CHAPTER 10

OPEN CHANNELS

OPEN CHANNELS:

The open channels may take the form of a canal, flume, tunnel, or partly filled pipe.
Open channels are characterized by a free water surface, in contrast to pressure
conduits, which always flow full.

HYDRAULICS OF OPEN-CHANNELS FLOW

I.

UNIFORM FLOW.

The figure illustrates conditions for flow of water in an open channel.

ENERGY EQUATION:

+ +
= + +
+

where:
z = elevation of the channel bottom above an arbitrary datum
y or d(in the figure) = depth of flow
V = average velocity
= the head loss between A and B

In uniform flow, the flow cross section remains constant in size and shape from one
section to another. Hence, in uniform flow, = , 1 =2 , and the channel bed, water
surface, and energy line are parallel to one another. Thus, in uniform flow, the slopes of
the channel bed , the water surface S, and the energy line are identical.

MANNING EQUATION FOR AVERAGE VELOCITY FOR UNIFORM FLOW IN AN OPEN

CHANNEL:
(applicable on when channel bed slope is less than 0.10)

English units

SI metric units

/ /

/ /

where:
V= the average velocity of flow
n= the roughness coefficient of the channel
R= hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter)
S= energy gradient ; S=

VALUES OF THE ROUGHNESS COEFFIECIENT, n:

Channel material
Plastic, glass, drawn tubing
Neat cement, smooth metal
Planed timber, asbestos pipe
Wrought iron, welded steel, canvas
Ordinary concrete, asphalted cast iron

n
0.009
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.013

Unplaned timber, vitrified clay

Cast-iron pipe
Rivited steel, brick
Rubble masonry
Smooth earth
Corrugated metal pipe
Firm gravel
Natural channels in good condition

0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.022
0.023
0.025

Natural channels with stones and weeds

0.035

Very poor natural channels

0.060

II. NORMAL DEPTH

Normal depth is the depth at which uniform flow will occur in an open channel.

MANNING EQUATION FOR DISCHARGE IN DETERMINING THE NORMAL DEPTH:

1.49
2/3 1/2

English units

SI units

= 2/3 1/2

III. CRITICAL DEPTH

The critical depth for flow in an open channel is defined as the depth for which the
specific energy (sum of the depth and velocity head) is a minimum. It can be shown
mathematically that critical depth occurs in a channel when

where :
B = is the surface width.
note:
mild slope ( > ) uniform flow is subcritical.
steep slope ( < ) uniform flow is supercritical.

Example 1:

A discharge of 4.5 m3 /s occurs in a rectangular channel 1.83 m wide with S=0.002

and n=0.012. Find the normal depth for uniform flow and determine the critical depth.
Is the flow subcritical or supercritical?
Solution:

1
1
2/3 1/2 =
x

0.012

1.83yn 2
1.83yn (
)3
1.83:2yn

x 0.00121/2 =4.5 m3 /s

By trial, yn = 1.060 m. Critical depth occurs when

4.52
or
9.81

(1.83yc )3
1.83

from which yc = 0.85 m. since yn >y , the flow is subcritical.

IV. NON-UNIFROM (VARIED) FLOW

ENERGY EQUATION:

+
+

Where:

= slope of the channel bottom

For S,
English unitsS

Si units

2
2
4/3

2.21

S=

2
2
4/3

VI. FREE OUTFALL

In the flow in a channel is subcritical , critical depth should theoretically occur at a free
outfall since the specific energy is at a minimum at that point. However, curvature of
the streamlines in the vicinity of the outfall alters the flow conditions and results in a
depth at the brink considerably less than . The depth at a free outfall has been
observed experimentally to be about 0.7 for subcritical flow, and under such
conditions critical depth occurs about 4 upstream from the brink.
In contrast, if the floe is supercritical, the depth of the brink will be only slightly less than
the normal depth, which necessarily below the critical depth

Example 2:
The discharge of 160 cfs occurs in a rectangular open channel 6 ft wide with =0.002
and n=0.012. If the channel ends in a free outfall, calculate the depth at the brink,
and . Determine the shape of the water-surface profile for a distance of 100 ft
upstream from the brink.
Solution:

1.49
1.49
2/3 1/2 =
x

0.012

6yn 2
6yn (
)3
6:2yn

x 0.00121/2 =160 cfs

By trial, yn = 1.060 m. Critical depth occurs when

1602 (6y )3
or
=
32.2
6

from which y = 2.81ft. Since y > y the flow is subcritical and the water-surface profile
is 2 . The depth at the outfall is approximately 0.7y = 2.0ft. Critical depth occurs at
about 4y =11ft upstream from the brink.

VII. HYDRAULIC EFFICIENCY OF CHANNELS

With uniform and fixed values of A, S, and n, the rate of flow will be a maximum
when the hydraulic radius R is a maximum. The cross section having the highest
hydraulic efficiency (maximum R for a given A) is the half circle. For a trapezoidal
channel it can be shown that the maximum channel efficiency R=y/2. The best
trapezoidal section has the shape of a half hexagon, while the best rectangular
section with depth equal to one-half the width.

VIII. CHANNEL TRANSITIONS

Special transition sections are often used to join conduits of differing size or shape
in order to avoid undesirable flow conditions such as wave action and eddies

IX. FLOW AROUND BENDS

When a body moves along a curved path at constant speed, it is acted upon by a
force directed toward the center of curvature of the path. Opposite to this force is the
centrifugal force.

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS

The flow in large natural channels is usually measured with a current meter. The flow in
small streams and constructed channels may often be more conveniently measured by
other methods. Among the most common methods are the use of weirs and venturetype flumes.

X. WEIRS
For weir formulas to give accurate values of discharge, the upstream face of the
weir must be vertical and at a right angles to the channel, atmospheric pressure
should be maintained under the nappe, and the approach channel should be
straight and unobstructed.
STANDARD FORMULA FOR DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR WEIR
WITHOUT END CONTRACTION:
2
=
3

02

3
2

02 3
2 [( +
) ( )2 ]
2
2

WITH CONTRACTION:
= 3/2

Where :
= a coefficient characteristic of flow conditions over the weir.

L = length of the weir crest

h = the head on the crest
0 = velocity of flow in the channel just upstream from the weir

FORMULA FOR DISCHARGE OVER A TRIANGULAR WEIR:

5/2
5/2
= "
2 tan = 4.28 " tan
5
2
2
where:
= the vertex angle of the notch.
Cipoletti weir - trapezoidal in shape, with side slopes of 4 vertical to 1 horizontal.

Proportional weir is one for which the flow rate varies directly with head. (search picture)

Example 3.
(a) Water flows over a sharp-crested rectangular weir ( = 3.30) for crest length 4.00 ft
at a rate of 10.00 cfs. Find the percentage error in the computed value of the flow rate
if the head measurement had been incorrectly observed as being 0.020 ft greater
than its actual value.

(b) Repeat (a) for the case of a sharp-crested triangular weir (" ) whose vertex
angle is 60.
Solution :
(a) = 10.00 = 3/2 = 3.30(4.00)3/2

answer : h = 0.0831 ft

If h = 0.0851 ft, = 10.363 cfs ; %error = 0.363/100 = 3.63 %

(b) = 10.00 = 4.28(0.58)5/2 tan(60/2)

answer : h = 2.175 ft

If h = 2.195 ft, = 10.230 cfs ; %error = 0.230/100 = 2.30 %

XI. VENTURI FLUMES

If water contains suspended sediment, some will be deposited in the pool above a
weir, resulting in a gradual change in the weir coefficient. Moreover, the use of a weir
results in a relatively large head loss. Both these difficulties are atleast partially
overcome by use of venture-type flumes. One of the most common of the venture
flumes is the Parshall flume.
DISCHARGE EQUATION FOR PARSHALL FLUMES (ENGLISH UNITS)
(with throat widths from 1 ft through 8 ft under free-flow condition)

1.5220.026
4

TYPES OF OPEN CHANNELS

XII. STREAMS AND RIVERS
Streams and rivers are the most prevalent type of open channel. Usually their beds
are unstable and their banks are subject to scour and at high flows.
The configuration of streams and rivers can be modified by dredging, straightening,
narrowing, etc., and the banks can be stabilized.
PURPOSES OF ENGINEERING WORKS ON STREAMS AND RIVERS:

Increasing the flow capacity

Stabilizing the alignment

Deepening the channel for navigation

Preventing bank erosion and sloughing

XV. FLUMES
A flume is a channel of wood, concrete, or metal that is usually supported above
ground.

Flumes are used to convey water over terrane where construction of canals is
difficult or expensive.
The flume channel must be designed to carry its own weight and that of the water
as a beam between supports, while the wind and snow loads as may be appropriate.
The most permanent type of flume is a properly constructed concrete flume.
Flumes and canals are sometimes covered to minimize evaporation, pollution, and
freezing.