors are brushless-type.
3- Stepper motor:
Stepper motor is a special type of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate a specific number of
degrees for every electric pulse received by its control unit. Typical steps are 7.5 or 15 degree per
pulse.
It is a motor that can rotate in both directions, move in precise angular increments, sustain a holding
torque at zero speed, and be controlled with digital circuits. It moves in accurate angular increments
known as steps, in response to the application of digital pulses to the electric drive circuit.
Generally, such motors are manufactured with steps per revolution. Depending on its electrical power
supply, it may be:
A- Unipolar: if its coils are always supplied in the same direction by a single voltage, it requiring only
one power source, hence the name unipolar.
B- Bipolar: when its coils are supplied sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other, it
requiring two power sources. They sometimes create a North Pole, and sometimes a South pole,
hence the name bipolar.
Stepper motors, unlike ordinary DC motors, are brushless and can divide a full 360 into a large
number of steps, for example 200.
Operating principles:
Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed"
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, such as a micro controller.
To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the
first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next
electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next
one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an
integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise
angle.
Advantages:
1. Low cost.
2. Can work in an open loop (no feedback required).
3. Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches).
4. Excellent torque at low speeds.
5. Low maintenance (brushless).
6. Very rugged - any environment.
Disadvantages:
Some of the disadvantages of stepper motors in comparison with servo motors are as follows:
1. Rough performance at low speeds unless you use micro-stepping.
2. Consume current regardless of load.
3. Limited sizes available.
4. Noisy.
5. Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor for higher torque at higher speeds).
6. Stepper motors can stall or lose position running without a control loop.
Linear motors should be thought of as rotary electric motors that have been cut along a radial plane
and unrolled. The resultant motor is a linear electric motor that can produce linear motion without
the need of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or translation of rotary motion with the use of belts,
pulleys, or screws. This is desirable because the extra machine parts make the machine more
complicated, and there are more parts that will wear out, and need replacement.
However, because linear motors do not have the luxury of 360 degree contained rotation, they must
either increase the length of the primary, coil assembly, and keep a short moving secondary, magnet
assembly, or increase the length of the secondary, and keep a short moving primary. There is a
diagram that can be found below illustrating the differences between these two options.
So, a linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of
producing a torque (rotation) it produces a linear force along its length. Linear electric motors can
drive a linear motion load without intermediate gears, screws, or crank shafts.
Applications:
1. Sliding doors and various similar actuators.
2. Accelerating cars for crash tests.
3. Transportation (Trains).
4. Robotics & Material Handling.
5. Elevators.
6. Compressors & Pumps.
7. Catapults and Launchers.
8. Curtain pullers.
Types:
there are two main types of Linear Motors as follows:
1. Linear induction motor (LIM).
2. Linear synchronous motor (LSM).
1- Linear induction motor (LIM)
Construction:
A linear electric motor's primary typically consists of a flat magnetic core (generally laminated) with
transverse slots which are often straight cut with coils laid into the slots.
The secondary is frequently a sheet of aluminum, often with an iron backing plate. Some LIMs are
double sided, with one primary either side of the secondary, and in this case no iron backing is
needed.
Two sorts of linear motor exist, short primary, where the coils are truncated shorter than the
secondary, and a short secondary where the conductive plate is smaller. Short secondary LIMs are
often wound as parallel connections between coils of the same phase, whereas short primaries are
usually wound in series.
The primaries of transverse flux LIMs have a series of twin poles lying transversely side-by-side, with
opposite winding directions.
Principles of operation
a- Moving magnetic field
In this design of electric motor, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic field acting on
conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is
placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in
accordance with Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the
magnetic field sweeps through the metal.
b- End effect
Unlike a circular induction motor, a linear induction motor shows end effects.
With a short secondary, the behavior is almost identical to a rotary machine, provided it is at least
two poles long, but with a short primary reduction in thrust occurs at low slip (below about 0.3) until
it is eight poles or longer.
However, because of end effect, linear motors cannot 'run light'- normal induction motors are able to
run the motor with a near synchronous field under low load conditions. Due to end effect this creates
much more significant losses with linear motors.
c- Levitation
In addition, unlike a rotary motor, an electrodynamics levitation force is shown, this is zero at zero
slip, and tends to a constant positive lift force as slip increases in either direction.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an
introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type
of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail
the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.